UNIVERSITY  OFCALIFORNI 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


T     ^ft^*4y4 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

LOS  ANGiUeS*  CAUFOluaA 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

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http://www.archive.org/details/farmerscyclopedi01gardiala 


E\RMERS'  Cyclopedia 

Abridged  Agricultural  Records 

IN 'SEVEN  VOLUMES 

From  the  'Publications  of  the 

UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

AND 

THE  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 

:2  e>  9^  / 


A  Compilation  of  such  Bulletins  and  Reports 
as  are  Indispensable  to   the   Practical  Farmer 


VOLUME  I 

FARM  ANIMALS 

BREEDING,  FEEDING,  CARE 

DAIRY  FARMING 


Garden  City        New  York 

DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE  &  COMPANY 

1914 


Copyright.  1912 

by 

Agricultural  Service  Company 

Washington.  D.  C. 


All  rights  reserved 


INTRODUCTION 


PRACTICALLY  all  the  matter  in  the  seven  volumes  of  this 
series  is  taken  bodily  from  the  bulletins,  circulars,  annual  re- 
ports, year  books,  and  other  documents  of  the  Departments 
of  Agriculture  and  the  Experiment  Stations  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Quotation  marks  are  omitted  because  almost 
every  paragi*aph  would  be  enclosed  by  the  marks,  a  useless  and  ex- 
pensive step,  in  view  of  the  acknowledgment  now  broadly  made  that 
almost  every  paragraph  is  taken  from  such  documents.  Owing  to  the 
fact  that  on  some  pages  from  five  to  twelve  extracts  are  us^  from 
different  authorities  and  that  the  majority  of  the  pages  of  the  seven 
volumes  contain  from  two  to  five  of  such  extracts,  it  was  f oimd  cumber- 
some and  deemed  useless  to  place  in  all  cases  the  authority  at  the 
conclusion  of  each  extract.  In  many  cases,  therefore,  the  authorities 
of  sections,  chapters  or  parts  are  grouped  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
general  subject  under  treatment. 

When  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  learned  the  scope  of  this 
work,  he  issued  directions  to  Mr.  Ar  nold.  Chief  of  the  Division  of 
Publications,  to  supply  the  Publishers  with  a  free  copy  of  every  docu- 
ment desired  that  was  in  possession  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  was  available.  This  direction  was  faithfully  carried  out  and 
thousands  of  documents  bearing  on  every  subject  of  American  hus- 
bandry were  delivered  to  the  offices  of  this  Company  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  and  used  in  making  the  abridgments  as  shown  on  almost  every 
page  herein.  Many  duplicates  were  likewise  kindly  furnished  by  Mr. 
Harding  and  Mr.  Cleary,  which  act  saved  the  Publishers  from  the 
heavy  cost  of  having  to  copy  many  thousands  of  words  to  avoid  for- 
cing compositors  to  set  from  both  sides  of  printed  pages.  Documents 
which  were  out  of  print  at  the  Department  and  which  were  thus  not 
available  for  free  distribution  there,  were  purchased  from  the  Super- 
intendent of  Documents  to  supplement  the  treatment  of  subjects  not 
fully  covered  by  the  available  documents  of  the  Department. 

The  authorities  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  of  the  Provin- 
cial Experiment  Stations,  in  response  to  requests  for  documents  on 
all  subjects  of  agriculture,  promptly  and  freely  forwarded  bulletins, 
circulars,  annual  reports  and  other  records,  bound  and  unbound,  and 
kindly  and  freely  gave  the  Publishers  every  facility  to  represent  suit- 
ably in  these  volumes  the  splendid  progress  that  has  been  made  by 
the  Dominion  in  modem  agriculture.  How  well  this  act  of  the  Do- 
minion authorities  was  appreciated  is  shown  by  the  hundreds  of  ex- 
tracts taken  literally  from  the  documents  thus  furnished,  for  all  of 
which  favors  the  Publishers  herewith  make  most  grateful  acknowl- 
edgment.   Many  documents  came  from  Ontario,  Quebec,  Manitoba, 

1 


2  INTRODUCTION 

!Saskatchewan,  Cape  Breton,  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and  other 
Provinces. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  work  of  abridgment  the  officials 
of  the  sixty-five  or  seventy  Experiment  Stations  of  the  United  States 
and  its  insular  possessions  were  asked  to  furnish  as  complete  sets  of 
their  bulletins  and  other  documents  as  were  available  to  be  used  in 
the  compilation  of  these  volumes.  All  the  stations  promptly  and 
freely  complied,  forwarding  in  several  instances  the  only  numbers 
in  existence  with  requests  to  return  them  uninjured  as  soon  as  the 
desired  extracts  had  been  copied  therefrom.  It  is  estimated  that 
nearly  20,000  documents  were  thus  received,  consulted  and  used. 
From  these  documents  were  obtained  much  information  and  many 
extracts  on  subjects  which  had  not  in  all  cases  been  covered  in  detail 
by  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

If  a  farmer  wants  the  bulletin  on  any  special  subject  he  will  have 
to  send  in  a  majority  of  the  cases  cited  to  the  Experiment  Station 
which  issued  it  originally.  Many  of  such  bulletins,  perhaps  a  majority, 
are  out  of  print  and  therefore  unavailable.  In  any  event,  if  a  farmer 
wants  such  a  bulletin  he  will  be  required  to  pay  for  it,  the  price  varying 
from  five  cents  to  several  dollars.  He  should  write  directly  to  the 
Director  of  the  Experiment  Station,  enclosing  the  price,  giving  his 
name  and  address,  naming  clearly  what  he  wants,  and  if  the  document 
is  available,  he  will  receive  it  by  return  mail.  For  instance,  address 
the  letter  to  "Director  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Ames,  Iowa,"  and  name  the  special  bulletin  wanted  thus:  "Iowa 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  76."  Payment  for 
documents  will  not  be  required  of  a  farmer  by  the  Experiment  Station 
or  Stations  in  his  own  state. 

It  should  be  noted  by  farmers  that  many  of  the  bulletins,  circulars, 
and  other  documents  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
are  out  of  print  at  the  Department  and  hence  are  not  available  for 
free  distribution.  The  documents  that  are  available  at  the  Depart- 
ment are  of  recent  issues  and  are  comparatively  few  in  numbers. 
But  the  Government  has  made  other  provisions  to  supply  farmers 
with  documents  that  are  out  of  print  at  the  Department.  In  case  a 
document  is  deemed  of  sufficient  value  to  warrant  its  re-issuance  or 
reproduction,  it  is  republished  by  the  Government  and  is  kept  for 
sale  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  an  officer  of  the  Govern- 
ment. Approximately,  there  are  for  sale  by  the  Superintendent 
of  Documents  at  the  present  time  3,120  documents,  a  complete  set 
of  which  will  cost  a  farmer  about  $632,  the  price  varjdng  from  5  cents 
to  several  dollars  each,  or  an  average  of  about  20  cents  each.  Many 
of  the  documents  thus  for  sale  by  the  Government  are  of  the  greatest 
practical  value  to  farmers  who  can  get  them  in  no  other  way  than 
by  buying  them.  The  documents  thus  for  sale  by  the  Superintendent 
of  Documents  were  consulted  by  the  abridgers  of  these  volumes,  and 
scores  of  extracts  therefrom  were  taken  and  used  herein.  The  farmer 
can  get  free  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  all 
documents  which  are  available,  but  if  he  wants  those  issued  by  the 
Superintendent  of  Documents  or  by  any  Experiment  Station  except 
the  one  or  ones  in  his  own  state  he  will  have  to  pay  for  them.    In 


INTRODUCTION  3 

order  to  secure  one  copy  each  of  such  documents  from  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Documents  and  from  the  numerous  Experiment  Stations, 
he  will  have  to  pay  according  to  careful  estimates,  over  $1,000.  He 
will  then  have  in  his  possession  hundreds  of  separate  documents  with- 
out classification  or  index  and  will  be,  figuratively,  in  the  shoes  of  the 
person  who  looked  so  diligently  for  the  proverbial  needle  in  a  hay- 
stack. "The  Farmer's  Cyclopedia"  gives  the  best  parts  of  all  these 
bulletins,  with  a  perfect  index,  with  numerous  illustrations  and  at  a 
price  trifling  in  comparison  to  the  approximate  $1,000  which  the 
farmer  would  have  to  pay  for  a  complete  set  of  separate  unindexed 
documents.  Thus  these  volumes  select  for  the  farmer  the  best  in  ex- 
istence on  any  subject  and  by  indexing  it  perfectly  place  it  within 
his  instant  reach  and  use.  The  "Farmer's  Cyclopedia"  is  just  as 
necessary  for  the  modem,  successful  and  money-making  farmer  as  the 
libraries  of  professors,  scientists,  ministers,  doctors,  lawyers,  etc.,  are 
to  them.  The  time  is  here  when  a  farmer,  in  order  to  succeed  and 
in  order  to  compete  with  other  up-to-date  farmers,  must  have  a  library. 
The  "Farmer's  Cyclopedia"  perfectly  meets  the  requirements. 

The  illustrations  in  these  volumes  were  all  taken  from  the  docu- 
ments of  the  Departments  of  Agriculture  and  the  Experiment  Sta- 
tions of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Many  of  the  plates  (Illus- 
trations) were  originally  prepared  for  insertion  in  documents  of 
different  sizes,  the  paper  of  which  was  little  better  than  that  of  modem 
newspapers;  others  were  prepared  with  mesh  for  grades  of  paper 
ranging  up  to  the  finest  enamel  and  in  varying  shapes,  sizes  and  cita- 
tion arrangements.  These  wide  variations  will  account  for  the 
differences  in  size  and  quality  shown  in  the  illustration  of  these  vol- 
umes, where  all  plain  cuts  are  printed  on  the  same  kind  of  paper. 
The  Publishers,  having  at  the  outset  announced  that  all  matter, 
printed  and  illustrated,  would  be  taken  solely  and  wholly  from  agri- 
cultural documents,  were  obliged  to  confine  their  selections  to  the 
cuts  found  in  the  bulletins,  circulars,  year  books,  annual  reports, 
and  other  documents  of  the  Agricultural  Departments  and  the  Ex- 
periment Stations  of  the  two  countries. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  illustrations  available  varied  greatly 
in  the  numbers  devoted  to  the  different  subjects  treated  in  this  series, 
it  was  found  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  massing  too  many  in  one 
place,  to  insert  many  elsewhere  than  in  connection  with  the  matter 
to  which  they  related.  Thus  they  were  inserted  at  regular  intervals 
throughout  the  seven  volumes,  in  order  to  make  the  books  well- 
balanced  and  symmetrical.  Approximately,  400  different  cuts,  repre- 
senting all  phases  of  farm  operations,  will  be  found  in  the  books. 

In  view  of  the  above  facts  it  will  thus  be  seen  that  almost  every 
line  of  the  seven  volumes,  though  now  slightly  changed  to  meet  the 
new  surroundings,  was  originally  prepared  by  experts  of  the  Depart- 
ments of  Agriculture  and  the  Experiment  Stations  of  Canada  and  the 
United  States.  In  the  preparation  of  these  volumes  the  abridgments 
were  made  by  practical  farmers,  experienced  agricultural  writers, 
graduates  of  agriculture  and  domestic  science,  professors  of  farming 
sp^ecialties  at  Agricultural  Colleges  and  experts  connected  at  present 
with  Experiment  Stations.    Thus  practically  all  the  matter  in  these 


4  INTRODUCTION 

volumes  was  originally  written  by  experts  and  is  now  abridged  by 
experts.  It  therefore  follows  that  these  volumes  represent  the  best 
and  most  practical  portions  of  what  has  been  accomplished  for  the 
husbandman  by  the  Departments  of  Agriculture  and  the  nimierous 
Experiment  Stations  of  both  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

While  the  compilation  was  being  made  the  following  positive  in- 
struction was  given  to  the  abridgers:  (1)  To  make  no  original  state- 
ments or  conclusions  whatever,  but  to  use  solely  and  wholly  matter 
prepared  by  the  Agricultural  Departments  and  the  Experiment  Sta- 
tions of  the  two  countries;  the  only  variations  from  these  instructions 
were  a  few  extracts  from  reading  course  proceedings,  lectures  on  agri- 
culture or  minutes  of  farmers'  societies  or  institutes.  (2)  To  consult 
all  available  authorities  on  each  subject  before  making  a  selection. 
(3)  To  select  extracts,  if  deemed  advisable,  from  several  authorities 
on  the  same  subject  and  join  them  together  in  connected  and  prac- 
tical form.  (4)  To  select  only  what  is  of  practical  value  to  the  hus- 
bandman and  his  family  in  their  everyday  occupations.  (5)  To 
duly  weigh  the  writings  of  all  authorities  and  use  extracts  only  from 
the  latest  and  best.  (6)  To  make  the  interests  of  the  farmer  para- 
mount during  all  steps  of  abridgment.  (7)  To  give  the  Departments 
of  Agriculture  and  the  Experiment  Stations  due  credit  for  the  ex- 
tracts. (8)  To  cite  all  authorities,  so  that  farmers  wanting  any  com- 
plete bulletin  can  secure  it. 


ABBREVIATIONS 

A.  C.  Agricultural  College. 

B.  A.  I.  B.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Bulletin. 
B.  A.  I.  C.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Circular. 
B.  B.  S.  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 

B.  C.  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

B.  E.  Bureau  of  Entomology. 

B.  P.  I.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 

B.  S.  Bureau  of  Soils  or  {rarely)  Statistics. 

D.  A.  Department   of   Agriculture,    or    (rarely)    Division  of 

Accounts. 

D.  of  A,  Department  of  Agriculture. 

D.  P.  Division  of  Publications. 

E.  S.  Experiment  Station  (Usually  in  combination  with  a 

state  name  abbreviated;  as,  111.  E.  S.,  Illinois  Ex- 
periment Station). 

E.  S.  B.  Experiment  Station  Bulletin. 

E.  S.  C.  Experiment  Station  Circular. 

E.  S.  R.         Experiment  Station  Record. 

F.  B.  Farmers'  Bulletin. 
F.  S.  Forest  Service. 

O.  E.  S.         Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 

0.  P,  R.         Officer  of  Public  Roads.  V 

W.  B.  Weather  Bureau. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

In  Volume  I  writings  of  the  following  authors  were  either  con- 
sulted, abridged,  or  both: 
United  States  Department  of  AgrimUure. — ^A.  D.  Melvin,  A.  M.  Far- 

rington,  George  M.  Rommel,  Marion  Dorset,  B.  H.  Rawl,  R.  P. 

St^dom,  John  R.  Mohler,  R.  W.  Hickman,  B.  H.  Ransom, 

E.  H.  Webster. 
Alabama. —  D.  T.  Gray,  C.  A.  Gary. 
Arizona. —  F.  W.  Wilson,  A.  E.  Vinson,  R.  W.  Clothier. 
Arkansas. — R.  L.  Bennett,  R.  R.  Dunwiddie,  V.  A.  Hooper,  W.  Len- 

ton,  A.  K.  Short,  George  E.  Cole. 
California. — ^A.  R.  Ward,  E.  W.  Major,  Leroy  Anderson,  M.  E. 

Jaffa. 
Canada. — H.  H.  Dean,  R.  Harcourt,  W.  R.  Graham,  S.  F.  Edwards, 

C.  W.  Nash,  W.  P.  Gamble,  A.  E.  Slater,  J.  W.  Mitchell,  F.  W. 
Foster,  F.  W.  Taylor,  G.  G.  Pablow,  Frank  Herns,  F.  Torrance, 
W.  H.  Peters,  L.  Caesar,  J.  H.  Reed,  A.  E.  Shuttleworth. 

Colorado.— J.  0.  Williams,  W.  E.  Vaplon,  W.  J.  Carlyle,  C.  J.  Grif- 
fith, B.  C.  Buffum,  J.  E.  Payne. 

Connecticut. — L.  A.  Clinton,  J.  M.  Trueman,  F.  H.  Stoneburn,  G.  H. 
Lamson,  L.  F.  Rettger,  H.  W.  Conn,  C.  L.  Beach,  C.  K.  Gra- 
ham, W.  A.  Stocking,  Jr. 

Delaware. — C.  F.  Dawson,  A.  T.  Neble,  C.  L.  Penny. 

Florida.— John  M.  Scott,  Charles  F.  Dawson. 

Georgia.— M.  V.  Calvin,  O.  N.  Flmt,  J.  H.  McClain,  L.  J.  Herring, 
H.  J.  Wing,  J.  C.  Temple. 

Hawaiian  Islands. — H.  H.  Simpson,  Luther  Foster,  E.  V.  Wilcox, 

D.  L.  Van  Dine. 
Idaho.— R.  T.  French. 

Illinois. — W.  J.  Eraser,  Carl  E.  Lee,  C.  H.  Yates,  R.  E.  Brand,  John 
M.  Trueman,  Herbert  W.  Mumford,  R.  C.  Obrecht,  Jesse  M. 
Bamhart,  W.  C.  Coffey,  C.  C.  Hayden,  Arthur  J.  Glover,  Wil- 
liam Dietrich. 

Indiana. — ^Arthur  Goss,  H.  E.  Van  Norman,  J.  H.  Skinner,  O.  F. 
Hunziker. 

lowa.—X^.  F.  Curtis,  John  A.  Craig,  G.  L.  McKay,  W.  J.  Kennedy, 
H.  G.  Van  Pelt,  M.  Stalker,  J.  H.  McNeil,  D.  A.  Kent,  Cari  W. 
Gay,  James  Atkinson,  John  J.  Repp. 

Kansas. — Roland  J.  Kinzer,  Oscar  Erf,  Francis  S.  Schoenleber,  D.  H. 
Otis,  N.  S.  Mayo. 

Kentucky.— E.  S.  Good,  D.  W.  May,  M.  A.  Scovell,  J.  D.  Turner, 
J.  N.  Harper,  S.  D.  Averitt. 

Louisiana. — W.  R.  Dodson,  H.  P.  Agee,  W.  H.  Dalrymple. 

Maine.— F.  L.  Russell,  G.  M.  Gowell,  G.  A.  Drew,  Walter  Anderson, 
Raymond  Pearl. 

6 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT  7 

MaryUmd. — Samuel  S.  Buckley  (who  assisted  in  the  abridgment  of 

the  bulletins  for  the  abridged  Agricultural  Records),  G.  E.  Gage, 

R.  H.  Waite. 
Massachusetts. — ^James  B.  Paige,  W.  P.  Brooks,  H.  H.  Goodell. 
Michigan. — L.  M.  Hurt. 
Minnesota. — T.  L.  Haecker,  M.  H.  Rejmolds. 
Mississippi. — J.  A.  McLean,  Archibald  Smith,  J.  S.  Moore. 
Missouri. — Paul  Paquin,  Paul  Evans,  F.  B.  Mumford,  C.  H.  Eckles, 

C.  A.  Wilson,  J.  W.  Connaway. 
Monta7ia.~W.  J.  Elliott,  Robert  W.  Clark. 
Nebraska. — H.  R.  Smith,  A.  T.  Peters,  A.  L.  Haecker. 
Nevada.— J.  E.  Stubbs,  R.  H.  McDowell,  N.  E.  Wilson,  G.  H.  True, 

Peter  Frandsen,  W.  B.  Mack. 
New  Hampshire. — T.  R.  Arkell,  Fred  Rasmussen,  F.  W.  Taylor, 

Ivan  C.  Weld,  H.  H.  Lamson. 
New  Jersey.~F.  C.  Mmkler,  Julius  Nelson,  T.  E.  Budd. 
New  Mexico. — W.  E.  Garrison,  H.  H.  Simpson,  W.  A.  Lassell,  R.  F. 

Hare,  C.  T.  Jordan,  J.  D.  Tinsley. 
New  York. — James  Law,  H.  H.  Wing,  James  S.  Rice,  J.  A.  Foord, 

0.  F.  Hunziker,  George  A.  Smith,  George  C.  Watson,  R.  A. 

Pearson,  W.  A.  Stocking,  M.  W.  Harper,  C.  A.  Rogers,  W.  P. 

Wheeler,  H.  A.  Harding. 
North  Carolina.— F,  E.  Hege,  J.  D.  Cecil,  J.  C.  McNutt,  E.  P.  Wil- 
liamson, J.  S.  Jeffrey,  R.  S.  Curtis,  John  Michels,  G.  A.  Roberts. 
North  Dakota. — J.  H.  Worst,  L.  Van  Es. 
Ohio. — B.  E.  Carmichael,  E.  B.  Forbes,  J.  W.  Hammond,  Charles  E. 

Thome,  R.  E.  Caldwell. 
Oklahoma.— W.  T.  McDonald,  L.  L.  Lewis. 
Oregon. — ^James  Dryden,  F.  L.  Kent,  James  Withycombe. 
Pennsylvania. — H.  P.  Armsley,   Harry  Hayward,    W.  A.    Cochel, 

C.  W.  Larson,  H.  C.  Jackson,  William  Frear. 
Rhode  Island. — Leon  J.  Cole,  Philip  B.  Hadley,   George  W.  Field, 

Cooper  Curtice,  W.  F.  Kirkpatrick,  Thomas  H.  Taylor. 
South  Carolina. — D.  A.  Nourse,  M.  R.  Powers. 
South  Dakota.— E.  L.  Moore,  C.  Larsen. 
Texas.— J.  H.  Connell,  M.  Francis,  James  Clayton,  B.  C.  Pittuck, 

John  C.  Burns,  H.  L.  McKnight. 
Tennessee.— William  G.  Shaw,  Moses  Jacob,  Andrew  M.  Soule. 
Utah.— Ja.mes  Dryden,  L.  A.  Merrill,  R.  W.  Clark,  F.  B.  Linfield, 

E.  G.  Gowans,  John  T.  Caine,  H.  J.  Frederick. 
Vermont.— J.  L.  Hills,  E.  A.  Rich,  E.  H.  Gregg,  R.  M.  Washburn, 

W.  F.  Hammond,  H.  A.  Edson,  Cassius  Peck, 
yir^tnm.— John  Spencer,  W.  D.  Saunders,  A.  P.  Spencer,  E.  A. 

Smyth,  Jr.,  E.  V.  Niles. 
Washington.— S.  B.  Nelson,  W.  T.  McDonald,  A.  B.  Nystrom. 
West  Virginia. — J.  H.  Stewart. 
Wisconsin.— W.  L.  Carlyle,  E.  H.  Farrington,  J.  W.  Decker,  G.  C. 

Humphrey,  D.  H.  Otis. 
Wyoming.— E.  E.  Smiley,  B.  C.  Buffum,  T.  F.  McConnell,  J.  A.  Hill, 

A.  D,  Faville,  0.  L.  Prim. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Part  I. 
BREEDS  OF  HORSES. 


Page 

Breeds  of  Horses   17 

American   Trotters    18 

Hackneys    18 

French  Coach    19 

German    Coach    20 

Percheron    20 

Clydesdale    20 

English   Shire    21 

Belgian  Draft   21 

Ponies    21 

Range  Horses  22 

Horse  Breeding   22 

Selection  of  Stock 22 

Soundness    23 

Crossbred   Sires   24 

Pedigrees    25 

Feeding    25 

Stations  in  Europe   26 

Market    Horses    27 

Classes  28,  32 

Requirements    29 

Quality    30 

Condition    30 

Action    30 

Age    .". 31 

Color    31 

Education    31 

Disposition    31 

Sex   32 


Page 

Breed    32 

Appearance 32 

Market  Demands  34 

Draft    Horses    35 

Chunks   36 

Farm  Chunks 37 

Southern  Chunks 37 

Wagon  Horses   38 

Express  Horses 38 

Delivery  Wagon  Horses  ...  39 

Artillery  Horses 39 

Fire  Horses  40 

Carriage  Horses  41 

Coach  Horses   41 

Saddle    42 

Gaited  Saddlers 42 

Cavalry  Horses 43 

Glossary  of  Horse  Terms  . .  44 

Auction  Rules  49 

Feeding  Horses 50 

Nutrition 50 

Experiments  54 

Results  54 

Rations   55-57 

How  Calculated   57 

Care  of  Stallions   58 

Care  of  Mares  58 

Care  of  Foals   58 

Grain  Food   63-68 

Other  Food 65-68 


Breeding  and  Feeding  

Qualities    

68 
71 

Endurance 

Sires  

71 
7?. 

Mares    

7^ 

How  to  Breed  

74 

How  to  Fatten  

75 

How  to   Market   

Market  Classes  

76 
77 

Horse  and  Mule  Raising  in  the 
South    

78 

Supply  Short 

78 

Profits   

79 

Methods  of  Breeding 

81 

Native  Stock  Improved 82 

Stallions 85 

How  to  Judge  Draft  Horses. . .  89 

What  Is  Necessary 89 

How  to  Examine 89 

Score  Cards   90 

Scoring  Rules 90 

Scoring    91 

Points  of  Scoring 92 

Soundness   98 

Points  of  Soundness  99 

Unsoundness    102 

Shoeing  Horses 102-118 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


Part  II. 
BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE. 


Page 

Breeds  of  Cattle  119 

Ayrshires  120 

Guernseys    122 

Holstein-Friesians  125 

Jerseys   127 

Dutch  Belted   129 

Brown  Swiss  130 

Devons  131 

Polled  Durhams  133 

Red  Polled  134 

Shorthorns    135 

The  Dairy  Herd 138 

Individuals  139 

Adaptation   140 

Purchases    140 

Grades  143 

Foundation  of  Herd   143 

Registered  Animals 144 

The   Bull    144 

Selection  145 

Temperament 145 

Control 145 

Exercise  145 

Culling  the  Herd  145 

Records    146 

Standards 146 

Cow  Types  146 

Each  Cow  Tested 147 

Health  of  Herd 148 

Proper  Surroundings 148 

Cleanliness    149 

Milking  Methods 149 

Milking  Machines 151 

Conclusions   151 

Pastures    153 

Summer   Feeding    153 

Grain  with  Grass   154 

Soiling  Crops  for  Cows 155 

Succession  of  Crops  155 

Growing  the  Crops   156 

Alfalfa  for  Cows 156 

Red  Clover  156 

Peas 156 

Oats   156 

Rape 157 

Flint  Corn 157 

Sorghum  157 

Sweet  Corn 157 

Other  Crops 158 

The  Stable,  Its  Preparation  ...   158 

Feed  and  Care  of  Dairy  Cows.  161 
Treatment  Before  Calving..  161 


Page 

Treatment  at  Calving 162 

Caked  Udder   163 

Treatment  After  Calving 164 

Feeding  Dairy  Cows 14A- 

Important  Considerations   ....   165 

When  to  Milk 165 

Fighting  Flies   165 

Rations 166 

Concentrates 166 

Alfalfa    166 

Roots  167,  170 

Succulence    167 

Constipating  Feeds 168 

Varieties  of  Feed  168 

Appetizing  Rations   169 

Silage   170-172 

Vegetables    170-172 

Weight  and  Feed  Related 172 

Individual   Feeding    173 

Roughness  in  Feed '.   173 

Grain  in  Feed   173 

Balanced    Ration    174 

Consumers   174 

Commercial  Foods 176 

Lactive  Climaxes 176 

Salt  179 

Food  Substitutes 179 

Concentrates 179 

Concentrates    179 

Grain  Mixtures  180 

Ration  Constituents    181 

Gestation   Periods    182 

Bedding  for  Cows  182 

Raising  Calves    183 

Overfeeding    183 

Drink    184 

Skim  Milk 184 

Factory    Milk    185 

Roughage    185 

Pasture    185 

Water    185,187 

Salt    185,187 

Grain    186 

Dehorning     186 

Calf  Ties   187 

Scours    187 

Diarrhea   187 

Milk  Substitutes 188 

Care    189 

Change  in  Feed   189 

Age  to  Breed 190 

Cattle  Authorities    191 


MILK. 

Properties  of  Milk 192  Impurities    198 

Sources  and   Kinds   192  The    Milker    198 

Composition  of  Milk   193  Hands  and   Clothing    198 

Bacteria    193  Bacteria  After,  Drawing 199 


10 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


Page 

Kinds    199 

Cold  Aids   Milk    200 

Flies    201 

Air     202 

Fermentation    202 

Electricity    202 

Butyric  Acid 203 

Flavors  in  Milk 203 

Curdling    204 

Bitter    Milk    204 

Stringy  Milk    205 

Ropy   Milk    205 

Fermentation,  Later  206 

Leucocytes   in   Milk    207 

Pasteurizing    207 

Sterilizing     207 

Thunderstorms    209 

Fermented  Milks   210 

Value   of    210 

Varieties    210 

Buttermilk   210 

Kefer    212 

Kumiss     215 

Yoghurt    215 

Covered   Pails    216 

Cow  Testing  Associations   . . .  217 

Need    of    217 

Difficulties     218 

Association,  First 218 

Operations    218 

Record  in  Michigan 220 

Testing  Outfits   221 

Certified  Milk  222 

Commissions    222 

Operations    222 

Standards   222 

Inspections     223 

Employes'  Health    223 

Precautions    223 

Bacteria     224 

Disinfecting    224 

Cleanliness    224 

Cows  Cleaned    224 

Milking    225 

Handling   Milk    225 

Market  for  Raw  Milk 225 

Keeping  Qualities    226 

Cost  of  Certifying  226 

Its  Future   227 

Milk  Separating  Systems 227 

Deep-setting     227 

Dilution     228 

Centrifugal    228 

Hand    228 

Operations    229 

Speed    229 


Page 

Cleanliness    229 

Temperature     230 

Inflow   230 

Cream    230 

Babcock   Test    233 

How  to  Make 233 

Materials   234 

Steps  234 

Mixing    234 

Sampling    234 

Filling    235 

The  Acid  235 

Bottles    235 

Fat  Calculated 237 

Other  Tests   238 

Butter  Making  on  Farms 239 

Starters    239 

Ripening    239 

Flavors    241 

Acid  Test    242 

Alkaline  Test 243 

Mann's  Test   243 

Churns    244 

Salting    245 

Washing    245 

Working  the  Butter  246 

Utensils    247 

Packing    247 

Refrigeration    248 

Marketing   248 

Storing    251 

Renovated  Butter 252 

Oleomargarine  Tests   253 

Home  Tests   253 

Butter  Increasers,  Etc 254 

Cheese  Making  on  Farms....   255 

Operations    255 

Coloring    255 

Rennet 255,  257 

Temperature    255 

Curdling     256 

Cutting    256 

Cooking   256 

Molding    256 

Pressing   256,  258 

Dressing   256 

Salting 257,  258 

Curing   257,  258 

Curd    257 

Pot  Cheese  258 

Neufchatel     259 

American  Cheese    259 

Club  Cheese  260 

Authorities    on    Cheese    and 
Milk   261,  262 


BREEDS   OF  BEEF    CATTLE. 

Their  Characteristics    263  Aberdeen-Angus   265 

Shorthorns    263  Galloways     266 

Herefords    864  Polled  Herefords   365 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


11 


Page 

Breeding    269 

Common  Stocks   269 

Improvement     270 

Grade   Sires    272 

Aged  Bulls   273 

Immature   Females    274 

Cross  Breeding   275 

In-and-in  Breeding    275 

Prepotency    276 

Co-operation  of  Breeders 277 

Grades  of  Feeding  Cattle  278 

Fancy 279 

Choice     279 

Good    279 

Medium    279 

Common   280 

Inferior    280 

Beef  and  Beef  Products 280 

Baby  Beef  280 

Feeding    280 

Demands    281 

Quick  Returns 281 

Economy   282 

Fattening    283 

Feeders    284 

Market  Demands   284 

Butchers    287 

Consumers    287 

Dairy  and  Beef  Type  Steers..  287 

Feeders'   Conclusions   288 

Summer  and  Winter  Feeding.  288 

Feeding  Two-Year-Old  Steers  289 

Silage  as  Food   289 

Rations  and  Energy  Values...  290 

Components  of  Flesh  290 

Percentage  of  Components.  291 

Body  a  Machine  292 

Composition  of  Feed  Stuffs.  293 

Food  Demands    294 

Food  as  Fuel  295 

Energy  in  Food   296 

How    Utilized    297 

Maintenance   Requirements..  299 

Feed  Values  300 

Fattening   Requirements    . . .  301 

Milk    Requirements    302 

Work    Requirements    302 

Dry  Matter  in  Rat^ions   305 


Page 

Computation  of  Rations    305 

Steps  Necessary   305 

Total  Feed  Required 306 

Rations  Improved    307 

Computation  of  Rations   . . .   308 

Feeding  Stuffs  Chosen 311 

Prices  of  Feed   311 

Amounts  of  Feed 312 

Compounding  Rations   314 

Feeds  and  Feeding  for  Beef..   315 

Corn  as  Food   315 

Dairy  Cows    315 

Steer    Fattening    317 

Commercial  Stock  Foods   ....   319 

From   Wheat    319 

From  Rye   320 

From  Buckwheat   320 

From  Corn   320 

From  Gluten  Meal 320 

From  Hominy 320 

From  Distilleries   323 

From  Oats    323 

From  Flaxseed   323 

From  Cottonseed   324 

From  Barley 325 

From  Alfalfa   325 

From  Meals  325 

From  Dried  Blood 325 

From  Beet  Pulp   326 

Poultry  Food 326 

Molasses  for  Fattening   326 

Feeding   Molasses    326 

Amounts  to  Feed 326 

Summary    327 

Feeding  Alfalfa    327 

Mixing  Grain  and  Roughage..   328 

Use  of  Pulp   329 

Beet  Pulp  and  Corn  Meal 330 

Condimental   Stock  and   Poul- 
try Foods   330 

Ingredients    330 

Medicinal    Ingredients    331 

Cost     332 

Selling  Price    332 

Values    332 

Claims   of   Manufacturers...   333 

Medicines  for  Animals 333 

Sick  Animals    334 

Authorities  on  Beef    334 


Part  III 
SHEEP. 

Breeds    335 

Merino    335 

Leicester    336 

Border  Leicester 336 

Lincolns     337 

Cotswolds    337 

Downs    338 

Southdowns    338 

Shropshires  338 


Hampshires    341 

Oxfords     342 

Suff oiks    342 

Dorset  Horns    342 

Cheviots     343 

Black-faced  Highlands   343 

Sheep   Feeding    344 

Ewes    344 

Breeding  Ewes 344 


12 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


Page 

Spring  Feeding 346 

Summer  Feeding   346 

Fall  Feeding 347 

Lambs  for  Breeding    348 

Hand  Feeding 349 

After  Weaning  349 

Rams    350 

Fattening  Lambs  and  Wethers  351 

Showing    Effects    351 

Fattening  to  Maturity 351 

Quantity  of  Feed  352 

Cost  of  Increase   353 

Fodders   353 

Grain    354 

Pulp    356 

Sorghum    356 

Market  Demands   356 

Yield  of  Dressed  Mutton...   356 
Cost  of  Mutton  and  Beef...   356 

Gestation    360 

Loss  of  Lambs 360 

Dipping    360 

Range  and  Pure  Breds 361 

What  Fs  a  Good  Sheep? 361 

Range  Lamb  Feeding 362 

Old   Mexico  Sheep    362 

New  Mexico  Sheep 363 

Merinos    363 

Buying  Lambs    364 

Shelter    364 

Grading    364 

Feeding    364 

Shepherds    366 

Sheep  on  Ranges 366 

Handling    368-373 

Pasturage  Systems  for  Sheep.  373 

Fences    373 

Protection    374 

Observation    374 

Hounds    374 

Trails    377 

Coyotes    377 

Bunches    378 

Losses   378 

Grazing    380 

Roaming    380 

Bedding    381 

One  Man's  Care 382 


Page 

Washing  and  Shearing 382 

Packing  Wool   383 

Good  Fleeces  384 

Market  Classes  of  Sheep 385 

Mutton    985 

Feeders    386 

Breeders    387 

Miscellaneous    387 

Hot  House  Lambs 387,  397 

Exports    387,  397 

Throw-outs    387,  397 

Dead  Sheep  387,  398 

Goats     387,  398 

Lambs    387 

Prime    387 

Choice    388 

Good     388 

Medium    389 

Common    389 

Yearlings    389 

Wethers    390 

Ewes     391 

Feeders    392 

Breeding   Sheep    395 

Fancy    395 

Choice    395 

Good     396 

Ewes    397 

Bucks    397 

Judging  Fat  Sheep 399 

Score  Cards    399 

Examination    399-405 

Comparative  Judging    405 

Feeder   Sheep    405 

Breeders    406 

Rams    407 

Merinos    407 

Improvements    408 

Sires    409 

Pedigrees     410 

Authorities  on  Sheep 410 

Angora  Goats    413 

Pastures    414 

Breeding    414 

Mohair     414 

Milk    415 

Hardihood    416 


Part  IV. 


BREEDS 

General  Remarks  417 

Berkshires    417 

Poland  Chinas  418 

Chester  Whites  418 

Duroc-Jerseys    419 

Tamworths    419 

Yorkshires    420 

Large  Yorkshires   420 

Middle    Yorkshires    421 

Small  Yorkshires  421 


OF  SWINE. 

Essexes    421 

Cheshire    421 

Hampshires    422 

Southern  Hogs   422 

Razorbacks   422 

Selection   of  Breed    423 

Score  Cards   423 

Care  of  Breeding  Stocks 424 

Breeding  and   Management...   425 
Inbreeding 425 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


13 


Page 

Choice  of  Individuals 425 

Boars     426,  433 

Sows     431,  434 

Mating    432 

Castrating     433 

Spaying    433 

Farrowing     436 

Two  Litters   Yearly    439 

Weaning  the  Pigs   439 

Advice  to  Beginners   441 

Gestation  of  Swine   442 

Feeds  and  Feeding   442 

Economy   442 

Corn   Alone    443 

Cost  of  Gain   ^45 

Corn  for  Breeders  445 

Corn  Ground   446 

Corn,  Cooked,  Etc 446 

Corn,  Wet  and   Dry   449 

Corn,   Hogging  Down    449 

Supplements  for  Corn   450 

Wheat     451 

Middlings    452 

Bran    453 

Barley     453 

Shorts     453 

Oats    453 

Rice    453 

Millet    454 

Beans    454 

Cotton-Seed    Meal     455 

Linseed  Oilmeal   457 

Soy  Bean  Meal  457 

Distillery    Grains    458 

Beef  Meal  458 

Tankage     459 

Milk    460 

Pastures  and  Forage 463 

Permanent  Pastures    463 

Summer    Pasture    463 

Alfalfa    467 

Cow  Peas   470 

Soy   Beans    471 

Canada   Field   Peas 472 

Peanuts    472 

Sorghum    473 


Page 

Oats    473 

Winter  Pasture 473 

Rape    474 

Chufas    474 

Grain  with  Grass   475 

Roots    476 

Sugar  Beets   477 

Potatoes    477 

Silage    478 

Pumpkins    478 

Molasses    478 

Hotel   Slop    479 

Climate     479 

Feed  for  Boars 481 

Feed  for  Sows 482 

Feed  for  Pigs   488 

Fattening  for  Market   491 

Weight  of  Pigs 492 

Finishing   493 

Short  or  Long  Period 494 

Stock    Foods    495 

Mineral  Mixtures   495 

Salt    496 

Housing   Pigs    497 

Portable    Houses    498 

Farrowing  Pens    503 

Floors     505 

Racks    505 

Troughs     505 

Dipping  Vats   506 

Fences    507 

Exercise    510 

Ventilation    510 

Whitewashing    511 

Sanitation    511 

Market  Pork   512 

Bacon  Types  512 

Lard  Types 512 

Pork  Classified    513 

Dressed  Hogs   513 

Grading  Dressed  Hogs   513 

Pork  Cuts  514 

Lard    516 

Curing  Pork 517 

Hams  517 

Sausage    517 


Part  V. 
POULTRY    KEEPING. 


The  Breeds  518 

Starting  with   518 

Classes    521 

General  Purpose  Breeds 522 

Plymouth  Rocks 522 

Wyandottes    523 

Javas    523 

Dominiques    524 

Rhode  Island  Reds    524 

Buckeyes    524 

Orpingtons    525 

Houdans    525 


Meat  Breeds 526 

Brahmas   526 

Cochins    527 

Langshans    527 

Dorkings    528 

Cornish     529 

White  Indian   529 

Egg  Breeds 529 

Leghorns    529 

Minorcas    532 

Black  Spanish    533 

Andalusians    533 


14 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


Page 

Anconas  534 

Redcaps    534 

Hamburgs   534 

Ornamental  Breeds  535 

Polish   535 

Crevecoeurs    536 

La  Fleche   539 

Games  and  Game  Bantams 539 

Bantams    539 

Rose  Comb  Bantams 539 

Incubation    540 

The  Hens   540 

Eggs  for  Hatching 541 

Color  of  Eggs  542 

Operations    543 

Periods  of  Incubation 543 

Natural   Incubation    544 

Breeds  Best  for  545 

Nests    545 

Sitting  Hens 546 

Lice  and  Mites   546 

Artificial  Incubation   547 

Machines   547 

Hot-air    547 

Hot-water   547 

Burners    548 

Chimney    549 

Body   549 

Nursery    550 

Thermometer     552 

Regulator   553 

Moisture    557 

Defects    557 

Good  Points 557 

Incubators,   How   Operated. 

557-566 

Brooding   566 

Natural  Brooding 566 

Brooders    567 

Temperature     568 

The   Chicks    569 

Feeding  the  Chicks  570 

Care    575 

Feeding  Systems  575,  579 

Dry  Feeding 576 

Mash  Feeding  577 

Other  Feeds 578 

Green  Feed   578 

Hay  578 

Milk,  Grits,  Etc 579 

Feeding  Methods  580 

Rations    58o 

Other  Considerations   581 

Broilers    582 

Roasters    582 

Notes  on  Egg  Production 583 

Authorities  on  Poultry    584 

Fattening  Poultry 534 

Pen  Methods  584 

Crate    *  534 

Machine '  ]   534 


Page 

Hand     585 

Feed  585 

Poultry  Houses  585 

Location     586 

Climate    586 

Size 586 

Roof    587 

Ventilation    588 

Fresh   Air   Houses    589 

Floors     590 

Walls    590 

Perches 593 

Nests    594 

Dusts    595 

Water   595 

Authorities  on  Houses 595 

Yarding    595 

Turkeys    596 

Wild    596 

Mexican    596 

Ocellated   596 

Inbreeding    597 

Market  Weights   597 

Standard  Varieties  of  Turkeys.   598 

Bronze 598 

Narragansett    599 

Buff   599 

Slate    599 

White    600 

Black    600 

Selecting  Turkey  Stock 601 

Males    601 

Females   601 

Pairing   602 

Insect  Pests   602 

Incubation 602 

Brooders    602 

Feeds   603 

Dry  Picking 603 

Ducks    ...:.; 603 

Varieties    603 

White  Pekin  603 

White  Aylesbury    604 

Colored  Rouen 604 

Black   Cayuga    605 

Colored  Muscovy  605 

White  Muscovy 605 

Indian  Runner 606 

Gray  Call 606 

White  Call 606 

Management  of  DucJks 606 

Buildings   607 

Feeds   608 

Grits    611 

Incubation   611 

Ducklings  612 

Geese    612 

Gray  Toulouse 612 

White  Embden   612 

Gray  African    613 

Brown  Chinese   613 

White  Chinese    613 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


15 


Page 

Management  of  Geese 613 

Mating  and  Setting 614 

Feeding  and  Dressing 615 

Guinea  Fowls  616 

Varieties    616 

Habits     616 

Feeds   617 

Markets    617 

Squab  Raising 617 

Houses   617 

Nest  Boxes 618 

Fly 618 

Pigeons    618 

Breeding    618 

Feeding    618 

Killing    619 

Dressing    619 

Ostrich  Farming 619 

Eggs    619 

Incubator 619 

Feeds    619 


Page 

Plucking    619 

Handling   620 

Profits     620 

Capons  and  Caponizing 620 

What  Is  a  Capon? 620 

Time  to  Caponize 621 

Instruments    621 

Markets    621 

Picking 622 

Dressing   622 

Scalding  622 

Packing    622 

Bad  Habits 623 

Shipping    623 

Deteriorated  Eggs 623 

Bad   Eggs    624 

Summary   625 

Care  of  Eggs  625 

Selection    625 

Storing  626 


Part  VI. 
OTHER   ANIMALS. 


Birds  630 

Hawks  and  Owls 631 

Warblers    632 

Thrushes    633 

Titmice 633 

Swallows    633 

Doves    634 

Cuckoos   634 

Woodpeckers   634 

Nighthawks     634 

Kingbirds    635 

Phoebes    635 

Crows   635 

Meadowlarks    635 

Catbirds   635 

Robins    636 

Blackbirds  636 

Orioles    636 

Bobolinks    636 

Blue  Jays 636 

Quails  637 

Grouses    637 

Sparrows   637 

Cranes    639 

Herons   639 

Birds  as  Insect  Destroyers 639 

Birds   Protected   from   Man...   641 

Birds  Attracted  to  Farms 641 

Crops  Protected  from  Birds...   643 
Farmers'  Gain  from  Protection  642 

Pheasant  Raising   642 

Species  of  Pheasants 642 


Acclimatization    643 

Methods  of  Propagation 644 

Stock 647 

Prices    647 

Pens  647 

Food   648 

Care 648 

Honey  Bees   648 

Apiaries    649 

Bee  Habits 649 

Handling  Bees 650 

Honey  Production   650 

Other  Animal  Life 651 

Toads    651 

Bats : 652 

Silk  Worms   652 

Deer    652 

Silver   Foxes    653 

Elk 653 

Mosquitoes    654-666 

Horse  Flies 666 

Field  Mice    667 

Jack  Rabbits    668 

Rabbits 669 

Rats 672 

Prairie  Dogs 673 

Ground  Squirrels 674 

Coyotes  674 

Gophers    675 

Muskrats    675 

Ants   676 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


VOLUME   I. 


Page 

Judging  Draft  Horses 33 

Swamp  Fever  in  Horses....  51 

Mule,  Big,  Type 51 

Champion  Hackney 60 

Eastern  Chunk   60 

Barred  Plymouth  Rocks ....  69 

Rhode   Island  Reds 69 

Morgan  Stallion 78 

Express  Horse,  Type 78 

Thoroughbred   Stallion    ....  87 

Cavalry  Horse,  Type 105 

Show   Horse,   Undefeated...  105 

Hereford  Bull 123 

Jutland  Cows 123 

Brown  Swiss  Cow 132 

Dutch  Belted  Cow 132 

Red  Polled  Cow 132 

Shorthorn  Bull   141 

Shorthorn  Cow  and  Calf. ...  141 

Clean   Milk  House 159 

Cow  Stable,   Unsanitary.  ...  159 

Polled  Durham  Bull 177 

Polled  Durham  Cow 177 

Large  Slaughter  House 195 

Dirty  Barnyard   195 

Diagram  of  Cow 213 

Feeding  Rack  for  Sheep....  213 

Clean  Cows 223 

Dirty  Cows 223 

Milk  Pail,  Combination....  231 

Clean  Milking 231 

Milk  Cans  Exposed 249 

Milk  House,  Bad 249 

Ayrshire  Bull   267 

Milk  Pails    285 

Dairy  Barn,  Round 285 


Page 

Dairy  Stable,  Open 303 

Texas  Steer  Geronimo 321 

Experimental  Herd  of  Sheep  339 

Oxford  Ram 357 

Leicester  Ram 357 

Cheviot  Ram   375 

Lincoln  Ram 375 

Rambouillet  Ram 393 

Mutton  Cuts   411 

Shropshire  Ram    411 

Angora  Goats 414 

Prime  Heavy  Hogs 429 

Lard  Type  Hogs 438 

Chester  White  Sows 438 

Loco  Weed  Disease 447 

Hog  House 447 

Berkshire   Hogs    465 

Berkshire  Sow   465 

Large  Yorkshire 483 

Duroc  Jersey 483 

Cheshire  Hog 501 

Poland  China 501 

Ostriches   519 

Maine  Poultry  Houses 537 

Bee  Hives 537 

Black  Langshans   555 

Light  Brahmas 555 

Tamworth  Boar 573 

Hog  Sick  of  Cholera 573 

Sheep  Barn   591 

Brooder  House 591 

Great  Horned  Owl 608 

Sheep  Feeding  Corral 626 

Honey  Comb  Diseased 645 

Common  Toad   652 

Round  Up  West 663 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 
DAIRYING,  ETC 

PART  I 


2-   ^^^  / 
INTRODUCTION. 

HORSE  breeding  is  one  of  the  most  important  lines  of  work 
that  animal  breeders  of  this  country  have  undertaken.  As 
all  classes  of  people  are  largely  dependent,  and  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases,  entirely  dependent  upon  the  labor  of  horses 
for  the  necessities  and  comforts  of  life  as  well  as  many  of  its  pleas- 
ures, the  efforts  of  the  breeder  become  of  great  importance  not  only 
to  himself  but  to  the  country  at  large.  A  little  improvement  in  the 
horses  of  a  country  may  mean  a  considerable  increase  in  the  wealth 
and  comforts  of  its  people. 

The  first  systematic  attempt  to  improve  the  horse  came  through  a 
desire  for  larger  animals  for  war  purposes.  When  the  war  horse 
was  required  to  carry  a  rider  protected  by  heavy  coats  of  mail  and 
himself  to  be  protected  by  heavy  metal  plates,  it  was  found  that 
larger  animals  were  needed.  Later,  improvements  were  attempted 
to  better  fit  the  horse  for  pleasure  and  for  agricultural  purposes, 
which  gave  him  greater  speed,  endurance  and  beauty,  and  also 
brought  a  greater  degree  of  intelligence.  These  improvements  were  ef- 
fected largely  through  the  importation  into  England  of  horses,  mostly 
sires  from  the  Orient.  Godolphin  Arabian  (Barb.),  Darley  Arabian 
and  Byerly  Turk  were  among  the  most  noted  of  these  early  importa- 
tions. The  crossing  of  these  sires  on  selected  English  mares  together 
with  the  skill  of  the  English  breeder  resulted  in  the  production  of 
the  English  Thoroughbred,  which  is  distinctively  a  running  horse. 
Through  the  Thoroughbred  has  been  developed  the  American  Thor- 
oughbred, notably  of  Kentucky,  and  the  American  Trotter.  The 
Russian  trotters  have  in  a  similar  way  been  developed  through  the 
English  Thoroughbred  and  by  the  importation  directly  into  Rus- 
sia of  Arabian  horses  that  were  crossed  on  selected  Russian  mares. 

Many  of  the  improved  breeds  of  horses  owe  much  to  the  in- 
fluence of  Oriental  blood  on  the  foundation  stock  of  each  breed.  The 
characteristics  that  have  been  especially  developed  through  this  in- 
troduction are  alertness,  symmetry,  or  beauty  of  form,  stamina  or 
endurance  and  intelligence.    Even  many  of  the  heavy  draft  horses 

17 


18  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

of  Europe,  notably  the  Percheron,  show  a  marked  effect  of  the  intro- 
duction of  Oriental  blood. 

The  English  Thoroughbred  in  many  respects  occupies  a  posi- 
tion in  England  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  American  trotter  in  the 
United  States.  The  Thoroughbred  has  been  a  potent  factor  in  the 
development  of  the  English  breeds  of  light  horses.  So  has  the 
American  trotter  performed  an  important  part  in  the  production 
of  the  various  classes  of  light  active  horses. 

THE  AMERICAN  TROTTER. 

Origin. — As  the  thoroughbred  originated  in  England  to  supply 
the  demand  fpr  a  perfect  running  hol^e^for  the  sports  of  the  English 
gentlemen,  so  has  the  trotter  been  developed  in  America  for  special 
work  of  fast  driving  upon  the  race  track  and  road  and  for  this 
purpose  surpasses  all  other  horses.  The  French  and  Russian  trotters 
have  been  similarly  developed  in  their  respective  countries  and  have 
become  creditable  performers,  but  at  all  distances  the  American 
trotters  now  hold  the  fastest  records.  The  Narragansett  pacers  of 
New  England  were  our  first  road  horses  but  became  practically  ex- 
tinct, at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  About  the  year 
1788,  when  Messenger  was  imported,  trotters  were  becoming  popular 
and,  since  then,  have  been  bred  in  increasing  numbers  and  of  grad- 
ually increasing  speed.  Messenger  sired  Mambrino  and  the  latter 
Mambrino  Paymaster  and  Abdallah  and  from  these  have  sprung 
Mambrino  Chief  and  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian,  respectively,  both 
founders  of  noted  families.  The  dam  of  Rysdyk's  was  the  "Charles 
Kent  Mare,"  sired  by  Bellfounder,  a  Hackney,  foaled  in  Norfolk, 
England.  The  leading  families  are  (1)  Hambletonian,  founded  by 
Rysdyk's  Hambletonian  (Hambletonian  10),  including  such  noted 
sires  as  George  Wilkes,  Electioneer,  Happy  Medium,  Abdallah  15, 
Robert  MacGregor,  Almont,  Belmont,  Nutwood,  Dictator,  etc.  (2) 
Mambrino  Chief,  including  Mambrino  Patchen,  Clark  Chief,  etc. 
(3)  Clay,  founded  by  Andrew  Jackson,  and  tracing  to  Arabian  an- 
cestry and  including,  among  the  most  noted.  The  Moor,  Henry 
Clay,  Young  Clay,  Pilot,  etc.  (4)  Morgan,  founded  by  Justin  Mor- 
gan, of  which  Ethan  Allen,  Daniel  Lambert,  Ben  Franklin,  and 
General  Knox  are  the  most  noted.  (5)  Pilot,  the  most  noted  of 
which  was  Pilot,  Jr.  The  Hambletonian  blood  when  fused  with  any 
of  these  has  been  especially  prolific  in  producing  performers. 

In  the  breeding  of  horses  for  the  race  track  nearly  everything 
has  been  sacrificed  for  extreme  speed.  This  one  requirement  alone 
has  been  the  leading  factor.  Beauty  of  form  and  of  action  become 
not  only  unnecessary  qualities  but  positive  hindrances  in  speed  per- 
fonnances.  ^  The  beautifully  arched  neck  that  is  so  highly  prized 
in  the  carriage  horse  becomes  entirely  superfluous  in  horses  main- 
tained for  racing  purposes. — (Wis.  B.  127.) 

"^..^  THE   HACKNEY. 

Origin. — This  breed  originated  in  the  County  of  Norfolk,  Eng- 
land, through  crossing  thoroughbred  stallions  with  Norfolk  trotting 
mares  which  were  then  noted  for  speed  and  endurance.     Darley 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  19 

Arabian,  prominent  as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  thoroughbred, 
sired  Flying  Childers,  the  sire  of  Blaze.  The  mating  of  Blaze  with 
Norfolk  mares  did  much  toward  the  production  of  the  Hackney. 
Blaze  sired  Shales,  the  sire  of  Driver,  the  sire  of  Firefly,  to  which. 
most  of  the  noted  Hackney's  trace. 

Characteristics. — The  Hackney  is  a  stoutly  built,  compact, 
smooth,  strong-boned,  muscular  horse  of  proud  appearance  and  a 
kind  disposition.  His  plump,  graceful  appearance  with  perfectly 
curved  outlines  adapt  him  to  carry  a  fine  harness  and  to  draw  hand- 
some and  fashionable  equipage  in  the  park  or  boulevard.  He  should 
have  a  clean  cut  intelligent  head,  neck  strong  and  well  arched  but  free 
from  coarseness,  shoulders  smooth  and  oblique,  body  round,  short 
and  compact.  Hips  smooth,  quarters  plump  with  muscle,  legs  short, 
strong  boned  and  flat.  Hoofs  symmetrical  and  of  good  quality. 
Action  high,  quick,  elastic,  regular,  behind  as  well  as  in  front,  the 
hocks  being  perfectly  flexed  to  correspond  with  the  extreme  high 
knee  action.  The  two  w'ords  most  perfectly  describing  the  Hack- 
ney are  smoothness  and  action.  Common  colors  are  bay  and  brown ; 
height,  15.1  to  15.3  hands. 

Utility. — The  Hackney  having  been  bred  pure  for  over  a  hun- 
dred years  possesses  strong  prepotency  or  power  to  transmit  his  own 
characteristics  to  his  offspring  and  is  therefore  well  fitted  for  mating 
with  trotting  mares,  and  mares  of  mixed  breeding  for  the  produc- 
tion of  high  stepping  cob  horses  for  city  use.  The  mares  to  which 
he  is  bred  should  possess  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  typical 
Hackney.— (Wis.  B.  127.) 

FRENCH  COACH  HORSE. 

As  indicated  by  the  name,  the  breeding  originated  in  France 
•where  for  many  years  it  was  termed  Demi-Sang,  being  a  product  of 
a  cross  between  the  English  Thoroughbred  and  the  native  mares  of 
France  that  had  considerable  Oriental  blood  in  their  veins.  In 
1780  the  French  Government  assisted  the  Horse  Breeding  Industry 
of  France  and  since  that  time  has  materially  aided  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  French  breeds  of  horses  that  have  become  so  noted.  To 
encourage  the  use  of  the  best  stallions  and  to  discourage  their  ex- 
portation, the  Government  allowed  annual  subsidies  ranging  from 
$50  to  $500  according  to  the  breed  and  value  of  the  individuals. 

Characteristics. — The  typical  horse  of  this  breed  stands  at  least 
16  hands  high  and  weighs  from  1,200  to  1,400  pounds.  He  is  es- 
sentially a  coach  or  carriage  horse.  He  is  more  rangy  in  type  than 
the  Hackney,  and  has  a  graceful,  free-moving  gait;  but  does  not 
possess  the  quick  and  extreme  high  knee  action  that  is  so  char- 
acteristic of  the  Hackney.  In  other  w^ords  it  may  be  said  that  the 
Coach  horse  moves  more  slowly  and  with  more  dignity  than  the 
Hackney.  Some  of  the  horses  of  this  breed  are  inclined  to  coarse- 
ness and  are  not  so  desirable  for  breeding  purposes;  those  of  the 
more  refined  type  possessing  considerable  speed  and  of  great  pre- 
potence  are  most  desirable. 

Utility. — These  horses  are  suited  for  the  production  of  large, 
handsome  coach  or  carriage  horses.    They  should  not  be  bred  for  ex- 


20  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

treme  speed,  nor  for  the  more  flashy  qualities  so  characteristic  of 
the  Hackney, 

THE  GERMAN   COACH. 

This  breed  has  been  formed  by  mating  the  Thoroughbred  with 
the  native  mares  of  Germany,  some  of  which  already  possess  some 
Arabic  blood.  It  is  said  that  horses  of  this  type  were  found  in 
Germany  early  in  the  17th  century. 

Characteristics. — These  horses  are  usually  of  solid  colors,  black 
brown  and  bay  predominating,  but  sometimes  chestnut  or  sorrel. 
They  are  16  hands  high  or  over,  and  should  weigh  from  1,350  to 
1,550  pounds.  As  compared  with  the  French  Coach,  there  is  a 
tendency  towards  coarseness  particularly  in  the  bone  below  the 
knee.  The  action  of  the  two  breeds  is  quite  similar,  although  the 
German  Coach  is  usually  heavier  and  stronger. 

PERCHERON. 

This  breed  takes  its  name  from  the  District  of  La  Perche  in 
France,  which  is  now  the  chief  center  of  the  Percheron  industry  in 
France.  This  district  has  long  been  known  as  the  home  of  the 
Percheron  horse.  The  breed  originally  derived  its  weight  and  size 
from  the  black  horses  of  Flanders  and  its  style  and  quality  from 
the  Oriental  breeds,  notably  from  the  grey  Arab  stallions  Godolphin 
and  Gallipoli.  Early  in  the  history  of  the  breeding  these  horses 
were  used  for  coach  and  bus  work,  but  with  the  increase  in  weight 
and  larger  bone  they  have  become  one  of  the  most  useful  and  noted 
draft  breeds.  Grey  was  the  original  color,  but  recently  black  has 
become  quite  common ;  although  it  is  not  so  usually  transmitted  as 
the  characteristic  grey  of  the  purer  Percherons. 

Characteristics. — The  Percheron  stands  16  hands  high  or  over, 
and  weighs  from  1,700  to  2,200  pounds.  He  has  an  intelligent 
head  and  of  a  type  peculiar  to  this  breed;  eyes  and  ears  are  rather 
small,  strongly  muscled  neck,  well  formed  shoulders  and  chest, 
round  body,  strong  back,  heavy  quarters  and  somewhat  drooping 
croup,  which  sometimes  is  a  defect.  The  Percheron  is  usually  a  low 
down,  blocky,  clean  limbed  horse,  having  well  shaped  sound  hoofs. 
The  pasterns  in  some  individuals  is  inclined  to  uprightness  and  is 
one  of  the  most  common  defects.  The  action  of  the  Percheron  is 
usually  fast  at  a  trot  for  a  horse  of  this  size.  He  has  a  fairly  straight 
and  sprightly  walk. 

Utility. — The  Percheron  breeds  quite  as  true  to  breed  type  as 
any  of  the  draft  breeds,  although  individual  prepotency  is  often  lack- 
ing. This  horse  has  become  popular  on  account  of  his  gentle  dispo- 
sition, easy  keeping  qualities,  clean  hairless  legs  and  general  adapt- 
ability for  farm  and  city  purposes, — (Wis.  B.  127.) 

THE  CLYDESDALE. 

This  is  the  draft  horse  breed  of  Scotland,  and  there  has  been 
bred  pure  for  many  generations.  This  breed  originated  in  the 
County  of  Lanark,  frequently  called  Clydesdale  District.  At  the 
present  time  this  breed  is  well  disseminated  throughout  the  country. 
In  the  formation  of  this  breed  the  heavy  black  Flemish  horses  were 
among  the  most  noted  of  the  foundation  stock.     Records  of  this 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  21 

breed  have  been  kept  since  1715.  The  Clydesdale  District  has  proved 
to  be  particularly  well  adapted  for  the  production  of  large  draft 
horses  possessing  an  exceptional  quality  of  bone,  muscle,  tendon 
and  hair.  The  characteristics  coupled  with  the  hardihood,  activity, 
vigor  and  endurance  have  placed  the  Clydesdale  with  the  foremost 
rank  of  draft  horses. 

Characteristics. — The  typical  Clydesdale  stands  16  hands  high 
or  over,  and  weighs  from  1,800  to  2,200  pounds.  He  is  in  color 
bay,  brown,  black  or  chestnut  with  white  markings.  The  head  is 
usually  of  good  shape,  neck  of  fair  length,  arching  and  muscular. 
Horses  of  this  breed  are  noted  for  the  sloping  shoulders  and  oblique 
pasterns.  Horses  of  this  breed  are  fast  walkers,  due  to  a  long, 
springy  stride  at  this  gait.  Compared  to  the  Percherons  they  are 
quite  as  fast  at  the  walk  due  to  the  long  stride,  while  the  Percheron 
has  the  quicker  step,  the  Clydesdale  has  the  longer.  As  a  fast  walk- 
ing pace  is  the  chief  requisite  as  regards  the  action  of  heavy  draft 
horses,  this  has  made  the  Clydesdale  favorites. — (Wis.  B.  127.) 

ENGLISH   SHIRE, 

The  heavy  black  stallions  of  Flanders  used  upon  the  large 
native  mares  of  the  Fen  counties  of  England,  notably  Lincoln,  Kent, 
and  Cambridge,  founded  this  breed  of  draft  horses  many  years 
ago.  This  breed  is  still  bred  pure  and  has  been  greatly  improved 
in  many  particulars.  In  color  the  horses  of  this  breed  are  now  mostly 
bay  or  brown. 

Characteristics. — The  typical  size  horse  is  of  great  weight  and 
power.  He  is  more  massive  than  the  Clydesdale,  but  possesses  less 
quality.  His  body  is  usually  deep,  broad  and  round  with  strong 
coupling,  thighs  and  quarters  heavily  muscled.  While  powerful 
he  is  slow  in  action  and  sluggish  in  disposition.  Compared  to  the 
Clydesdale  the  shoulders  and  pasterns  are  more  upright  and  the  hair 
somewhat  closer  and  in  general  it  tends  to  show  more  coarseness. 
The  size  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  ton  horse  as  many  individuals 
exceed  this  weight. —  (Wis.  B.  127.) 

BELGIAN  DRAFT. 

Blending  together  the  blood  of  the  Flemish  Brabancan  and 
Ardennais  horses  have  formed  in  Belgium  a  breed  of  draft  horses 
known  as  the  Belgian  Draft.  The  breeding  of  these  horses  forms  an 
important  source  of  income  of  the  Belgian  farmer,  and  the  Govern- 
ment aids  this  business  by  subsidies  and  supervision. 

Characteristics. — The  typical  Belgian  Draft  is  a  blocky,  wide, 
heavy  horse  having  short  clean  legs,  his  neck  often  inclined  to  coarse- 
ness and  his  croup  sloping  often  to  a  defect,  while  his  pasterns  are  apt 
to  be  upright  and  his  feet  somewhat  steep.  As  a  rule  the  Belgian 
horse,  when  out  of  condition,  is  perhaps  more  readily  and  quickly 
fattened  than  any  other  breed.  This  makes  them  popular  with  the 
professional  horse  feeder  who  prepares  them  for  market.  There 
seems  to  be  no  standard  color  for  the  breed ;  bays,  browns  and  roans 
are  common. —  (Wis.  B.  127.) 

PONIES. 

Ponies  of  various  grades  and  breeding  are  frequently  found  on 


22  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

the  market  and  are  usually  bought  for  the  use  of  children  and 
ladies.  The  distinguishing  characteristics  separating  ponies  from 
horses  are  not  easily  described;  yet,  to  the  trained  eye,  the  line  of 
division  is  fairly  distinct.  The  principal  distinguishing  features  ac- 
cepted by  most  authorities  is  that  of  height,  a  pony  being  14  hands 
or  under.  Sometimes  there  are  dwarf  horses  without  pony  blood 
that  come  within  these  limits,  but  usually  they  lack  pony  character- 
istics, some  of  which  are  a  deep,  round  body,  with  heavily  muscled 
thighs  and  quarters,  croup  not  dropping,  and  width  well  carried 
out.  These  the  small  horse  does  not  usually  possess.  Ponies  are 
essentially  children's  horses,  and  because  of  this  must  be  kind  and 
gentle  in  disposition,  but  with  as  much  spirit  as  is  compatible  with 
gentleness.  There  are  no  special  requirements  for  weight.  Like 
horses,  they  should  be  straight  line  movers  and  the  greater  knee 
and  hock  action  they  possess  the  greater  wall  they  be  appreciated  and 
higher  prices  secured  when  they  are  placed  on  the  market. 

The  Indian  Pony. — The  Indian  pony,  or  the  Cayuse  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  is  larger  and  a  descendant  from  the  native  range 
stock.  These  animals  are  classed  on  the  market  as  range  ponies. 
They  are  hardy  and  can  endure  a  great  privation  if  necessary.  It  is 
stoutly  maintained  that  they  are  able  to  perform  long  continued 
hard  labor  with  less  food  than  almost  any  other  type  of  horse. 

Range  Horses. — Range  horses  are  sold  on  the  market  in  two  gen- 
eral classes:  as  light  and  as  heavy,  according  to  the  predominance 
of  light  or  draft  horses'  blood.  Most  of  the  range  horses  find  their 
way  to  the  country  where  they  are  usually  broken,  and  when  edu- 
cated some  of  them  are  returned  to  the  market  to  fill  the  demand 
for  some  of  the  commercial  classes.  Cheap  farm  horses  for  the  most 
part  remain  in  the  country  and  seldom  find  their  way  to  the  great 
commercial  markets,  where  better  classes  of  horses  are  in  demand. 
As  these  horses  are  worth  more  to  wear  out  on  the  farms  than  for 
any  other  purpose,  they  usually  remain  in  the  country. —  (111.  B. 

HORSE  BREEDING. 

Selection  of  Breeding  Stock. — The  general  principle  of  hered- 
ity is  that  like  produces  like.  This  principle  or  recognized  law  of 
transmission  is  without  doubt  adhered  to  more  closely  by  stock 
breeders  than  any  one  recognized  law  or  principle  of  breeding.  There 
are  departures  or  exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  it  proves  true  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  or  else  there  would  be  no  continuity  of  species. 
If  this  were  not  true  wheat  might  produce  corn,  corn  produce  bar- 
ley, etc.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  bad  points  are 
quite  as  likely,  or  in  fact  more  likely,  to  be  transmitted  than  are 
good  ones.  As  the  good  points  so  highly  prized  in  our  improved 
breeds  have  been  secured  by  man  through  his  skill  in  feeding  and 
breeding  and  therefore  are  not  so  firmly  fixed  as  some  of  the  less 
desirable  points  which  were  original  traits  or  characteristics  of  the 
unimproved  stock,  from  which  our  animals  have  descended,  it  is  a 
serious  but  common  error  in  breeding  to  suppose  that  the  bad  points 
of  one  animal  can  be  fully  off-set  or  overcome  by  the  good  points 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  23 

of  the  other  mate.  This  might  sometimes  happen,  however,  if  the 
animal  possessing  the  good  points  would  transmit  its  own  character- 
istics with  greater  certainty,  and  therefore  become  prepotent,  than 
the  animal  possessing  the  undesirable  points.  The  true  principle  of 
successful  breeding  is  to  mate  two  animals  that  are  each  as  nearly 
perfect  as  possible.  Faults  in  one  animal  are  not  to  be  offset  by  choos- 
ing the  mate  that  is  abnormally  developed  in  the  contrary  direction. 
By  mating  with  an  animal  perfect  in  the  point  where  the  other  is 
imperfect,  there  would  be  greater  likelihood  of  success.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  mares  in  a  particular  stud  are  lacking  in  size  and  qual- 
ity of  hoofs,  the  proper  way  to  correct  the  fault  is  to  persistently  breed 
to  sires  that  have  perfect  hoofs,  and  not  to  use  sires  that  have  ab- 
normally large  hoofs.  It  is  for  each  breeder  to  decide  what  he  de- 
sires to  breed,  after  this  he  should  select  mares  as  nearly  like  his  ideal 
as  circumstances  will  permit,  and  then  mate  them  persistently  with 
the  sires  of  like  type  and  known  pure  blood.  As  the  female  progeny 
shall  come  to  the  age  at  which  they  may  be  bred,  they  should  in  turn 
be  bred  in  a  similar  manner,  as  that  just  described,  selected  pure 
bred  sires  in  all  cases  should  be  used.  The  first  progeny  is  called 
one-half  blood ;  the  half-blood  when  bred  to  the  pure  blood  sire  pro- 
duces three-quarter  blood;  and  with  each  successive  generation  the 
probability  of  securing  progeny  that  resembles  that  pure  bred  sire  is 
increased.  If  we  consider  but  a  moment  the  fact  that  whenever  we 
trace  back  the  complete  pedigree  of  any  animal  for  ten  generations 
we  have  encountered  over  two  thousand  ancestors,  we  sometimes 
wonder  that  so  good  results  are  secured.  With  this  brief  reflection 
we  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  importance  of  selecting  ani- 
mals so  far  as  possible,  particularly  the  sires,  that  have  been  bred  true 
to  type  for  many  generations.  In  the  successful  breeding  of  horses, 
as  in  other  classes  of  live  stock,  there  is  but  one  course  to  be  recom- 
mended. Choose  well  the  breed  that  you  will  select  and  then  persist 
in  using  nothing  but  pure  bred  sires  of  the  type  which  has  been  de- 
cided upon. 

Importance  of  Soundness. — It  is  of  great  importance  that  the 
mare  should  be  free  from  all  forms  of  unsoundness  or  diseases  that 
are  hereditary,  transmissible,  or  communicable  to  the  offspring. 
It  is  also  of  great  importance  that  the  mares  should  be  sound,  and 
not  until  both  mares  and  stallions  used  for  breeding  purposes  are 
free  from  unsoundness  can  we  hope  with  any  degree  of  certainty  to 
raise  the  average  excellence  of  the  horse  product  of  the  country  to 
the  highest  plane  possible.  An  error  is  sometimes  made  by  breeders 
in  breeding  from  mares  with  bony  diseases,  as  spavins,  ring  bones, 
etc.,  thinking  that  no  danger  can  come  from  such  mating  as  these 
diseases  are  not  inherited.  The  error,  however,  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  weakness  in  the  parent  which  causes  this  bony  disease  to  appear 
is  likely  to  be  transmitted  in  the  off-spring;  although  the  diseases 
themselves  are  not  transmitted.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  mare 
may  be  maimed  and  incapacitated  for  work  through  accident  and 
still  be  as  valuable  for  breeding  purposes  as  though  the  accident  had 
not  occurred.    So  on  general  principles  it  may  be  stated  that  blem- 


24  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

ishes  and  deformities  due  to  accidental  causes  are  not  transmissible, 
and  do  not  therefore  render  the  individual  animal  unfit  for  breeding 
purposes.  In  this  list  may  be  placed  unsightly  scars  from  barb  wire 
and  other  fences  or  some  other  accidental  cause,  blindness  due  to  ac- 
cident, fractures  imperfectly  united,  etc.  The  greatest  possible  care 
should,  however,  be  exercised  in  deciding  these  matters,  and  where 
possible,  it  often  is  the  best  policy  to  select  for  breeding  purposes 
animals  that  are  in  the  best  of  health  and  free  from  every  form  of 
blemish  or  unsoundness.  We  often  hear  it  said  in  this  connection 
by  farmers  of  limited  means  that  they  cannot  afford  to  go  to  the 
expense  of  securing  a  better  class  of  breeding  stock  than  they  now 
have.  But  when  we  consider  that  the  expense  and  care  of  rearing 
to  the  market  age  an  inferior  animal  is  practically  the  same  as  that 
of  a  valuable  one,  the  question  will  naturally  arise  can  they  afford 
to  raise  the  inferior  one  at  all?  This  question,  however,  is  for  each 
breeder  to  decide  for  himself. 

Uniformity  in  Breeding. — ^There  has  been  a  general  lack  of 
uniformity  and  consistency  in  the  breeding  operations  in  many  local- 
ities where  somewhat  spasmodic  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve 
domestic  animals  through  breeding.  Many  horse  owners  have  at- 
tempted to  improve  their  horses  by  what  is  known  as  the  process  of 
grading-up ;  which  is  mating  Thoroughbred  stallions  with  the  mares 
of  common  stock  or  mixed  breeding  until  the  blood  of  the  pure  breed 
predominates  over  that  of  the  native  stock.  Without  doubt  every 
step  taken  in  this  direction  has  been  well  intended,  but  the  desired 
results  are  rarely  secured  unless  this  method  of  breeding  is  persisted 
in ;  that  is,  by  using  sires  of  the  same  breed  for  successive  generations. 
Many  breeders  have  commenced  right,  but  through  various  causes 
have  failed  to  continue  sufficiently  long  the  good  plans  which  they 
commenced.  Unless  the  plan  is  carried  far  enough  so  that  the  pure 
blood  predominates  in  a  large  degree  over  that  of  the  native  stock 
or  of  mixed  breeding,  the  best  results  will  not  be  realized,  except 
possibly  in  rare  instances. 

Cross-bred  Sires  Unreliable. — The  offspring  of  two  animals  of 
distinct  and  different  breeds  is  termed  cross-bred.  In  a  cross-bred 
animal  we  have  distinct  and  different  breed  tendencies  and  prepo- 
tencies that  have  been  merged  together,  and  the  identity  of  each  dis- 
tinct breed  has  been  lost.  These  breed  tendencies  and  prepotencies 
in  the  cross-bred  animal  may  be  said  to  be  mixed  rather  than 
blended;  consequently  the  cross-bred  sire  lacks  the  well  fixed  pre- 
dominating tendencies  that  we  hope  to  find  prepotent  in  pure  bred 
sires.  While  this  cross-bred  animal  may  possess  fine  appearance  and 
individual  excellence,  yet  it  should  not  be  expected  that  he  will  be 
able  to  transmit  his  own  individual  excellence.  Cross-bred  sires  should 
not  be  used  for  breeding  purposes,  as  such  animals  have  no  prepo- 
tency in  the  particular  line  for  the  production  of  a  specific  breed 
character. 

Grade  Sires  Objectionable. — In  the  process  of  grading-up,  the 
first  progeny  from  the  mating  of  a  pure  bred  sire  and  the  native 
or  scrub  mare  is  a  half-blood ;  if  the  half-blood  is  mated  with  a  pure 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  25 

blood,  the  progeny  would  be  a  three-quarter  blood;  and  each  suc- 
ceeding mating  in  this  manner  would  reduce  the  amount  of  native 
or  scrub  blood  by  one  half.  From  the  first  mating,  which  produced 
the  half-blood,  to  that  after  successive  generations  where  the  native 
or  scrub  blood  is  very  slight,  the  animals  thus  produced  are  called 
grades.  As  long  as  the  sire  contains  native  or  scrub  blood,  one  can- 
not feel  sure  that  this  undesirable  native  or  scrub  blood  tendency 
will  not  be  manifest  at  any  time.  Of  course,  the  chances  of  its  being 
manifested  are  lessened  as  the  quality  of  scrub  blood  is  reduced,  yet 
horse  breeders  do  not  feel  warranted  in  ever  assuming  any  unneces- 
sary risks.  We  should  not  forget  that  the  offspring  of  a  grade  sire  with 
a  grade  female  makes  no  advance  in  breeding,  the  result  in  progeny 
as  a  grade.  The  object  of  the  horse  owner  who  is  breeding  grades 
should  be  to  breed  higher  grades  in  each  successive  generation.  In 
all  of  our  pure  breeds  prepotency  is  a  fixed  character  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree.  Grade  sires  on  the  contrary  lack  both  breed  and  indi- 
vidual prepotency,  and  therefore  should  not  be  used  for  breeding 
purposes. 

Value  of  a  Pedigree. — The  pedigree  is  simply  a  record  showing 
the  animals  that  have  in  succession  entered  into  the  breeding  of  the 
individual  in  question.  It  also  shows  that  the  animal  belongs  to  a 
distinct  breed  possessing  to  some  extent  at  least  the  prepotency  of  the 
breed.  It  should  also  guarantee  to  some  extent  individual  prepo- 
tency. To  insure  both  breed  and  individual  prepotency,  the  pedi- 
gree should  contain  the  record  of  animals  having  individual  excel- 
lency both  as  near  and  distant  ancestors.  This  condition  should 
exist  on  the  dam's  side  as  well  as  on  the  sire's  side  of  the  pedigree. 
A  pedigree  tells  the  story  of  the  animal's  breeding  and  is  of  value 
according  to  the  story  that  it  tells.  If  it  tells  that  many  excellent 
animals  occur  all  along  the  line  both  as  near  and  remote  ancestors, 
the  story  is  a  good  one ;  if  but  few  excellent  animals  are  in  the  record 
and  they  are  very  remote,  the  pedigree  can  not  be  said  to  be  desirable. 

Irnportance  of  Liberal  Feeding. — In  the  improvement  of  our 
domestic  animals  breeding  and  feeding  have  gone  hand  in  hand 
wherever  marked  success  has  been  attained.  Almost  without  excep- 
tion a  considerable  part  of  the  improvement  has  been  due  to  the  skill 
of  the  feeder.  One  is  almost  sure  to  fail  of  success  if  he  depends  upon 
blood  alone  in  the  improvement  of  his  stock.  The  use  of  an  im- 
proved sire  endows  the  progeny  with  a  propensity  to  develop  char- 
acter and  qualities  akin  to  his  own  and  of  the  breed  he  represents, 
but  these  desirable  qualities  can  not  properly  develop  unless  the 
progeny  is  given  suitable  food,  care  and  shelter.  The  negligent 
farmer  is  careless  of  his  stock  and  maintains  them  under  conditions 
in  which  lasting  improvement  is  impossible.  Should  he  introduce 
improved  blood  in  his  flock  or  herd,  as  the  case  may  be,  without 
improved  feeding  and  care,  improvement  will  be  noticed  for  a  time, 
but  will  gradually  disappear  until  it  sinks  to  the  level  that  his  food 
and  care  will  maintain.  As  the  spring  will  not  rise  higher  than  its 
source,  so  neither  can  improved  breeds  be  maintained  at  a  higher 


26  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

state  of  efficiency  than  food  and  care  which  they  receive  will  support. 
—  (Wis.  B.  127.) 

THE  STALLION  SITUATION  ABROAD. 

It  may  be  asserted  as  a  fact  that  in  all  foreign  countries  noted 
for  one  or  more  pure  breeds  of  horses,  practically  no  scrub,  grade,  or 
non-registered  stallions  are  used  for  public  service,  and  some  of  the 
foreign  governments  prohibit  the  use  of  such  horses. 

The  French  Government  for  over  a  hundred  years  has  main- 
tained stables  of  carefully  selected,  sound,  pure-bred  stallions  for 
breeding  purposes.  The  best  stallions  in  France  are  annually  chosen 
for  use  in  these  studs,  and  since  1885,  when  a  government  decree  to 
that  effect  was  promulgated,  all  stallions  not  coming  within  special 
classes  have  been  excluded  from  public  service.  The  classes  referred 
to  are  selected  by  government  veterinarians  who  inspect  all  horses 
and  grade  them  as  follows:  Subsidized  class,  comprising  stallions 
of  a  certain  standard  and  for  each  of  which  a  cash  bonus  of  from 
$60  to  $100  per  year  is  paid  to  the  owner  to  keep  the  animal  in  the 
country  for  use  by  owners  of  mares;  Authorized  class,  comprising 
horses  of  slightly  lower  quality  that  are  authorized,  after  passing 
inspection,  by  a  card  certifying  them  as  recommended  by  the  Gov- 
ernment for  use  as  sires;  Approved  class,  comprising  a  few  horses 
permitted  to  stand  for  service,  but  not  granted  a  bonus  or  recom- 
mendation card. 

In  Belgium  the  Government  has,  since  1850,  maintained  a 
great  horse  breeding  establishment  and  promotes  the  breeding  of 
pure-bred  Belgian  draft  horses  (Le  Oheval  de  trait  Beige)  by  an 
annual  grant  of  $5,000  to  the  official  draft  horse  registration  society, 
and  an  annual  appropriation  of  $70,000  to  encourage  the  horse 
breeding  industry  of  the  country.  Liberal  prizes  are  awarded  to 
mares  and  foals  at  shows  throughout  the  country;  stallions  are 
officially  examined  by  Government  experts,  and  both  approved 
stallions  and  mares  are  granted  maintenance  bounties  to  retain  them 
in  Belgium.  Under  such  auspices  horse  breeding  is  making  won- 
derful progress  and  only  pure-bred  stallions  are  in  use  for  service. 

In  Germany  Government  supervision  of  horse  breeding  has 
obtained  for  centuries  and  today  is  similar  to  that  in  vogue  in  Bel- 
gium, it  having  been  required  by  law  that  no  permits  should  be 
issued  authorizing  the  use  of  stallions,  unless  they  passed  a  satisfac- 
tory Government  inspection.  At  the  present  time  both  the  Govern- 
ment and  agricultural  societies  promote  intelligent  horse  breeding. 
•Prizes  are  awarded  for  animals  of  special  merit,  and  such  animals 
must  remain  in  the  country  for  a  specified  term.  First  prizes  are 
awarded  only  to  mature  horses  and  mares  that  have  shown  merit  as 
breeders.  Stallion  shows  have  long  been  held  at  Aurich  in  East 
Friesland,  where  the  horses  are  brought  annually  for  inspection  and 
approval.  Prizes  for  brood  mares  are  also  awarded  by  the 
Government. 

Somewhat  similar  supervision  of  horse-breeding  matters  is  under- 
taken by  the  Government  of  Austria  and  large  sums  of  money  are 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  27 

annually  devoted  to  the  encouragement  of  the  breeding  industry. 
In  Great  Britain  practically  all  farmers  recognize  the  importance 
of  using  pure-bred  sires  and  only  such  are  used  in  the  various  dis- 
tricts, whence  come  the  many  well-known  British  breeds  of  horses. 
In  Scotland  only  one  non-registered  stallion  has,  since  1900, 
been  reported  as  being  used  for  public  service  in  that  country.  The 
reasons  for  non-use  are  that  it  does  not  pay  to  breed  from  such 
horses,  their  stock  being  ineligible  to  record  and  as  a  rule  inferior 
to  horses  of  approved  breeding.  The  uniform  experience  of  breeders 
and  owners  of  Clydesdales  in  Scotland  is  that  during  the  period  of 
systematic  breeding  with  the  guidance  of  a  pedigree  record — that  is 
since  1878-1879 — the  average  quality  of  the  stock  has  increased  itt 
respect  to  uniformity  of  type,  soundness  of  feet  and  limbs,  and  gen- 
eral wearing  capacity. — (Wis.  B.  158.) 

MARKET  HORSES. 

For  a  number  of  years  there  has  been  an  increasing  demand  in 
the  United  States  for  the  various  classes  of  work  horses.  As  these 
horses  have  been  bred  more  extensively  in  certain  parts  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi valley  than  elsewhere  they  have  for  the  most  part  passed 
through  some  of  the  large  cities  where  open  markets  have  been  estab- 
lished, in  which  horses  are  bought  and  sold  as  a  commercial  com- 
modity at  values  regulated  by  supply  and  demand. 

It  should  not  be  inferred,  however,  that  the  supply  equals  the 
demand,  particularly  as  regards  the  quality  or  perfection  of  the 
animals  desired  by  the  purchaser,  neither  is  this  condition  of  affairs 
likely  to  be  realized  for  years  to  come.  There  are  two  causes  which 
tend  to  delay  the  breeder  in  fulfilling  the  demands  of  the  prospective 
purchaser.  First,  many  horses  that  eventually  find  their  way  to 
the  market  were  not  bred  for  any  particular  class,  in  other  words, 
many  breeders  have  not  been  striving  to  produce  horses  that  would 
meet  any  particular  market  requirements,  consequently  many 
horses  pa.ss  through  these  markets  that  fall  far  below  the  expectation 
of  the  intending  purchaser;  second,  the  horse  market  is  of  such  re- 
cent origin  that  the  standards  set  and  classes  made  by  these  open 
public  markets  are  not  clearly  understood  by  all  breeders  whose 
horses  eventually  find  other  owners  through  the  medium  of  the 
markets. 

While  horses  cannot  be  classified  in  the  market  as  definitely 
as  can  some  other  market  commodities,  for  where  two  classes  meet 
there  is  no  distinct  line  of  division,  yet  the  establishment  of  these 
classes  has  made  it  possible  for  the  farmer  to  better  understand  the 
use  for  which  his  horses  are  best  adapted  and  also  enables  him  to 
better  estimate  their  true  value. 

No  better  advice  can  be  given  the  farmer  and  horse-grower  than 
to  become  better  (best)  posted  as  to  the  requirements  of  the  horse 
markets.  The  average  farmer  now  understands  well  enough  how  to 
raise  horses  of  the  best  breeds,  but  he  may  not  understand  that  cer- 
tain markets  are  steady  in  their  demands  for  horses  of  certain  types, 
breeds  or  ages.    By  studying  these  markets  he  learns  what  is  wanted. 


28 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


A    BRIEF    STATEMENT    OF    MARKET    CLASSES   WITH    LIMITS    IN    HEIGHT    AND 

WEIGHT. 


Classes. 


DRAFT  HORSES. 


CHUNKS. 


WAGON  HORSES. 


CARRIAGE  HORSES. 


ROAD  HORSES, 


SADDLE  HORSES. 


MINING  MULES 
COTTON  MULES 
SUGAR  MULES  . . 
FARM  MULES   .. 
DRAFT  MULES    . 


Sub-Classes. 


^Light  Draft  . 
Heavy  Draft 
Loggers  


Eastern  and  Export        ) 
Chunks    ) 


Farm  Chunks 

Southern  Chunks  . . . 

'Expressers    

Delivery  Wagon  .... 
Artillery  Horses   . . . 

Fire  Horses  

Coach  

Cobs 

Park  Horses 

Cab    

f Runabout   

Roadster   

Five  Gaited  Saddler. 


{ 


Three  Gaited    )    Light ) 
Saddler    ]  Heavy  J 

(Light     ) 
Hunters   <  Middle  >   . . , . 
(  Heavy   ) 


Cavalry  Horses 
Polo  Ponies   .  . 


Height 
Hands. 


15-3  to  16-2 
16  to  17-2 
16-1  to  17-2 

15      to   16 

15  to  15-3 

15  to  15-3 

15-3  to  16-2 

15  to  16 

15-1  to  16 

15  to  17-2 

15-1  to  16-1 

14-1  to  15-1 

15  to  15-3 

15-2  to  16-1 

14-3  to  15-2 

15  to  16 

15  to  16 

14-3  to  16 

15-2  to  16-1 

15  to  15-3 
14   to  14-2 
12   to  16 
13-2  to  15-2 

16  to  17 
15-2  to  16 
16   to  17-2 


Weight 
Pounds. 


1600  to  1750 
1750  to  2200 
1700  to  2200 

1300  to  1550 

1200  to  1400 

800  to  1250 

1350  to  1500 

1100  to  1400 

1050  to  1200 

1200  to  1700 

1100  to  1250 

900  to  1150 

1000  to  1150 

1050  to  1200 

900  to  1050 

900  to  1150 

900  to  1200 

900  to  1200 

1000  to  1250 

950  to  1100 
850  to  1000 

600  to  1350 
750  to  1100 

1150  to  1300 
900  to  1250 

1200  to  1600 


—  (111.  B.  122.) 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  29 

MARKET    REQUIREMENTS. 

The  factors  that  determine  how  well  horses  sell  upon  the  mar- 
ket are:  Soundness,  conformation,  quality,  condition,  action,  age, 
color,  education,  and  general  appearance.  To  meet  the  market  de- 
mand, a  horse  should  be  serviceably  sound,  by  which  is  meant  one 
that  is  as  good  as  a  sound  horse  so  far  as  service  is  concerned  and 
able  to  do  a  reasonable  amount  of  work  without  undue  fatigue  or 
indications  of  a  premature  break-down.  He  may  have  slight  blem- 
ishes, but  nothing  is  permitted  that  is  likely  to  cause  lameness  or 
soreness  in  any  way.  He  must  be  good  in  wind  and  eyes,  but  may 
have  small  splints  and  puffs,  and  a  little  rounding  on  the  curb  joint. 
Broken  wind,  thick  wind,  side  bones,  unsound  hocks  such  as  curbs, 
spavins,  and  thoroughpins,  large  splints,  and  buck  knees  are  dis- 
criminated against.  If  a  horse  is  to  do  hard  work  with  a  minimum 
amount  of  wear  and  give  the  longest  possible  period  of  service  he 
must  possess  a  conformation  indicative  of  strength,  endurance,  and 
longevity,  the  indications  of  which  are — good  feet,  a  good  constitu- 
tion, good  feeding  qualities,  good  bone,  and  symmetry  of  confor- 
mation. For  city  use  too  much  emphasis  can  hardly  be  placed  upon 
the  requirement  of  good  feet,  for  the  old  adage,  no  foot,  no  horse, 
is  still  true ;  but  in  horses  for  farm  use  it  is  not  so  important  as  they 
rarely  break  down  in  the  feet.  A  good  constitution  denotes  health 
and  endurance  which  is  indicated  by  a  deep,  capacious  chest  giving 
sufficient  room  for  well  developed  vital  organs.  Endurance  is  also 
evidenced  by  the  indications  of  a  good  feeder,  which  are  a  short 
well  muscled  back  and  loins,  a  deep  barrel  with  no  tucking  up  of 
the  rear  flank,  and  closely  coupled  (coupling  is  the  distance  from 
the  last  rib  to  the  hip).  A  good  bone  should  have  enough  weight 
to  correspond  with  the  size  of  the  horse ;  it  should  be  of  good  quality 
and  must  not  be  unduly  small  at  knee  or  hock.  Symmetry  of  form 
is  necessary  for  strength,  correct  proportions,  and  perfect  devel- 
opment. 

In  order  that  there  may  not  be  an  undue  amount  of  concussion 
which  would  produce  soreness  or  disease  and  render  the  period  of 
usefulness  of  the  horse  short,  he  should  have  an  oblique  shoulder, 
a  rather  short  cannon,  a  moderately  long  pastern  set  at  an  angle  of 
about  45  degrees.  The  hind  pastern  should  be  less  oblique  than 
the  front  pastern  with  no  tendency  toward  a  conformation  known 
as  coon  footed  (long  and  very  low  pasterns).  The  foot  should  be  of 
good  size,  the  horn  dense,  the  heel  wide  and  high,  permitting  a 
large  healthy  frog  to  serve  as  a  cushion  in  breaking  concussion. 
Side  bones  are  an  unsoundness  found  most  commonly  on  heavy 
horses.  They  are  more  often  found  on  a  horse  with  a  straight 
shoulder,  a  short,  straight  pastern,  and  a  narrow  hoof  head,  as 
horsemen  would  say,  a  post  leg  that  produces  stilted  action.  Since 
the  forequarters  or  front  limbs  of  a  horse  carry  the  greater  part  of 
the  horse's  weight  they  are  often  termed  the  weight  carriers,  and  the 
hind  quarters  the  propellers.  Because  of  this  fact  the  set  of  the 
shoulder,  pastern,  and  foot  is  of  great  importance  and  should  pos- 
sess enough  obliquity  to  give  a  free,  easy  movement  to  the  action. 


30  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

The  width  of  the  hips  should  be  in  keeping  with  the  other  parts  o! 
the  horse,  but  not  prominent.  The  croup  should  be  long,  well  mus- 
cled and  not  too  drooping.  The  seriousness  of  the  objection  to  a 
drooping  croup  will  depend  upon  the  class,  but  in  any  class  it  is 
unsightly  and  detracts  from  the  value  of  the  horse.  The  tail  should 
be  set  high,  well  haired  and  stylishly  carried.  The  quarters  and 
thighs  should  be  heavily  muscled  according  to  the  class  to  which 
the  horse  belongs;  the  hocks  large,  strong,  and  free  from  puffs  or 
any  unsoundness ;  the  cannon  short  and  broad,  the  tendons  and  liga- 
ments prominent  and  well  defined.  There  should  be  no  tying-in  of 
the  tendons  below  the  knee  or  hock,  because  it  gives  a  light  appear- 
ance to  the  bone.  The  head  should  be  of  moderate  size  with  clean 
cut  features ;  large,  mild  eyes ;  ears  rather  small  and  set  not  too  far 
apart.  The  head  should  be  properly  set  on  a  neck  of  moderate  length 
with  a  rather  thin,  well  developed  crest.  A  large  horse  with  a  small 
head  is  almost  as  unsightly  as  a  small  horse  with  a  large  one.  A  long- 
legged,  narrow-chested,  wasp-waisted,  loose-ribbed,  long-coupled 
horse  is  always  to  be  avoided  and  is  a  cheap  animal  on  the  market. 
The  different  classes  possess  special  requirements  of  conformation 
which  will  be  discussed  in  detail  elsewhere  in  this  bulletin. 

Quality. — Quality  in  a  horse  is  of  prime  importance.  This 
term  when  applied  to  horses  has  reference  to  their  bones,  skin,  hair, 
and  muscles.  Its  presence  is  shown  by  clean  cut  features  of  the 
head;  firm,  clean  bone;  tendons  well  defined;  close  fitting  glove-like 
skin;  hair  fine  and  silky;  an  abundance  of  finish;  and  absence  of 
coarseness,  but  not  necessarily  a  small  bone.  When  slightly  exerted 
the  skin  will  show  clearly  an  intricate  net  work  of  veins.  Coarse 
hair  is  usually  associated  with  a  coarse  skin  and  a  soft  spongy  bone 
which  is  weak  and  subject  to  disease.  With  quality  the  muscles 
stand  out  prominently  and  are  clearly  defined  which  aids  in  giving 
a  horse  finish.  Quality  is  a  strong  indication  of  the  extent  of  a 
horse's  endurance.  These  two  characteristics  are  closely  associated 
and  a  horse  lacking  in  quality  is  comparatively  a  cheap  animal. 

Condition. — To  be  appreciated  on  the  market  horses  must  be 
in  ^ood  condition,  carrying  a  thick  covering  of  firm  flesh  and  pos- 
sessing a  good  coat  of  hair  which  gives  them  a  sleek  appearance. 
Condition  is  most  important  in  heavy  horses  such  as  draft  horses, 
chunks  and  wagon.  Some  men  are  making  good  profits  by  buying 
feeders  on  the  market  and  shipping  them  to  the  country  to  be  put  in 
condition,  after  which  they  are  reshipped  and  resold.  Whether  or 
not  this  added  flesh  increases  the  animal's  real  value  for  utility  and 
longevity  is  not  necessary  to  consider  here;  since  the  market  de- 
mands it,  the  producer  can  well  afford  to  supply  it.  Careful  esti- 
mates on  the  value  of  horse  flesh  made  by  reliable  authorities,  put 
it  at  25  cents  per  pound  on  heavy  horses  weighing  1500  pounds  and 
upward.  This  fact  has  been  verified  by  an  experiment  in  fattening 
horses  for  market  conducted  at  this  station.  It  can  readily^  be  seen 
that  the  producer  cannot  afford  to  let  some  one  else  reap  this  profit. 

Action. — ^The  action  of  a  horse  is  not  of  equal  importance  in 
all  classes.    There  is  probably  no  other  one  thing  that  counts  for 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  31 

more  in  bringing  high  prices  in  the  carriage,  road,  and  saddle 
classes  than  action.  In  the  other  classes  it  does  not  count  for  bo 
much,  but  every  horse  should  have  good  action.  He  should  be  a 
straight  line  mover,  picking  his  front  feet  up  and  carrying  them 
straight  forward,  placing  them  down  again  without  winging  out  or 
in,  or  interfering.  The  hind  feet  should  follow  in  the  line  of  the 
front  feet,  and  work  in  unison  without  interfering,  hitching,  cross- 
firing,  or  forging.  The  action  should  be  strong,  bold  and  full  of 
energy ;  the  form  and  height  of  action  will  depend  upon  the  class  to 
which  the  horse  belongs.  This  subject  will  be  taken  up  more  fully 
under  various  classes. 

Age. — Horses  sell  best  from  five  to  eight  years  old,  depending 
upon  the  class,  maturity,  and  soundness.  Heavy  horses  such  as 
draft  and  chunks  sell  best  from  five  to  seven  years  old,  but  a  well 
matured  four-year-old  in  good  condition  will  find  ready  sale.  Car- 
riage, saddle,  and  road  horses  sell  better  with  a  little  more  age  be- 
cause they  do  not  mature  so  early  and  their  education  is  not  com- 
pleted as  young  as  with  heavy  horses.  They  are  most  desired  from 
five  to  eight  years  old. 

Color. — As  a  rule  the  color  of  horses  is  not  an  important  re- 
quirement if  they  possess  individual  excellence.  Almost  any  solid 
color  is  not  objected  to  on  the  market  unless  it  is  by  a  purchaser 
who  has  a  special  order  to  fill.  However,  more  discrimination  is 
made  against  color  in  light  horses  than  in  heavy  horses.  The  rea- 
son for  this  is  that  the  one  is  for  business  and  utility  purposes,  while 
the  other  is  principally  for  dress  and  pleasure.  There  is  also  more 
discrimination  made  in  color  of  animals  that  grade  as  choice  than 
there  is  in  those  that  grade  as  medium  and  good.  All  solid  colors 
except  white  are  in  good  demand,  while  a  flea-bitten  gray,  a  mealy 
bay  or  one  that  will  fade  or  wash  out  is  not  desirable.  Choice  steel 
gray,  dapple  gray,  and  strawberry  roan  horses  of  the  draft,  eastern 
chunk  and  wagon  horse  classes  are  in  strong  demand  from  show- 
men, pnckers,  brewers,  wholesale  mercantile  houses,  and  firms  who 
want  their  teams  to  attract  as  much  attention  as  possible  and  serve 
as  a  walking  advertisement.  The  demand  is  good  for  bays,  browns, 
blacks,  chestnuts,  sorrels,  and  roans;  matched  pairs  sell  better  than 
single  horses.  In  the  light  horses,  and  especially  in  the  carriage  and 
saddle  classes,  bays,  browns,  and  chestnuts  sell  best,  but  a  good 
pair  of  well  matched  blacks  or  iron  grays  find  ready  sale.  In  the 
fashionable  trade  a  white  horse  is  not  wanted  except  for  hearse  pur- 
poses and  to  fill  an  occasional  demand  for  a  cross  match  coaching 
team.  A  more  popular  hearse  horse  is  coal  black  with  no  white 
markings,  and  he  must  also  have  a  long  flowing  tail.  Occasionally 
they  are  accepted  when  slightly  marked  with  white  which  is  less 
objectionable  on  the  hind  feet  than  in  the  face  or  on  the  front  feet. 

Education  and  Disposition. — Every  class  calls  for  a  horse  of  good 
disposition  and  well  educated  for  his  work.  If  it  is  a  draft  horse  he 
should  be  a  free  worker  and  a  good  puller,  free  from  vice  and  bad 
habits.  If  it  is  a  carriage  horse  the  requirements  are  the  same  but 
he  should  be  much  better  educated  and  mannered,  and  should  bo 


32  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

indifferent  to  sights  and  sounds  such  as  cars,  automobiles,  etc., 
which  frighten  many  horses.  It  is  readily  apparent  that  a  thor- 
ough education  is  much  more  necessary  in  some  classes  of  horses 
than  others,  for  on  the  crowded  city  streets  where  there  are  often  large 
numbers  of  pedestrians  it  is  quite  necessary  and  essential  that  a 
horse  should  "keep  a  level  head." 

Sex. — Sex  is  not  of  great  importance  in  the  market;  however, 
geldings  sell  better  than  mares  for  city  use,  as  there  is  some  liabil- 
ity of  mares  being  in  foal,  and  if  not,  the  recurrence  of  heat  is  ob- 
jectionable; but  for  farm  use  and  the  southern  trade,  mares  are  pre- 
ferred because  farmers  buy  horses  with  the  expectation  of  breeding 
them. 

Breed. — ^The  breed  to  which  a  horse  belongs  has  but  little  in- 
fluence upon  his  market  value  as  long  as  he  has  individual  excel- 
lence; possessing  this  he  will  always  find  ready  sale  at  a  good  price. 
Some  buyers,  however,  do  discriminate  against  certain  breeds, 
claiming  they  are  more  subject  to  ills  and  lack  stamina;  but  this 
is  likely  to  be  due  to  individuality  more  often  than  to  breed.  If  a 
horse  belongs  to  the  draft  or  chunk  class  (Southern  chunks  ex- 
cited) he  is  the  more  appreciated  by  buyers  if  he  shows  evidence 
of  a  predominance  of  draft  blood. 

General  Appearance. — The  general  appearance  of  horses  has 
much  to  do  with  their  market  value.  If  able  to  shape  themselves 
well  in  harness  very  plain  horses  often  make  a  stylish  showing  and 
enchance  their  value  materially.  They  should  be  spirited  and 
energetic,  which  generally  comes  from  being  well  fed.  They  should 
be  well  groomed,  the  hair  short  and  sleek,  lying  close  to  the  body 
and  possessing  a  lustre  which  is  indicative  of  thrift.  Clipping  of 
the  foretops  and  limbs  should  not  be  practiced  as  it  is  an  indication 
of  staleness  or  second-hand  horses.  The  presence  of  the  foretop 
and  feather  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  freshness  from  the  country. 
An  exporter  remarked  to  the  writer  that  for  foreign  trade  it  de- 
preciated a  horse  $25.00  or  more,  to  remove  the  foretop.  The  pull- 
ing of  the  mane  and  docking  of  the  tail  should  not  be  practiced  as 
this  is  the  business  of  the  dealer  who  caters  to  a  certain  class  of 
trade.  The  feet  should  be  in  good  condition,  solid,  and  of  a  good 
length  hoof,  which  is  necessary  to  hold  a  shoe.  It  must  be  perfect- 
ly evident  that  if  a  dealer  retains  a  horse  until  he  grows  good  feet 
before  being  consigned  to  the  market  he  must  be  bought  corres- 
pondingly cheap  to  recover  this  loss. 

MARKET    CLASSES. 

A  market  class  is  an  outgrowth  of  a  demand  that  exists  for 
horses  of  a  certain  well  defined,  specified  type,  height,  weight,  con- 
formation, and  action.  If  a  demand  for  a  certain  class  should  cease 
to  exist  then  there  would  no  longer  be  such  a  market  class;  or  if 
there  should  arise  a  new  and  sufficient  demand  for  a  certain  type 
of  horse,  then  there  would  be  created  a  new  class.  The  use  to  which 
they  are  put,  in  a  large  measure,  is  responsible  for  and  determines 
the  different  market  classes.  On  the  Chicago  market,  which  is  the 
largest  horse  market  in  the  world  today,  are  found  six  distinct  mar* 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  35 

ket  classes,  and  these  classes  are  divided  into  sub-classes  which  are 
again  divided  into  grades.  The  classes  are  draft  horses,  chunks, 
wagon  horses,  carriage  horses,  road  horses,  and  saddle  horses. 

The  class  embodies  groups  of  horses  of  a  general  type,  while 
the  sub-class  is  a  division  of  the  class  and  distinguishes  horses  of  a 
similar  type  but  slightly  different  in  size,  weight  or  use  to  which 
they  are  put.  The  grades  (choice,  good,  medium,  common,  and 
inferior)  of  the  various  sub-classes  refer  to  quality,  conformation, 
action,  and  condition,  the  relative  importance  of  which  are  not  the 
same  in  all  classes.  In  draft  horses,  chunks,  and  wagon  horses,  the 
relative  importance  of  the  factors  are  as  in  the  order  named;  qual- 
ity, conformation,  condition,  style,  and  action ;  while  in  the  carri- 
age, road,  and  saddle  horse  classes  quality  is  followed  by  action, 
conformation,  and  condition.  A  horse  to  grade  as  choice  must  ap- 
proach the  ideal  type  of  conformation,  possess  quality  and  finish  to 
a  marked  degree,  have  style  and  action,  be  sound  and  in  good  con- 
dition. A  good  horse  should  possess  the  essential  qualities  of  his 
class  but  need  not  have  the  fineness  of  finish,  quality,  style,  action, 
and  condition  necessary  to  grade  as  choice.  A  horse  of  medium 
grade  is  likely  to  be  plain  in  his  make  up  with  a  tendency  toward 
coarseness  and  there  is  evidence  of  lack  of  quality,  finish,  and  sym- 
metry. In  the  case  of  a  light  horse  it  might  be  his  action  that 
would  place  him  in  this  grade.  Common  is  the  lowest  grade  found 
in  most  of  the  classes.  Such  a  horse  is  wanting  in  most  of  the  es- 
sentials that  go  to  make  him  dasirable.  An  inferior  horse,  as  the 
name  indicates,  is  of  the  lowest  grade. —  (111.  B.  122.) 

Draft  Horses. — Draft  horses,  whose  principal  work  is  to  haul 
heavy  loads  at  the  walk  are  divided  into  three  sub-classes:  Heavy 
Draft,  light  Draft  and  Loggers,  all  of  which  are  much  of  the  same 
type.  The  ideal  Drafter  is  a  rugged,  heavy  set,  compactly  built 
liorse  with  great  weight  and  strength.  Strength  and  endurance 
are  the  principal  c[ualities  sought  and  are  best  secured  by  the  horse 
throwing  weight  into  the  collar  rather  than  by  muscular  exertion 
of  the  limbs.  The  Drafter  should  be  a  broad  massive  individual 
with  symmetry  of  bone  and  muscle,  standing  from  15-3  to  17-2 
hands  high  and  in  good  flesh  weighing  not  less  than  1600  pounds 
for  the  lighter  sorts.  Since  he  does  his  work  by  throwing  weight 
into  the  collar  the  heavier  the  horse,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
more  efficient  he  will  be.  Along  with  weight  he  should  possess 
moderately  heavy  bone  with  quality,  indicating  sufficient  strength 
and  substance  to  carry  his  body  and  not  give  the  appearance  of 
being  top  heavy.  His  height  should  result  from  depth  of  body 
rather  than  length  of  leg;  in  fact  as  a  rule  the  medium  short  legged 
horses  possess  more  endurance  than  those  with  long  legs.  He 
should  be  broad  of  chest  with  a  large  girth  and  not  cut  up  in  the 
flank.  His  legs  should  set  well  under  his  body,  for  if  they  are 
otherwise  and  he  is  very  broad  he  will  likely  be  inclined  to  roll, 
causing  laborious  action.  The  back  and  coupling  should  be  short 
and  the  loin  broad  and  well  muscled,  this  region  being  the  connect- 
ing link  joining  the  propellers  to  the  weight  carriers.     The  hips 


36  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

should  be  rounding  and  smooth;  the  croup,  long  and  muscular; 
the  quarters,  deep;  the  thighs,  broad;  the  gaskins  and  cannons 
relatively  short.  The  head  should  be  medium  in  size  and  neatly  set 
on  a  neck  of  good  length  with  crest  moderately  heavy. — (111.  B.  122.) 

Action. — The  walk  is  the  principal  gait  to  be  considered  with 
Draft  horses  since  they  are  not  often  required  to  do  their  work  at 
a  faster  gait.  The  action  should  be  straight,  smooth,  and  regular; 
the  stride  long  and  open,  full  of  energy  and  ambition,  making  them 
fast  walkers,  and  enabling  them  to  cover  considerable  ground  in  a 
short  time.  The  trot  is  important  principally  as  an  index  to  the 
action  and  ease  of  deportment.  An  awkward  horse  or  one  that 
is  not  a  line  mover,  or  has  some  defect  in  his  gait  usually  shows  it 
more  readily  at  the  trot  than  at  the  walk. 

Demand. — Draft  horses  are  used  by  wholesale  mercantile 
houses,  packers,  brewei-s,  coal  dealers,  contractors,  lumbermen,  and 
firms  having  heavy  teaming  work.  They  are  in  demand  in  all 
large  cities.  New  York,  Chicago,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  Buffalo 
being  especially  active  in  the  trade.  The  supply  is  much  short 
of  the  demand,  causing  sharp  competition  and  consequently 
Drafters  are  bringing  good  prices  on  the  open  market. 

CHUNKS. 

Usage  has  fixed  the  name  of  this  class,  which  is  significant  of 
the  conformation  of  the  horse  rather  than  the  use  to  which  he  is 
put.  However,  the  prefix  given  in  the  sub-class  is  rather  indicative 
of  his  use.  Chunks  are  divided  into  three  sub-classes.  Eastern  or 
Export,  Farm  and  Southern.  At  one  time  this  class  was  known 
as  Boston  Chunks,  but  as  the  trade  has  widened  to  other  cities  and 
some  exported,  they  are  known  by  the  general  name  of  Eastern  or 
Export  Chunks.  They  are  most  generally  used  in  pairs  or  three 
abreast  to  do  the  same  work  as  Draft  horses;  but  may  be  used  in 
pairs,  in  a  four-in-hand  or  six-in-hand  team. 

ConjortAation,  Height  and  Weight. — The  Eastern  or  Export 
Chunk  is  for  the  most  part  much  the  same  type  of  a  horse  in  con- 
formation as  the  drafter  with  the  exception  of  size,  he  being  a  little 
more  blocky  and  compact.  He  stands  from  15  to  16  hands  high, 
usually  not  over  15-3,  and  weighs  from  1300  to  1550  pounds,  de- 
pending upon  size  and  condition.  His  neck  is  often  short,  a  little 
shorter  than  that  of  a  Drafter,  and  his  bone  a  little  lighter,  though 
this  is  not  a  requisite. 

Action. — Being  required  to  do  their  work  mostly  at  the  walk 
their  action  should  be  similar  to  that  of  a  draft  horse.  The  walk 
should  be  elastic,  quick,  balanced,  straight,  step  long,  trot  regular 
and  high  without  winging,  rolling,  interfering,  or  forging. 

Demand. — As  the  name  implies  Eastern  or  Export  Chunks  are 
bought  for  the  trade  of  eastern  cities  and  for  export.  The  demand 
is  strongest  during  March,  April,  and  May ;  but  they  usually  bring 
good  prices  through  the  fall  and  winter  months,  from  October  on. 
There  is  a  good  demand  for  those  that  grade  as  good  and 
choice,  but,  as  a  rule  there  are  enough  of  this  class  of  horses  in  the 
general  supply  found  on  the  market  to  meet  the  daman r^. 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  37 

FARM   CHUNKS. 

Horses  of  this  type  may  be  found  on  the  market  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  but  during  the  spring  months  they  form  an  important 
feature  of  the  trade.  They  are  bought  to  be  used  on  the  farm  and 
are  in  most  urgent  need  during  the  season  when  crops  are  being 
planted.  They  are  usually  of  mixed  breeding,  draft  blood  pre- 
dominating and  commonly  known  among  farmers  as  all  purpose 
horses.     Mares  are  more  generally  taken  than  geldings. 

Conformation,  Height  and  Weight. — For  this  class  low  down 
blocky  horses  are  wanted,  not  so  heavy  as  the  eastern  Chunks. 
Farm  Chunks  are  usually  lighter  in  bone  and  often  slightly  blem- 
ished or  unsound.  Since  farmers  do  not  usually  care  to  pay  for 
high  priced  horses  they  are  often  compelled  to  accept  those  with 
slight  injuries  such  as  small  side  bones,  curbs,  wire  marks,  etc. 
In  general  the  typical  Farm  Chunk  should  be  a  moderate  sized,  all- 
round  good  individual,  standing  from  15  to  15-3  hands  high  and 
weighing  from  1200  to  1400  pounds. 

Action. — Being  lighter  horses  than  the  Eastern  Chunks  they 
should  be  a  little  quicker  and  more  active  on  foot.  The  varied 
use  to  which  horses  are  put  on  the  farm  requires  that  they  be  able  to 
trot  readily  if  necessary.  However,  since  the  walk  is  their  most  im- 
portant gait,  they  should  be  good  walkers  and  do  it  with  ease  and 
rapidity  when  drawing  a  load. 

Demand. — Farm  Chunks  are  in  strongest  demand  during  the 
spring  months  of  February,  March,  and  April.  During  the  re- 
mainder of  the  year  they  are  slower  sale  and  some  of  the  better 
grades  having  heavy  bone  are  sold  as  Wagon  Horses. 

SOUTHERN  CHUNKS. 

Southern  Chunks  or  as  they  are  termed  in  some  markets, 
Southern  horees,  or  Southerns  are  small  horses  that  are  bought  by 
dealers  for  the  southern  markets,  many  of  them  going  to  Memphis, 
Tennessee;  Jacksonville,  Florida;  Atlanta,  Georgia;  Richmond  and 
Norfolk,  Virginia,  and  other  large  southern  towns.  They  are  used 
by  southern  planters  for  tilling  their  lands  and  for  dri\ang  and 
riding.  The  southern  fanner  does  not  cultivate  deeply  and  the  soils 
are  light  consequently  he  does  not  require  very  large  horses;  how- 
ever, each  year  the  trend  of  the  market  is  for  larger  horses  for  this 
trade. 

Conformation,  Height,  and  Weight. — Southern  Chunks  are 
small  horses  sending  from  15  to  15-3  hands  high  and  weighing 
from  800  to  1250  pounds.  They  are  rather  fine  of  bone  possessing 
an  abundance  of  quality,  and  are  more  rangy  in  conformation  than 
any  of  the  other  Chunks,  having  more  of  the  light  horse  blood. 
The  head  should  be  rather  small  and  neat,  and  the  neck  long  and 
slender,  the  ribs  well  spnmg,  giving  a  round  barrel,  and  neatly 
turned  over  the  hips  and  croup.  Many  of  them  are  similar  to  the 
cheaper  horses  used  on  the  light  delivery  wagons  of  cities.  Buyers 
for  the  best  grades  of  Southern  horses  are  very  particular  to  get 
sound,^  shapely,  voung  horses  of  the  very  best  quality,  and  not 
over  six  years  old.    Some  horses    in    the   common  and  inferior 


38  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

grades  are  slightly  blemished  or  may  have  a  little  more  age  than  is 
desired. 

Action. — Southern  Chunks  should  have  all-round  good  action. 
Because  of  the  fact  that  they  possess  more  of  the  light  horse  blood 
and  build  than  of  the  draft,  they  should  have  better  action  than 
either  Eastern  or  Farm  Chunks.  The  form  of  action  in  folding  of 
knees  and  flexing  of  hocks  should  be  much  the  same  as  in  Farm 
Chunks  except  that  there  should  be  more  snap  and  vigor  in  the 
movements  and  less  awkwardness. 

Demand. — The  supply  of  Southern  Chunks  being  larger  than 
the  demand  causes  them  to  sell  as  comparatively  cheap  horses.  As 
a  general  rule  the  demand  for  southern  horses  begins  in  September 
and  October  and  gradually  increases  until  January,  February  and 
March,  when  the  demand  is  greatest.  From  this  time  on  trade 
weakens,  the  summer  months  being  usually  dull,  and  revives  again 
in  the  autumn. 

WAGON  HORSES. 

Under  this  general  term  are  grouped  horses  which  are  used 
principally  where  business  requires  quick  delivery.  Such  horses 
must  be  closely  coupled,  compactly  built,  with  plenty  of  constitu- 
tion and  stamina.  They  must  be  good  actors,  have  a  good  clean  set 
of  limbs  with  plenty  of  hone  and  quality,  and  a  good  foot  that  will 
stand  the  wear  of  paved  streets.  In  this  class  are  Express  horses,  De- 
livery Wagon  horses,  Artillery  horses,  and  Fire  horses. 

EXPRESS    HORSES. 

Express  horses  are  used  by  express  companies  in  the  collecting 
and  delivering  of  goods  to  and  from  railroad  stations.  Different 
express  companies  use  horses  of  slightly  different  size  and  weight, 
this  being  determined  by  the  nature  and  weight  of  goods  handled 
and  territory  from  which  trade  is  drawn.  For  instance,  if  the  business 
of  a  company  is  centrally  located  in  a  city,  and  depots  are  not  far 
apart,  they  use  larger  horses  and  load  heavier  than  if  the  business  is 
done  in  the  outlying  parts  of  a  city,  and  the  depots  a  considerable  dis- 
tance apart,  in  which  case  lighter  horses  with  more  action  are  wanted. 
They  are  used  singly  or  in  pairs,  and  the  size  of  the  horse  will  depend 
on  the  weight  of  the  wagon  to  which  he  is  hitched.  The  lightest  ones 
are  called  money  horses,  as  they  are  hitched  to  the  lightest  wagons  to 
deliver  valuables,  this  kind  of  work  demanding  quick  service. 

Conformation,  Height,  and  Weight. — The  typical  Expresser  ig 
rather  an  upstanding,  deep  bodied,  closely  coupled  horse  with  good 
bone,  an  abundance  of  quality,  energy,  and  spirit.  He  should 
stand  from  15-3  to  16-2  hands  high  and  weigh  from  1350  to  1500 
pounds  in  good  flesh,  the  average  express  horse  being  16  to  16-1 
hands  high  and  weighing  around  1400  pounds  in  working  condi* 
tion.  His  head  should  be  neat,  his  neck  of  good  length  and  crest 
well  developed.  His  shoulder  should  be  obliquely  set,  coupled 
with  a  short,  well  muscled  back  and  strong  loin.  His  croup  should 
be  broad,  rounding  and  w^ell  muscled,  his  quarters  deep  and  thighs 
broad.     He  should  not  be  goose-rumped  nor  cut  up  in  the  flank. 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  39 

His  underpining  should  be  of  the  very  best,  his  cannons  broad  and 
clean,  and  hoofs  of  a  dense,  tough  horn  of  a  waxy  nature. 

Action. — The  Express  horse  is  required  to  do  his  work  both 
at  the  walk  and  trot,  the  latter  being  the  principal  gait.  He  should 
be  quick  and  active,  able  always  to  keep  his  feet  well  under  him 
and  throw  enough  weight  into  the  collar  to  move  a  heavy  load  at 
the  walk  or  a  lighter  load  at  the  trot.  As  in  the  previous  classes 
he  should  be  a  straight-line  mover  with  possibly  a  little  more  knee 
and  hock  action. 

DELIVERY    WAGON    HORSES. 

Delivery  Wagon  horses  or  as  they  are  often  termed  Wagon 
Horses  are  similar  to  the  Expressers,  but  the  class  is  broader  in 
its  scope,  including  horses  of  common  and  inferior  grades  as  well 
as  medium,  good,  and  choice.  Generally  speaking  they  are  not  so 
large  as  Expressers  and  not  as  high  grade  animals;  most  mercantile 
finns  are  not  such  liberal  buyers  and  consequently  they  get  a 
cheaper  grade  of  horses.  However,  this  is  not  always  true  as  some 
of  the  large  department  stores  whose  deliveries  serve  as  an  adver- 
tisement v\'ill  pay  more  for  the  very  best  than  express  companies, 
thus  getting  very  choice  animals. 

Conformation,  Height,  and  Weight. — The  conformation  re- 
quirements are  practically  the  same  as  for  Express  horses,  except 
they  are  not  quite  so  large,  standing  from  15  to  16  hands  and 
weighing  from  1100  to  1400  pounds. 

Action. — The  action  requirements  are  the  same  as  for  Express 
horses  in  most  cases,  though  some  are  not  so  good  actors. 

Demand. — The  demand  for  Express  and  Delivery  Wagon 
horses  is  good  at  all  times  of  the  year,  though  it  is  a  little  stronger 
prior  to  the  season  when  parcel-carting  is  greatest,  such  as  during 
the  Holiday  season  and  spring  months.  The  demand  for  good  to 
choice  Express  horses  is  greater  than  the  supply  and  as  a  result  the 
exprass  companies  are  obliged  to  purchase  from  other  grades  as  best 
they  can. 

ARTILLERY  HORSES. 

Artillery  horses  conform  very  closely  to  the  better  grades  of 
Delivery  Wagon  horses  of  the  same  weight.  The  following  speci- 
fications, prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  Quartermaster  Gen- 
eral of  the  United  States  War  Department,  clearly  set  forth  the  re- 
quirements. 

The  artillery  horse  must  be  sound,  well  bred,  of  a  superior 
class,  and  have  quality;  of  a  kind  disposition,  well  broken  to 
harness,  and  gentle  under  the  saddle  with  easy  mouth  and  gaits, 
and  free  and  prompt  action  in  the  walk,  trot,  and  gallop ;  free  from 
vicious  habits;  without  material  blemish  or  defect,  and  otherwise 
conform  to  the  following  descriptions: 

A  gelding  of  uniform  and  hardy  color,  in  good  condition; 
from  5  to  8  years  old;  weighing  from  1,050  pounds,  minimum 
weight  for  leaders,  to  1,200,  maximum  weight  for  wheelers,  depend- 
ing on  height,  which  should  be  from  15-1  to  16  hands. 

Head. — Small  and  well  set  on  neck;  with  ears  small,  thin,  neat, 


40  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

and  erect;  forehead  broad  and  full;  eyes,  large,  prominent  and 
mild,  with  well  developed  brow  and  fine  eyelid;  vision  perfect  in 
every  respect;  muzzle  small  and  fine;  mouth  deep;  lips  thin  and 
firmly  compressed;  nostril  large  and  fine;  and  branches  of  under- 
jaw  (adjoining  neck)  wide  apart. 

Neck. — Moderately  long  and  tapering  toward  the  head,  with 
crest  firm  and  longer  than  underside ;  mane  fine  and  intact. 

Withers. — Elevated,  not  unduly  fine,  well  developed  and  mus- 
cled. 

Shoulders. — Long,  oblique,  w^ell  packed  with  muscle,  not  too 
heavy,  smooth,  rounded,  and  so  formed  as  properly  to  support  the 
collar. 

Chest. — High,  wide,  very  deep;  plump  in  front,  and  full. 

Fore  Legs. — Vertical,  and  properly  placed;  with  elbow  large, 
long,  prominent,  clear  of  chest,  and  well  placed;  foreann  wide, 
thick,  long,  heavily  muscled,  and  vertical. 

Knees. — Neatly  outlined,  large,  prominent,  wide  in  front,  well 
situated,  and  well  directed. 

Back. — Short,  straight,  and  well  muscled. 

Loins. — Broad,  straight,  very  short  and  muscular. 

Barrel. — Large,  increasing  in  size  towards  flanks,  with  ribs 
well  arched  and  definitely  separated. 

Hind  Quarters. — Wide,  thick,  very  long,  full,  heavily  mus- 
cled, rounded  externally,  and  w^ell  directed. 

Tail. — Fine  and  intact;  well  carried  and  firm. 

Hocks. — ^Neatly  outlined,  lean,  large,  wide  from  front  to  rear, 
and  well  directed. 

Limbs. — From  knees  and  hocks  downward,  vertical,  short, 
wide  laterally,  with  tendons  and  ligaments  standing  well  out  from 
bone  and  distinctly  defined. 

Pasterns. — Strong,  medium  length,  not  too  oblique,  and  well 
directed. 

Feet. — Medium  size,  circular  in  shape,  sound;  with  horn  dark, 
smooth,  and  fine  of  texture ;  sole  moderately  concave,  and  frog  well 
developed,  sound,  firm,  large,  elastic,  and  healthy. 

Each  horse  will  be  subject  to  a  rigid  inspection,  and  any  animal 
that  does  not  meet  the  above  requirements  should  be  rejected. 

Demand. — The  demand  for  Artillery  horses  is  rather  spas- 
modic, at  some  times  being  much  greater  than  at  others.  Con- 
tracts are  given  to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder  to  supply  thern  in 
large  numbers  by  a  specified  time.  Because  of  the  rigid  examina- 
tion and  requirements  of  official  inspectors,  many  men  have  lost 
money  in  filling  contracts, — (111.  B.  122.) 

FIRE   HORSES. 

The  Fire  horse  is  more  rangy  in  conformation  than  the  Ex- 
presser,  he  being  required  to  throw  weight  into  the  collar  and  often 
to  take  long  runs.  The  limits  of  the  class  are  narrow,  there  being 
only  two  grades,  choice  and  good.  The  requirements  are  very  rigid, 
and  the  demand  limited,  coming  only  from  the  fire  companies  of 
the  cities, 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  41 

CARRIAGE  HORSES. 

This  cla^s  includes  Coach,  Cob,  Park,  and  Cab  horses.  As  the 
name  carriage  implies  (a  vehicle  for  conveying  people)  this  cla^s 
of  horses  is  used  on  the  various  heavy  weight  vehicles.  In  contra- 
distinction to  light  harness  horses  of  the  Road  class  they  are  often 
spoken  of  as  heavy  harness  horses.  They  are  smoothly  turned,  full 
made,  up-headed  horses  with  an  unusual  amount  of  quality  and 
must  possess  to  a  marked  degree,  high  action,  with  a  fair  amount  of 
speed.  The  neck  should  be  long  and  arched,  the  head  small  and 
clean  cut  with  a  neatly  set  ear.  The  shoulder  should  be  oblique  in 
order  to  enable  the  horse  to  bring  his  knees  as  high  as  possible. 
The  width  of  breast  should  be  in  keeping  with  the  conformation  of 
the  horse,  too  much  width  being  undesirable  as  well  as  too  little. 
The  body  should  be  of  good  depth  and  length ;  the  length  being  in 
a  long  croup  rather  than  a  long  back.  The  back  should  be  short 
and  well  muscled,  the  ribs  springing  well  from  the  spine,  giving  a 
round  barrel.  The  hips  should  be  rounding,  the  croup  well  mus- 
cled, the  tail  set  high,  and  the  quarters  deep.  The  limbs  should 
be  free  from  blemishes  or  unsoundness  and  possessing  an  abundance 
of  quality  with  plenty  of  substance.  In  addition  to  being  well 
muscled,  the  limbs  should  be  well  proportioned  in  length  of  fore- 
arm to  cannon  and  joined  to  olique  pasterns  and  good  feet. 

COACH  HORSES. 

Typical  Coachers  are  smoothly  turned,  full  made  horses,  with 
a  little  more  size  and  length  of  neck  than  other  horses  of  the  Car- 
riage class.  The  principal  requirement  is  high  action  combined 
with  beauty  of  form.  The  whole  outline  of  the  horse  should  be 
carried  out  in  easy,  graceful  curves,  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

Conformation,  Height,  and  Weight. — Coach  horses  should 
stand  from  15-1  to  16-1  hands  higli  and  weigh  from  1100  to  1250 
pounds.  The  weight  is  not  of  such  great  importance  with  Coach 
horses  as  with  Draft  and  Wagon  horses.  The  essential  thing  is  to 
get  a  horse  that  looks  right  and  proper  before  the  vehicle  to  which 
he  is  hitched;  for  instance,  the  most  desirable  height  for  a  park 
drag,  body  break  or  heavy  coach  is  15-3  to  16  hands  and  weighing 
around  1150  to  1200  pounds.  For  a  light  brougham  a  pair  of 
15-2  hand  horses  and  weighing  1100  pounds  is  more  appropriate. 
A  hearse  requires  a  horse  from  15-3  to  16-1  hands  and  weighing  1200 
to  1250  pounds.  The  Coach  horse  should  have  a  small,  neat  head, 
well  set  on  a  nicely  arched  neck,  free  from  stagginess.  He  should 
have  high,  thin  withers  to  which  are  smoothly  joined  oblique 
shoulders.  The  forearm  should  bo  well  muscled,  the  cannon  of  me- 
dium length  and  broad,  to  which  is  joined  a  long  sloping  pastern 
with  a  good  foot.  The  foot  should  not  be  so  rounding  as  the  foot 
of  the  Draft  horse,  the  heel  should  be  high  and  wide,  giving  sufficient 
room  for  a  large  frog.  The  back  should  be  short,  the  body  deep, 
round  and  closely  coupled;  the  loins  short  and  broad.  The  hips  should 
be  nicely  rounded,  the  croup  wide,  muscular  and  not  drooping; 
the  tail  is  often  docked  and  set  for  fa'^hionable  trade,  but  when  left 
long  should  be  carried  gracefully.     A  common  fault  with  many 


42  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Coach  horses  is  a  short,  staggy  neck  turned  upside  'down,  a  flab  rib, 
a  long  back  and  a  goose  rump. 

Action. — Action  in  the  Coach  horse  is  one  of  the  most  essen- 
tial qualities  of  this  class.  An  individual  with  good  conformation 
will  be  a  comparatively  cheap  horse  if  he  is  very  deficient  in  style 
and  action ;  in  fact,  it  may  bar  him  from  being  classed  as  a  Coach 
horse  He  must  be  a  high  stepper  and  quick  in  his  movements, 
flexing  his  hocks  well  under  his  body,  folding  his  front  legs  well 
at  the  knees  and  carrying  them  high  toward  his  chin.  He  may  be 
said  to  be  a  little  more  stately  in  his  action  than  Cobs  and  Park 
horses.  In  comparison  with  the  action  of  the  trotting  horse  for 
speed,  he  should  be  shorter  in  his  stride,  lifting  his  knees  higher 
in  front  of  his  body,  and  not  dragging  his  hocks  behind.  The  de- 
mand is  for  trotters  only,  pacers  being  not  accepted  in  this  class. 

SADDLE    HORSES. 

The  requirements  for  Saddle  horses  are  sureness  of  foot,  ease 
of  carriage  to  the  rider,  good  manners,  and  ease  of  control.  To 
possess  these  requirements  they  must  have  an  oblique  shoulder  with 
a  moderately  long  sloping  pastern,  a  short  back,  and  a  trifle  more 
height  at  the  withers  than  on  the  hips.  The  head  should  be  neat, 
clean  cut,  and  attractive,  set  on  a  moderately  long  neck.  The  fore- 
head should  be  broad  and  there  should  be  good  width  between  the 
jaw-bones.  The  length  of  neck  is  important  as  a  long  neck  is 
usually  more  supple  and  renders  the  mouth  more  flexible,  which  is 
necessary  for  ease  of  handling  and  smoothness  of  carriage.  A  horse 
that  is  a  lugger  cannot  possess  the  good  qualities  he  otherwise 
would.  The  croup  should  be  long,  muscular,  and  not  drooping, 
with  neatly  set  tail.  His  limbs  should  be  strong  and  clean,  and 
his  action  quick  and  graceful.  This  class  is  composed  of  Five 
Gaited  Saddlers,  Three  Gaited  Saddlers,  Hunters,  Cavalry  horses 
and  Polo  ponies. 

FIVE  GAITED  SADDLE  HORSES. 

Five  Gaited  Saddle  horses,  sometimes  spoken  of  as  gaited 
Saddle  horses  or  American  Saddle  horses,  are  distinctly  an  American 
product.  A  recognized  type  has  been  brought  about  by  skillful  selec- 
tion and  breeding  for  more  than  half  a  century.  The  principal  re- 
quirements are  that  they  possess  at  least  five  of  the  recognized  distinct 
gaits  under  the  saddle,  viz.,  walk,  single-foot,  or  rack,  running-walk 
or  fox-trot,  trot,  and  canter. 

Conformation,  Height,  and  Weight. — The  Five  Gaited  Saddler 
should  stand  from  15  to  16  hands  high  and  w^eigh  from  900  to  1200 
pounds,  the  most  desirable  height  being  15-2  to  15-3  hands  and 
weight  around  1,050  to  1,150  pounds.  He  should  be  of  a  kind  dis- 
position, have  a  good  mouth,  possess  courage  and  ambition,  and 
the  conformation  of  a  weight  carrier.  His  head  should  be  fine, 
clean  cut,  and  breedy  looking,  his  neck  long,  arched,  and  set  on  an 
oblique  shoulder  with  muscles  extending  well  into  the  back,  the 
withers  high  and  well  finished.  An  oblique  shoulder  is  imperative 
or  he  will  not  be  able  to  go  the  required  gaits  with  ease  to  himself 
and  rider.     In  order  to  carry  weight  well  he  should  possess  a  strong 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  43 

level,  short  back  and  be  closely  coupled.  His  legs  and  quarters 
should  be  well  muscled,  croup  not  drooping,  and  he  should  carry 
a  long,  flowing  tail  (sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  water  spout  tail). 

Action. — The  action  of  a  Five  Gait^d  horse  should  be  free,  easy 
and  frietionless  with  no  inclination  to  mix  in  his  gaits.  The  walk 
and  trot  should  be  bold  and  vigorous,  the  stride  of  good  length  but 
not  unduly  long,  and  quick  to  recover.  The  action  need  not  be  ex- 
tremely high  but  he  should  keep  his  feet  well  under  his  body  at  all 
times  so  there  will  be  little  danger  of  stumbling  or  falling  in  case  he 
should  slip.  The  running-walk  is  discriminated  against  by  some  as 
it  is  claimed  to  be  conducive  to  stumbling.  The  rack  should  be 
regular  and  rhythmical  of  the  one,  two,  three,  four  order  and  should 
not  have  side  motion  in  either  feet,  legs  or  body,  which  produces 
roughness  when  going  fast.  In  cantering  the  horse  should  be  taught 
to  lead  with  either  leg  and  go  slow  or  fast  according  to  the  pleasure 
of  the  rider. 

Demand. — The  demand  for  Five  Gaited  horses  is  good  and 
comes  from  pleasure  seeking  equestrians,  cattlemen,  anny  officers, 
and  people  looking  for  easy  riding  horses.  They  are  produced 
largely  by  the  use  of  pure  bred  American  Saddle  horse  stock,  especi- 
ally on  the  sire's  side,  most  of  them  being  bred  in  Missouri,  Ken- 
tucky, Southern  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  some  in  other  states. 

CAVALRY    HORSES. 

American  horses  have  made  good  records  for  themselves  as 
faithful  and  enduring  servants  in  rank  and  file,  not  only  in  the 
American  navy  but  in  the  British  army  as  well.  During  the  Span- 
ish-American War  remounts  of  Uncle  Sam's  troups  which  were  sent 
to  the  Philippine  Islands  stood  service  so  well  under  trying  condi- 
tions that  the  British  Government  was  attracted  to  them.  When 
the  South  African  war  broke  out  the  English  Government  executed 
large  orders  for  American  horses  to  be  sent  to  South  Africa  as  Troop- 
ers. Here  they  maintained  their  supremacy  and  as  a  result  large 
numbers  have  been  taken  to  England  w^here  they  came  in  competi- 
tion with  English  horses  on  their  native  soil. 

Many  of  the  Cavalry  horses  selected  for  export  have  been  range 
bred  and  not  of  the  best  type  and  conformation.  In  comparison 
with  the  Cavalry  horses  selected  by  the  United  States  Government 
for  anny  use  most  of  them  would  grade  as  common  and  medium, 
and  a  few  grade  as  good.  The  Quartermaster  General  of  the  war 
department  has  sent  out  the  following  specifications  as  the  require- 
ments for  an  American  Cavalry  horse: 

The  Cavalry  horse  must  be  sound,  well  bred,  of  a  superior  class, 
and  have  quality;  gentle  and  of  a  kind  disposition;  thoroughly 
broken  to  the  saddle,  with  light  and  elastic  mouth,  easy  gaits,  and 
free  and  prompt  action  at  the  walk,  trot,  and  gallop ;  also  free  from 
\'icious  habits,  without  material  blemish  or  defect ;  and  otherwise  to 
conform  to  the  following  description:  A  gelding  of  uniform  and 
hardy  color,  in  good  condition ;  from  four  to  eight  years  old ;  weigh- 
ing from  950  to  1,100  pounds,  depending  on  height,  which  should  be 
from  15  to  15-3  hands. 


44  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Head. — Small  and  well  set  on  neck ;  with  ears  small,  thin,  neat 
and  erect ;  forehead  broad  and  full ;  eyes  large,  prominent,  and  mild, 
with  well  developed  brow  and  fine  eyelid;  vision  perfect  in  every 
respect;  muzzle  small  and  fine;  mouth  deep;  lips  thin  and  firmly 
compressed;  nostrils  large  and  fine,  and  branches  of  under  jaw  (ad- 
joining neck)  wide  apart. 

Neck. — Light,  moderately  long,  and  tapering  toward  the  head, 
with  crest  firm  and  longer  than  underside;  mane  fine  and  intact. 

Withers. — Elevated,  not  unduly  fine,  well  developed  and 
muscled. 

Shoulders. — Long,  oblique  and  well  muscled. 

Chest. — Full,  very  deep,  moderately  broad,  and  plump  in  front. 

Fore  Legs. — ^Vertical,  and  properly  placed;  with  elbow  large, 
long,  prominent,  and  clear  of  chest ;  forearm  large  at  the  elbow,  long 
and  heavily  muscled. 

Knees. — Neatly  outlined,  large,  prominent,  wide  in  front,  well 
situated,  and  well  directed. 

Black. — Short,  straight,  and  well  muscled. 

Loins. — Broad,  straight,  very  short,  and  muscular. 

Barrel. — Large,  increasing  in  size  toward  the  flanks,  with  ribs 
well  arched  and  definitely  separated. 

Hind  Quarters. — Wide,  thick,  very  long,  full,  heavily  muscled, 
rounded  externally,  and  well  directed. 

Tail. — Fine  and  intact,  well  carried  and  firm. 

Hocks. — Neatly  outlined,  lean,  large,  wide  from  front  to  rear, 
well  situated,  and  well  directed. 

Limbs. — From  knees  and  hocks  downward  vertical,  short,  wide, 
laterally,  with  tendons  and  ligaments  standing  well  out  from  bone 
and  distinctly  defined. 

Pasterns. — Strong,  medium  length,  not  too  oblique,  and  well 
directed. 

Feet. — Medium  size,  circular  in  shape,  sound ;  with  horn  dark, 
smooth,  and  of  fine  texture;  sole  moderately  concave,  and  frog  well 
developed,  sound,  firm,  large,  elastic,  and  healthy. 

Each  horse  will  be  subjected  to  a  rigid  inspection,  and  any  ani- 
mal that  does  not  meet  the  above  requirements  should  be  rejected. 

Demand. — Cavalry  remounts  for  the  United  States  War  De- 
partment are  purchased  as  needed  through  contract  orders,  the  con- 
tract being  let  to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder.  In  filling  orders 
dealers  are  often  obliged  to  educate  many  of  the  recruits  to  the  sad- 
dle in  order  to  meet  the  specified  requirements.  During  the  five 
years  1901  to  1905  there  have  been  purchased  11,496  horses,  or  an 
average  of  2,299  per  year.  The  largest  purchase  in  a  single  year 
was  in  1901  when  4,179  head  were  secured.  The  Cavalry  horse  is  a 
closely  built,  compact  animal  with  plenty  of  substance  and  quality. 
—(111.  B.  122.)  ^ 

GLOSSARY  OF  SOME  HORSE  AND  MULE  MARKET  TERMS. 

A  bull. — A  horse  so  windy  that  he  cannot  stand  much  exertion 
without  choking. 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  45 

A  few  hairs  off. — A  skin  blemish  not  haired  over;  usually  a 
wire  mark  which  may  be  either  large  or  small. 

A  hole  in. — Used  in  speaking  of  an  animal  that  is  believed  to 
be  defective  in  some  manner  but  which  at  present  is  not  apparent. 

An  Indian. — A  wild  or  vicious  horse  difhcult  to  handle  in  or 
out  of  the  stall. 

At  the  halter. — See  No.  6,  auction  rules. 

Beefy  hocks. — Thick  meaty  hocks  lacking  in  quality. 

Bench  legged. — See  knock  kneed. 

Blue  eye. — An  unsound  eye  with  blue  appearance.  The  sight 
may  or  may  not  be  entirely  gone. 

Bobber  or  jig  back. — A  horse  or  mule  that  wobbles  in  hind 
quarters  when  he  moves,  due  to  an  unsound  or  weak  back  in  the 
region  of  the  loin. 

Boggy  in  hocks. — Bog  spavins. 

Bow  legged. — Too  wide  apart  at  the  knees,  the  opposite  of  knock 
kneed. 

Bowed  tendon. — An  enlarged  tendon  back  of  the  cannon  due 
to  an  injury. 

Broken  knees. — Knees  which  have  had  the  skin  broken  from 
a  fall  or  a  bruise  and  much  enlarged. 

Buck  kneed. — Knees  bent  forward  when  standing. 

Bull  pen. — An  auction  ring  at  any  market  where  horses  are 
sold. 

Bush. — To  deduct  a  part  of  a  stated  sale  price  on  account  of  a 
blemish  or  unsoundness  not  mentioned  or  not  apparent  at  time  of 
sale,  or  for  other  reasons. 

Calf  kneed. — Knees  bent  too  far  back, — the  opposite  of  buck 
kneed. 

Capped  hock. — The  point  of  the  hock  back  of  the  web  enlarged. 
Caused  by  a  bruise  of  the  bursa. 

Car  bruised. — Bruised  in  car  in  shipping.  If  freshly  done  swell- 
ing and  inflammation  will  be  present. 

Cartilage. — Prominent  lateral  cartilage  or  incipient  side  bone. 

Chancy. — Purchased  at  a  moderate  price  because  of  an  uncer- 
tainty with  prospects  for  developing  into  something  good. 

Cock  ankle. — Standing  bent  forward  on  the  fetlocks, — more 
often  on  the  hind  ones. 

Coon  footed. — Long  and  very  low  pasterns. 

Coupling. — The  space  or  connection  between  the  dorsal  verte- 
brse  and  the  pelvis  on  top  of  the  back.  An  animal  that  has  a  long 
coupling  is  too  long  in  the  lumbar  vertebraj.  This  is  best  measured 
by  the  distance  of  last  rib  from  hip. 

Cow  hocked. — Standing  with  hocks  together  and  hind  toes  out. 

Crampy. — In  hind  legs — raising  either  one  or  both  legs  up 
with  a  jerk.  More  apparent  when  the  animal  has  been  standing 
and  is  cool. 

In  the  back. — When  the  head  is  elevated  and  the  animal  is  com- 
pelled to  move  backward  he  raises  his  tail  and  shows  a  quivering  of 
the  flanks,  soreness  of  the  loin  and  an  inclination  to  drag  his  feet. 


46  D03IESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Cribber. — An  animal  having  the  vice  of  biting  or  setting  the 
teeth  against  something  and  "sucking  wind." 

Cross  firing. — Hitting  one  of  the  fore  feet  with  the  opposite 
hind  foot  when  traveling. 

Curb. — An  injury  or  sprain  of  the  ligament  at  the  back  of  the 
hock  which  usually  causes  an  enlargement. 

Curby  hock. — The  back  of  the  hock  is  rounding  when  viewed 
from  the  side. 

Cushion. — An  enlarged  bursa  occurring  just  below  the  hock 
near  the  forward  edge  on  the  outside  of  the  cannon.  A  Michi- 
gan pad. 

Cutting. — Interfering. 

Docked. — Having  the  end  of  the  tail  cut  off. 

Docked  and  set. — By  an  operation  the  end  of  the  tail  is  cut  off 
and  the  stump  is  set  up. 

Dummy. — A  horse  whose  brain  is  affected,  the  cause  usually 
being  overfeeding  and  lack  of  exercise.  The  symptoms  are  listless- 
ness  and  hesitancy  in  moving;  a  vacant  stare  in  the  eyes  and  a 
proneness  to  cock  the  ears  and  look  sideways  and  upward ;  also,  the 
holding  of  hay  and  feed  in  the  mouth  without  any  attempt  at  mas- 
tication. 

Ewe  neck. — A  deficiency  of  muscling  causing  a  depression  at 
the  top  of  the  neck  just  in  front  of  the  withers. 

Falls  out  of  bed. — Pulls  back  on  halter  rope. 

Feather  in  eye. — A  mark  across  the  eyeball  not  touching  the 
pupil,  often  caused  by  an  injury.  It  may  or  may  not  impair  the 
sight. 

Filled  in  hocks. — May  mean  either  bog  spavins  or  thorough- 
pins  though  most  generally  the  former. 

Fistula. — Fistulous  withers.  An  abscess  occurring  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  withers. 

Forging. — Striking  the  front  shoes  with  the  toe  of  the  hind 
ones. 

Founder. — Inflammation  of  the  feet  causing  lameness.  Tech- 
nically known  as  laminitis. 

Glass-eye. — See  wall-eye. 

Goose  rump. — A  short  steep  croup  and  narrow  at  point  of  the 
buttock. 

Gristle. — An  incipient  side  bone. 

Halter  puller. — Pulls  back  on  halter  rope. 

Hand.— -4  inches.  Horses  are  measured  at  the  highest  point 
on  the  withers  in  terms  of  hands.  14-2  would  mean  14  hands  and 
2  inches,  or  58  inches. 

Heavey. — Having  the  heaves. 

Hipped. — Having  the  point  of  one  hip  broken  over  so  that  it 
appears  lower  than  when  normal.  It  does  not  materially  impair 
usefulness. 

Hitching. — Having  a  shorter  stride  in  one  hind  leg  than  the 
other. 

Hog  back. — A  reached  back,  the  opposite  from  sway  back. 

Hollow  back. — A  sway  back. 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  47 

Interfering. — Striking  the  fetlock  or  cannon  with  the  opposite 
foot  as  it  passes,  either  in  front  or  behind. 

Jack. — A  bone  spavin. 

Jibber. — An  unguidable  horse,  often  "green." 

Knee  banger. — One  that  interferes, — hitting  his  knees. 

Knee  sprung. — Over  on  the  knees  caused  by  relaxation  of  the 
extensor  muscles, — sometimes  spoken  of  as  buck  knees. 

Knock  kneed. — The  front  legs  bent  in  at  the  knees  with  feet 
wide  apart.    Sometimes  called  bench  legged. 

Legs  go. — See  No.  5,  auction  rules. 

Light  in  the  timber. — Light  boned,  especially  in  the  cannons. 

Little  green. — Not  thoroughly  broken.  Often  means  an  animal 
that  will  not  pull. 

Lugger. — One  that  pulls  or  lugs  on  the  bit. 

Lunker. — An  exceptionally  big  heavy  boned  horse. 

Makes  a  little  noise. — A  very  little  wmdy. 

Michigan  pad. — A  puff  or  cushion  that  occurs  just  below  the 
hock  on  the  outside  of  the  hind  cannon  near  the  forward  edge.  The 
same  as  outside  cushion. 

Moon  blindness. — Periodic  ophthalmia. 

Nicked. — An  operation  severing  the  cords  on  one  side  of  the 
tail  to  straighten  it. 

Nigger  heeled. — Front  toes  turned  out,  heels  in. 

Old  Skin  or  Skate. — A  worn  out  animal. 

Outside  Cushion. — The  same  as  cushion  or  Michigan  pad. 

Over  reach. — Reaching  farther  forward  with  the  hind  feet  in 
traveling  than  where  the  front  ones  were  picked  up. 

Paddle. — Winging  out  with  the  front  feet. 

Parrot  mouth. — The  upper  sub-maxillary  longer  than  the  lower 
jaw. 

Periodic  ophthalmia. — Inflammatory  affection  of  the  interior  of 
the  eye.  It  usually  disappears  in  a  week  or  ten  days  and  returns 
again  in  a  few  weeks.  The  cycles  are  often  completed  in  about  a 
month  and  because  of  this  fact  many  people  believe  the  trouble 
is  in  some  way  related  to  the  moon  changes,  hence  the  name  "moon 
blindness." 

Pig  eye. — A  small  eye  set  too  much  in  the  head  and  with  thick 
eyelids.  It  accompanies,  in  general,  animals  with  a  lymphatic  tem- 
perament and  with  imperfect  vision. 

Pigeon  toed. — Front  toes  turned  in, — the  opposite  of  nigger 
heeled. 

Pink  eye. — A  disease  causing  a  whte  scum  to  form  over  the 
eye,  often  causing  blindness. 

Poll  evil. — A  fistulous  condition  or  abscess  on  or  near  the  poll. 

Pones. — Lumps  of  fat  on  a  mule's  body. 

Posting. — Rising  and  falling  in  the  saddle  with  each  alterna- 
tive step  when  the  horse  is  trotting. 

Pujfs. — Wind  galls,  bog  spavins,  or  thoroughpins. 

Quarter  erack. — A  vertical  crack  on  the  side  of  the  hoof  often 
running  to   coronet. 


48  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Quittor. — A  fistulous  opening  upon  the  heel  or  coronary  band 
of  the  foot. 

Rat  tail. — A  tail  with  but  little  hair. 

Rejects. — ^Animals  not  filling  the  guaranty  and  consequently 
turned  back  on  the  hands  of  the  seller. 

Rickety. — The  same  as  bobber  or  jig  back. 

Ringbone. — A  bony  growth  on  the  upper  or  lower  pastern  bones 
and  most  always  causing  lameness. 

Ripper. — An  exceptionally  good  big  animal. 

Roach  back. — See  hog  back. 

Roarer. — Defective  in  wind.     Very  windy. 

Rough  behind. — Having  a  bone  spavin. 

Rounding  hock. — Having  a  curb. 

Sand  crack. — A  vertical  crack  in  the  middle  of  the  hoof  often 
running  to  coronet. 

Scalping. — When  speeding,  the  horse  strikes  the  front  side  of 
the  hind  coronet,  pastern  or  cannon  against  the  front  toe.  Also, 
applied  to  a  trader  that  buys  and  sells  animals  on  the  market. 

Seam  in  hoof. — A  scar  in  hoof  from  an  injury  of  some  kind, 
such  as  cracks,  wire  marks,  calks,  etc. 

Seedy  toe. — A  separation  of  the  walls  of  the  toe  from  the  sen- 
sitive laminae.    Very  often  the  end  of  the  toes  turn  slightly  up. 

Serpentine. — ^An  animal  that  extends  and  withdraws  his  tongue 
as  a  serpent. 

Serviceahly  sound. — See  No.  2,  auction  rules. 

Shoe  boil. — A  bruise  at  elbow  which  results  in  an  abscess, 
caused  from  the  animal  lying  on  his  foot  in  such  a  way  that  the 
heel  of  the  shoe  strikes  the  elbow. 

Sickle  hock. — Too  much  bend  in  the  hock.  A  conformation 
predisposed  to  curbs. 

Side  bone. — An  ossified  lateral  cartilage  occuring  on  either  side 
at  the  top  of  the  foot. 

Slab  sided. — Flat  ribbed. 

Smoke  his  pipe. — An  animal  with  lip  torn  where  the  bridle  bit 
rests. 

Sm/)ky  eye. — A  clouded  eye  with  whitish  appearance. 

Smooth  mouth. — An  aged  horse. 

Sound. — See  No.  1,  auction  rules. 

Speck  in  eye. — A  spot  on  the  eye  not  covering  the  pupil.  It 
may  or  may  not  impair  the  sight. 

Speedy  cutting. — Striking  the  inside  of  the  hind  cannon  against 
the  front  foot  as  the  hind  foot  is  brought  forward  and  passes  the 
front  foot  on  the  outside  in  over-reaching.  This  only  happens  in 
speedy  horses. 

Splay  footed. — ^Nigger  heeled. 

Splint. — A  bony  growth  on  the  cannon  bone  occurring  most 
often  on  the  front  legs  and  either  on  the  inside  or  out,  but  more 
often  on  the  inside. 

Stands  a  little  careless  in  front. — Knees  sprung  or  buck  kneed. 


BREEDS  OF  BORSES  40 

Stringy. — String-halt.  A  convulsive  action  in  the  hind  legs 
flexing  either  one  or  both  up  with  a  jerk. 

Stump  sucker. — A  cribber. 

Sucker. — An  animal  with  some  defect  which  is  not  always  ap- 
parent. 

Sweeney. — Atrophied  shoulder  muscles  causing  a  depression. 

Thick  neck. — A  neck  too  thick  at  the  shoulder  for  a  collar  to 
fit  well. 

Thoroughpins. — Puffinass  occurring  in  the  web  of  the  hock. 

Tongue  toiler. — Permitting  the  tongue  to  hang  out. 

Trephined. — A  hole  in  the  jaw  bored  for  removing  a  molar 
tooth. 

Trot  out  short. — Sore  in  front  having  a  short  stride. 

Wall-eye. — The  iris  a  pearly  white  color,  due  to  a  lack  of  pig- 
ment.    Sometimes  called  glass-eye. 

Weaver. — Continual  swaying  back  and  forth  when  standing  in 
the  stall. 

Wind  and  work. — See  No.  3,  auction  rules. 

Wind  galls. — Puffs  occurring  at  the  upper  part  of  the  fetlock 
joints. 

Windy. — One  that  whistles  or  roars  when   exerted. 

Whistler. — Defective  in  wind.     See  windy. 

Winging. — Throwing  the  front  feet  out  or  in  when  traveling. 

Worker. — See  No.  4,  auction  rules. — (111.  B.  122.) 

AUCTION  RULES. 

[Note. — In  the  auction  ring  sales  are  made  under  certain  well 
understood  rules  which  are  published  and  are  announced  from  the 
auction  stand,  recorded  and  stand  as  a  guaranty.  The  following  are 
the  principal  rules  which  govern  sales  in  the  auction  ring.  Excep- 
tions to  these  rules  may  be  announced  from  the  auction  stand  point- 
ing out  the  defects,  in  which  case  they  are  recorded  and  go  with  the 
horse.] 

Sound. — Perfectly  sound  in  every  way. 

Serviceably  sound. — Virtually  a  sound  animal,  barring  slight 
blemishes  which  do  not  interfere  with  his  usefulness  in  any  way. 
His  wind  and  eyes  must  be  good,  but  a  spot  or  streak  in  the  eye 
which  does  not  affect  the  sight  will  be  considered  serviceably  sound 
as  long  as  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  good.  He  must  not  be  lame  or  sore 
in  any  way. 

Wind  and  work. — The  onl;^  guaranty  this  carries  with  it  is  that 
the  animal  has  good  wind  and  is  a  good  worker. 

Work  only. — He  must  be  a  good  worker  and  everything  else 
goes  with  him.    No  other  guaranty  than  to  work. 

Legs  go. — Every'thing  that  is  On  the  animal's  legs  go  with  him ; 
nothing  is  guaranteed  except  that  he  must  not  be  lame  or  crampy. 
He  must,  however,  be  serviceably  sound  in  every  other  respect. 

At  the  halter. — Sold  just  as  he  stands  mthout  any  recommenda- 
tions. He  may  be  lame,  vicious,  balky,  kicker  or  anything  else. 
The  purchaser  takes  all  the  risk.  The  title  only  is  guaranteed.— 
(111.  B.  122.) 


50  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

FEEDING    HORSES. 

The  problem  of  horse  feeding  is  one  which  each  feeder  must 
solve  more  or  less  for  himself.  The  question  regarding  what  is  and 
what  is  not  a  satisfactory  feed  will  vary  more  or  less  with  the  time 
and  place  a,nd  the  varying  conditions  under  which  the  feeding  is  to 
be  done.  While  the  opinions  of  experienced  men  differ  as  to  the 
value  of  this  food  and  of  that  food,  yet  it  is  evident  that  the  actual 
food  requirements  of  a  horse  performing  a  given  amount  of  work 
cannot  vary  as  a  result  of  a  change  of  opinion  on  the  part  of  the 
feeder.  The  animal  needs  a  certain  amount  of  food  to  nourish  his 
body  and  produce  the  energy  that  is  required  of  him.  With  horses 
as  with  all  animals  including  man,  the  real  problem  is  to  supply  suf- 
ficient nourishing  material  to  build  up  the  body,  repair  its  waste  and 
furnish  it  with  the  energy  necessary  to  perform  the  required  work. 
It  makes  no  difference  whether  it  be  the  work  that  goes  on  inside  the 
body,  as  the  beating  of  the  heart,  movements  of  breathing,  etc. ;  or 
whether  the  work  is  performed  outside  of  the  body,  as  hauling  a 
load  or  to  perform  any  other  kind  of  labor.  The  body  temperature 
must  also  be  maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  food  ingredients  that 
produce  heat.  Whether  this  material  is  burned  in  the  body  for 
maintaining  the  body  temperature,  or  whether  the  necessary  heat 
results  from  internal  muscular  work,  does  not  necessarily  concern 
the  feeder.  The  problem  of  feeding  horses  is  somewhat  different 
from  that  of  feeding  many  other  domestic  animals.  Beef  cattle, 
mutton  sheep  and  pigs  are  fed  to  increase  gains  in  weight,  that  is  to 
fatten  them.  Milch  cows  are  fed  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the 
body  and  to  produce  abundant  secretion  of  milk  rather  than  fat. 
In  the  same  way  fowls  are  fed  for  the  production  of  eggs.  Horses, 
however,  are  fed  almost  universally  as  beasts  of  burden.  They  are 
maintained  for  the  work  which  they  do,  whether  it  be  in  drawing  a 
load,  carrying  a  rider  or  propelling  a  vehicle  at  extreme  speed ;  the 
horse  is  maintained  for  that  particular  kind  of  labor.  The  most 
satisfactory  test  of  a  practical  feeding  ration  for  work  horses  is  that 
it  enables  the  horses  to  perform  the  required  labor  and  to  maintain 
a  constant  bodily  w^eight.  If  the  animal  loses  weight,  it  is  evident 
that  the  ration  is  insufficient ;  if  he  gains  in  weight,  he  may  become 
too  fat,  which  is  evident  that  more  food  is  given  than  is  needed  or 
that  the  ration  does  not  contain  the  proper  food  constituents.  If  a 
working  horse  is  in  good  condition,  it  is  seldom  desirable  to  induce 
any  considerable  gain  in  weight.  The  most  satisfactory  ration  must 
of  necessity  be  made  of  materials  which  are  wholesome  and  are  rel- 
ished by  the  horse.  This  ration  should  also  be  secured  at  a  reason- 
able cost.  In  quantity  it  must  be  abundant  enough  to  meet  all 
bodily  requirements,  but  not  so  abundant  that  any  marked  gain  in 
weight  will  be  noted. 

Principles  of  Nutrition. — The  principles  of  nutrition  or  nour- 
ishing are  practically  the  same  in  the  case  of  all  animals  including 
man.  The  study  of  foods,  or  feeding  stuffs,  has  shown  beyond  ques- 
tion that,  although  they  differ  so  much  in  texture  and  appearance, 
they  are  in  reality  made  up  of  a  small  number  of  constituents  that 


Fig.  I.  A  Field  Case  of  Swamp  Fever,  About 

One  Month  Before  Death. 

Dept.  of  Agr. 


Fig.  2.  Same  Horse  as  Shown  in  Fig.  i.  About 

One  Week  Before  Death.    Note  the 

SwEi  Dept.  of  Agr. 


A  Choice  Drafi  Mule,  Height  i8i  HaxNus,  Weight,  i,goo  Pounds.  Note  His  Smooth- 
ness OF  Form,  Combined  With  Quality  and  Finish  for  a  Mule  of  Such 
Unusual  Size.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  53 

in  a  general  way  are  quite  easily  understood.  The  chief  constitu- 
ents are: — Protein,  Fats,  Carbohydrates,  Mineral  Matter. 

Protein  is  a  name  given  to  a  group  of  food  constituents  that 
contain  nitrogen  or  nitrogenous  compounds.  This  group  is  made 
up  of  true  proteids  and  albumens,  such  as  the  gluten  of  wheat, 
white  of  egg,  etc. 

Fat  includes  the  true  vegetable  fats  and  oils,  like  the  oil  of 
cotton  seed  as  well  as  vegetable  wax,  etc.  In  brief,  it  may  be  stated 
that  it  includes,  as  it  is  used  in  this  connection,  all  those  substances 
that  are  dissolved  out  of  the  food  by  ether  and  is  known  as  an  ether 
extract. 

Carbohydrates  include  starches,  sugars,  crude  or  woody  fibre, 
etc.  Carbohydrates  are  sometimes  divided  by  chemists  into  groups, 
as  nitrogen  free  extract  and  crude  fibre. 

Mineral  matter  includes  the  inorganic  bodies  present  in  the 
form  of  salts  in  the  juices  and  tissues  of  different  feeding  stuffs, 
some  of  the  principal  elements  of  which  are  sodium,  potassium,  cal- 
cium, sulphur,  etc.  The  term  ash  is  often  and  very  appropriately 
used  to  express  this  matter;  since  the  mineral  matter  represents  that 
which  is  left  when  the  food  in  question  is  burned. 

Functions  of  Food. — 1.  To  supply  material  to  build  up  the 
animal  body,  and  to  repair  waste  of  the  body  through  work,  exer- 
cise, etc.     2.  To  yield  energy. 

The  chemical  composition  of  foods  serves  as  a  basis  for  much 
of  their  value  for  building  and  repairing  the  various  tissues  of  the 
body.  The  value  of  energy,  however,  must  be  learned  in  another 
way.  The  most  usual  way  of  measuring  energy  is  in  terms  of  heat, 
a  calorie  being  taken  as  a  unit.  This  is  the  amount  of  heat  which 
would  be  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  kilogram  (about 
2  1-5  pounds)  of  water  one  degree  C,  or  about  1.8  degrees  F.  In- 
stead of  this,  the  unit  of  mechanical  energy,  the  "foot-ton"  (the 
force  which  would  lift  one  ton  one  foot)  may  be  used,  but  it  is  not 
as  convenient.  One  calorie  corresponds  very  nearly  to  1.54  foot- 
tons.  In  compounding  a  feeding  ration  the  relation  between  the 
quantities  of  nitrogen  compounds  in  the  food  and  the  nitrogen  free 
compounds  is  called  the  "nutritive  ration."  In  calculating  this 
ratio  one  pound  of  fat  is  taken  as  equivalent  to  2.25  pounds  of 
carbohydrates;  this  being  approximately  the  ratio  of  their  fuel 
values.  So  that  the  nutritive  ratio  is  actually  that  of  the  protein 
to  the  carbohydrates  plus  2.25  times  the  feed.  All  the  organs  and 
tissues  of  the  body  contain  nitrogen.  Protein  is  the  only  constitu- 
ent of  the  food  which  supplies  this  element,  and  is  therefore  essen- 
tial for  building  and  repairing  bodily  tissues.  Protein,  however, 
and  carbohydrates  may  be  burned  within  the  body,  and  therefore 
serve  as  a  source  of  energy.  The  mineral  matter  in  food  is  required 
for  a  number  of  different  purposes;  a  considerable  amount  being 
needed  in  the  growing  animal  for  the  formation  of  the  bony  skele- 
ton, teeth,  nails,  hoofs,  etc. ;  some  is  also  present  in  the  various  organs 
and  tissues.  The  mineral  matter  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  source  of 
energy,  since  it  cannot  be  burned  mthin  the  body.    The  water 


54  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC, 

present  in  food  is  not  used  in  the  sense  that  it  serves  for  building 
tissues  for  yielding  energy,  but  it  is  necessary  to  carry  the  food  in 
the  digestive  process,  to  dilute  the  blood  and  for  many  other  pur- 
poses. The  oxygen  of  the  air  is  required  by  all  living  animals  for 
the  burning  or  oxidation  of  the  fuel  constituents  of  the  food.  When 
foods  are  burned  in  the  body  they  give  up  the  latent  energy  or  heat 
present  in  them.  The  amount  of  work  performed  by  an  animal, 
as  the  horse,  for  convenience  in  measurement,  may  be  resolved  into 
several  factors:  (1),  the  energy  expended  in  chewing,  swallowing, 
digesting  of  food,  beating  of  the  heart,  circulation  of  the  blood,  etc. ; 
(2),  the  energy  w^hich  is  expended  in  moving  the  body,  walking, 
trotting,  etc.,  which  is  usually  spoken  of  as  energy  required  for 
progress;  (3),  the  energy  which  is  expended  in  carrying  a  rider, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  saddle  horse  or  drawing  a  load,  which  is  ordi- 
narily spoken  of  as  labor  or  work.  Work  may  be  measured  as 
foot-tons  or  foot-pounds.  A  foot-pound  is  the  amount  of  energy  ex- 
pended in  raising  one  pound  one  foot,  and  a  foot-ton  is  the  amount 
of  energy  expended  in  raising  one  ton  one  foot.  A  horse-power,  as 
the  term  is  ordinarily  used,  expresses  thei  power  equivalent  to  550 
foot-pounds  per  second,  or  the  power  required  to  raise  33,000  foot 
pounds  per  minute.  Work  may  also  be  measured  in  terms  of  calories 
or  heat.  One  calorie  corresponds  very  nearly  to  1.54  foot-tons. — 
(Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  170.) 

EXPERIMENTS  .CONDUCTED  WITH  HORSES. 

The  tests  made  in  horse  feeding,  which  form  the  basis  for  this 
bulletin,  are  as  follows:  (1)  The  determination  of  the  digestibility 
of  timothy  hay  by  horses.  (2)  The  determination  of  the  digestibil- 
ity of  whole  oats  by  horses.  (3)  The  determination  of  the  digestibil- 
ity of  ground  oats  by  horses.  (4)  The  determination  of  the  diges- 
tibility of  shelled  corn  by  horses.  (5)  The  determination  of  the  di- 
gestibility of  corn  meal  by  horses.  (6)  The  determination  of  the  di- 
gestibility of  the  new  corn  product  by  horses.  (7)  Tests  of  the  use 
of  the  new  corn  product  as  a  subtsitute  for  hay  in  horse  feeding. 

SUMMARY  OF  PRINCIPAL  RESULTS. 

(1)  Timothy  hay  proved  to  be  less  digestible  by  horses  than  by 
ruminants.  (2)  Grinding  oats  increased  their  digestibility.  (3^ 
Corn  meal  was  considerably  more  digestible  than  shelled  corn.  (4) 
Feeding  concentrated  foods  or  grain  with  hay  decreased  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  hay.  (5)  It  is  impossible  to  maintain  horses  on  a  grain 
ration  alone;  they  must  have  a  long  forage.  (6)  Making  a  "mixed 
feed"  of  the  grain  and  long  forage  is  the  best  manner  of  feeding 
horses.  (7)  The  new  corn  prodiict  was  better  digested  by  horses 
than  timothy  hay.  (8)  Grinding  fodder  to  the  condition  of  the  new 
corn  products  or  of  coarse  bran  does  not  destroy  its  value  as  long 
forage.  (9)  The  new  corn  product  was  successfully  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  hay  in  horse  feeding.— (Md.  E,  S,  Bui.  51.) 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


55 


Rations  Actually  Fed  to  Horses  and  Digestible  Nutrients  and 
Energy  in  Rations  Calculated  to  Basis  of  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight. 


V 

o 
"o 

Rations 
actually  fed. 

Nutrients  in  ration  per 
1.000     pounds     live 
weight. 

Digestible  nutrients  in 
ration  per  1.000  pounds 
live  weight. 

12 

Kind  of  horses. 

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0 

ARMY     HORSES. 

United  States: 

Lis. 
1.050 

1.125 

1,025 

1.200 
1.050 

Pounds. 

1  Oats.  12 

(Hay.  14 

jOats.  12 

(Hay.  14 

(Oats.  9 

lHay.l4 

1  Alfalfa.  21.25. 
1  Straw.  3.2.... 

(Oats.  10- 

(Hay.  12 

Lis. 
[2.14 

[2.00 

f  1.84 

[2.38 
[2.O6 

Lis. 
0.90 

.84 

.78 

.18 
6 

Lis. 
12.82 

11.96 

11.39 

5.87 
10.42 

Lis. 
4.95 

4.62 

4.80 

2.34 

3.87 

Lis. 
1.25 

1.16 

1.00 

1.76 
1.40 

Lis. 
0.57 

.53 

,48 

.05 

.40 

Lis. 
8.00 

7.48 

6.88 

3.58 
6.97 

Lis. 
1.97 

1.84 

1.94 

.92 
1.44 

Calo- 
ries. 

23.300 

Artillery  

21.750 

Mules 

20.  SO 

HORSES  WITH 
LIGHT  WORK. 

D  r  i  V  i  D  sr  horse.  J 
W  y  o  m  i  n  g> 
Station.               ) 

Carriage  horse 

11.855 
19.935 

Average 

2.22 

.47 

8.15 

3.10 

1.58 

.22 

5.27 

1.18 

15.895 

Fire   company 
horses: 

Boston  Mass 

Chicago.  Ill 

1.400 
1350 

1  Ground  grain 
<     9.38. 

lHay.18 

iOats,4 

(Hay.15 

|-1.65 
[1.00 

.68 
.43 

9.57 
6.77 

4.57 
3.50 

.87 
.42 

.41 

.24 

6.14 

3.70 

1.73 
1.45 

18.000 
11,365 

Averape  of  6.  in- 

1.35 

.56 

7.95 

3.20 

.78 

.35 

4.99 

1.26 

14.555 

cluding  above. 

General    average 

1.57 

.54 

8.00 

3.18 

.99 

.32 

5.06 

124 

14.890 

for  light  work. 

1,400 

1.325 
1.325 

Corn.  4  67.... 

Oats.  5.3.^.... 
-(Bran.  0.83.... 

Corn  m'1.4.16 

Hay  15 

Corn.  2 

J  Oats.  19 

IBran.  1_5 

lHay.9.5 

I  Corn.  12 

-^Oats.  5.25.... 
1  Hay.  20 

HORSES  WITH  MOD 
ERATE  WORK. 

Express  horses: 

Richmond. Va..  1, 
summer.          f 

JerseyCity.  N.  J. 

Boston.  Mass — 

Average  of  4.  in- 
cluding above. 

►  1.79 

-2.45 
■2.38 

.78 

1.03 
1.04 

11.78 

13.45 
14.% 

3.6» 

3.57 
5.32 

.97 

1.66 
1.28 

.45 

.67 
.60 

8.19 

9.37 
9.75 

1.46 

1.32 
2.12 

21.650 

25.800 
27,000 

2.15 

.93 

13.27 

4.13 

1.26 

.55 

9.06 

1.62 

24.550 

Lis. 
1.200 

1.3S0 

Pounds. 

j  Oats.  10 

■{  Corn,  5 

<Hay.  23 

(Oats.  8 

iHay.  16-.... 

Cab  horses: 

Washington.  D.  C. 

San  Francisco.  Cal. 

Average  of  4.  in- 
cluding above. 

Lis. 
.2.56 

1.39 

Lis. 
1.12 

,  .59 

Lis. 
16.50 

8.87 

Lis. 
6.43 

4.00 

Lis. 
1.28 

.70 

Lis. 
0.63 

.36 

Lis. 
10.42 

5.21 

Lis. 
2.60 

1.64 

Calo- 
ries. 

29,250 
15.550 

1.88 

.80 

11.51 

4.30 

1.06 

.49 

7.33 

1.72 

20,860 

56 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


Rations  Actually  Fed  to  Horses  and  Digestible  Nutrients  and 
Energy  in  Rations  Calculated  to  Basis  of  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight. 
— (Continued.) 


m 

o 

X! 

"o 
be 

Rations 
actually  fed 

Nutrients  in  ration  per 
1,000      pounds      live 
weight. 

Digestible  nutrients  in 
ration     per    1.000 
pounds  live  weight. 

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8 

Farm  horses: 

Wyoming       Sta- 
tion. 

New    Hampshire 
Station. 

New  Jersey  Sta- 
tion. 

1,000 
1.235 

1.000 

1.100 

1,370 
1,325 

i  Alfalfa,  13,75. 
1  Straw,  2,25. . . 

(Bran,  2 

J  Corn,  6 

1  Gluten  meal,6 

iHay,  10 

fHay.  6 

1  Bran  2V7 

1  Corn,  4%  . . . . 
1  Dried     brew- 
ers'    grain. 
,    8¥i 

jl.85 
|-2.37 

r3.2i 

>1.85 

1 
1 
^3.72 

-2.17 

.14 

.93 

.89 

.76 

.71 
.75 

6.27 
10.49 

10.81 
11.85 

11.83 
11.93 

2.90 
3.09 

5.25 

5.16 
5.61 

1.37 
1.59 

2.22 

.85 

2.81 
1.11 

.03 

.64 

.65 
.41 

.29 
.42 

4.03 

7  47 

6.99 

7.04 

8.27 
6.56 

1.03 
1.38 

2  14 

1.% 
2.31 

8  240 
21.465 

22.440 

fHay.  18 

Wheat    bran, 
2 

20  385 

Massachusetts 
Station. 

Utah  Station 

Do 

■<  Provender,   6 
crushed 
corn,    2.73. 
.     oats,  3.27. 
Alfalfa     hay. 
25. 
-j  Bran      and 
1     shorts  (11), 
I    10. 

f  Timothy  hay, 
1     22.8. 

-{Bran     and 
1  Shorts  (1:1), 

lio. 

25,480 
20.345 

Average  of  41,  in- 
cluding above. 

General    average 
for       moderate 
work. 

2.46 

2.38 

.75 
.77 

11.92 
11.99 

4.05 

4.08 

1.57 
1.49 

.40 
.42 

8.09 
8.09 

1.62 
1.63 

22,760 

22.710 

Farm  mules.  Vir- 1 
ginia  Station.     ( 

Average  of  6,  in- 

1,310 

fHay,  15.2.... 
I  Corn,  10.5.... 
!  Corn,    silage. 
I    10.5 

{•1.70 
J 

.82 

12.00 

4.00 

.72 

.42 

8.22 

1.75 

21,655 

cluding  above.. 

1.64 

.78 

11.54 

3.74 

.69 

.39 

7.95 

1.60 

20  675 

VERE  WORK. 

Truck     and     draft 
horses: 

Chicago,  111,,  ) 

daily  ration,  f 

South  Omaha  1 

Nebr.            f 

1,500 
1,500 

(Oats.  7,5 

(  Hay, 20 

j  Oats,  15 

IHay,  12 

[l.38 
[l.65 

.58 
.70 

8.99 
9.57 

4.34 
3.27 

.64 

1.04 

.34 

.45 

511 
6.23 

1.79 
1.27 

15,450 
17.800 

Average  of  5,  in- 
cluding above. 

1.80 

.76 

10.49 

3.49 

1.12 

.49 

6.94 

1.35 

19.560 

BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


57 


Rations  Actually  Fed  to  Horses  and  Digestible  Nutrients  and 
Energy  in  Rations  Calculated  to  Basis  of  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight. 
—  (Continued.) 


m 

V 

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o 

X 

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Rations 
actually  fed 

Nutrients  in  ration  per 
1.000       pounds     live 
weight 

Digestible  nutrients  in 
ration    per   1 .000 
pounds  live  weight 

JO 

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Kind  of  Horses 

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FEEDING  STANDARDS 
AND      A%'ERAGE     RA- 
TIONS 

Liifht      work.     Wolff- 
Lebmana. 

Lds. 

Pounds 

Lis. 

Lis. 

Lis. 

Lis. 

Lis. 
1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

2.14 

1.95 

1.60 

l.IO 
1.30 

1.58 
.99 

1.06 

1».57 

1.49 

.69 

1.12 

Lis. 
.40 

.60 

.80 

.52 

.44 

.40 

.22 
.32 

.49 

.40 
.42 
.39 

.49 

Lis.    Lis. 
9  5 

Calo- 
rics 
22,150 

26  700 

11.0 
13.3 
11.15 

9.93 

12.14 

dll.O 
alt  0 

Lehmann. 
Heavy     work.     Wolff- 
Lehmann. 

32  750 

26,900 

ate     work,    original, 
Grandeau. 
Maintenance,     moder- 
ate   work,   modified, 
Grandeau. 

23  950 

27.200 

22.510 
22.880 

Lawes    &    Gilbert's, 
computation. 
Ordinary    work,   Lava- 
lard. 

AMERICAN  EXPERI- 
MENTS. 

Horses  with     light 
work: 

5.27 
5.06 

7.33 

8.09 
8.09 
7.95 

6.^ 

1.18 
1.24 

1.72 

1.62 
1.63 
1.60 

1.35 

15  895 

14,890 

Horses  with  moderate 
work: 
Express     and   cab 
horses. 

20,860 

22,760 
22  710 

20  675 

work:  Farm  mule«. 

19.560 

work:      Truck     and 
draft  horses. 

a  This  value  represents  total  carbohydrates  plus  2.25  times  the  fat.— (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  170). 
METHOD   OF   CALCULATING  RATIONS. 

The  feeding  value  of  any  ration  may  be  readily  calculated  and 
compared  with  the  standards.  Suppose  a  horse  at  moderate  work 
and  weighing  1,200  pounds  is  fed  11  pounds  of  oats  and  10  pounds 
of  timothy  hay  daily.  The  WolfF-Lehmann  feeding  standard  for 
horses  at  moderate  work  calls  for  2.0  pounds  of  protein  and  26,700 
calories  per  thousand  pounds  live  weight.  A  horse  weighing  1,200 
pounds  would  therefore  require  1.2  times  as  much,  or  2.4  pounds 
protein  and  32,000  calories.  Oats  contain  9.39  pounds  of  digestible 
protein  and  122,100  calories  per  hundred  pounds.  Eleven  pounds 
would  therefore  furnLsh  1.03  pounds  of  protein  (9.39x0.11=1.03), 
Viiid  13,431  calories   (122,100x0,11=13,431).    Timothy  hay  fur^ 


58  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

nishes  1.25  pounds  protein  and  69,850  calories  per  hundred  pounds. 
Ten  pounds  would  therefore  furnish  0,13  pound  protein  (1.25X 
0.10=0.13)  and  6,985  calories  (69,850x0.10=6,985).  The  sum 
of  the  nutrients  furnished  by  11  pounds  of  oats  and  10  pounds  of  hay 
would  therefore  be  1.16  pounds  protein  and  20,415  calories,  or  1.34 
pounds  of  protein  and  11,585  calories  less  than  the  standard  calls 
for.  This  may  be  made  up  by  adding  more  oats,  hay,  or  other 
feeding  stuff.  The  amount  of  oats  required  to  furnish  the  necessary 
protein  may  be  learned  from  the  proportion  100:9.39::a;:1.34;  or, 
in  other  words,  by  dividing  104  by  9.39,  which  gives  11.07.  This 
quantity  of  oats  would  also  furnish  13,517  calories,  making  the 
total  protein  of  the  ration  2.2  pounds  and  the  total  fuel  value  33,- 
932  calories.  The  fuel  value  of  the  ration  is  in  excess  of  the  stand- 
ard, though  the  agreement  is  close  enough  for  all  practical  purposes. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  amounts 
furnished  in  a  ration  shall  exactly  equal  those  called  for  by  the 
standard,  but  rather  that  they  approximate  them,  being  greater 
rather  than  less. — (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  170.) 

CARE  OP  STALLIONS. 

The  proper  care  of  stallions  does  not  differ  materially  from 
the  care  of  other  breeding  animals.  Enough  of  good  wholesome 
food  and  water,  plenty  of  exercise,  grooming  and  general  cleanli- 
ness, along  with  regular  attention,  are  the  principal  factors  requisite 
to  their  best  welfare.  Many  stallions  fail  to  be  sure  sires  simply  be- 
cause of  lack  of  exercise  or  an  overgenerous  allowance  of  poor  food, 
two  factors  which,  acting  together,  cannot  lead  to  the  best  rasults. 
The  swollen  or  scurvy  legs  so  often  seen  on  stallions  are  generally  the 
result  of  insufficient  exercise  and  lack  of  cleanliness. 

Generally  speaking,  there  is  no  good  reason  why  a  stallion 
should  not  be  put  to  work.  Such  treatment  insures  regular  feeding, 
grooming,  exercise,  and  will  give  him  the  privilege  of  association 
with  other  horses.  It  will  do  away  with  the  solitary  confinement 
and  irregular  attention  of  which  he  is  otherwise  the  recipient. 

If,  under  ordinary  conditions,  at  the  close  of  the  breeding  sea- 
son a  stallion  is  pressed  into  regular  service  and  accustomed  to  work 
gradually,  he  will  be  the  better  for  it  in  the  end.  Association  with 
other  horses  will  come  to  be  a  regular  occurrence,  and  the  obnox- 
ious actions  so  common  to  stallions  in  harness  will  become  less  fre- 
quent. As  a  horse  in  regular  service  h>e  then  receives  regular  care 
and  exercise.  If  he  be  from  any  of  the  lighter  breeds  as  saddler  or 
trotter  it  is  by  no  means  advisable  to  use  him  for  a  kind  of  work 
for  which  he  was  never  intended. — (Mo.  Cir.  of  Information  27.) 

CARE    OF    MARES. 

The  principles  governing  the  care  of  mares  are  identical  with 
those  governing  the  care  of  stallions  but  the  customary  treatment 
differs  greatly.  On  the  average  farm  the  problem  of  enough  exer- 
cise is  not  troublesome.  The  great  difficulty  is  to  find  help  that  will 
handle  a  pair  of  brood  mares  carefully.  Mares  carrying  foals  may 
■work  up  to  within  ten  days  of  the  date  of  foaling,  and  be  benefited 
by  it.  They  should  be  given  moderate  but  steady  work.  Mares  in  foal 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  59 

should  not  be  given  work  which  requires  the  backing  of  heavy  loads, 
or  where  there  is  a  chance  of  slipping.  But  breeding  mares  can  and 
should  be  worked. 

The  food  for  brood  mares  should  be  similar  to  that  of  the  stal- 
lion. Good  oats,  four  parts,  and  bran  one  part,  along  with  mixed 
clover  and  timothy  hay  which  has  been  well  cured  makes  an  excel- 
lent ration.  The  rule  of  one  pound  of  grain  and  one  pound  of  hay 
to  every  one  hundred  pounds  live  weight  is  again  a  good  basis  to 
work  upon,  along  with  the  variation  according  to  the  individual. 
As  the  period  of  pregnancy  advances,  the  ration  will  in  most  cases 
need  to  be  increased,  somewhat.  During  pregnancy  particular  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  the  digestive  apparatus  of  mares.  They 
should  be  gaining  m  condition,  and  bowels  loose  at  the  time  of  par- 
turition. It  is  always  a  good  plan  to  feed  rather  sparingly  for  two 
or  three  days  before  parturition,  and  the  ration,  at  that  time,  should 
consist  largely  of  bran.  After  parturition  it  should  be  increased 
to  suit  the  needs  of  the  mare  and  foal. 

Mares  should  be  given  a  box  stall  at  least  four  weeks  before  they 
are  due  to  foal,  in  order  that  they  become  accustomed  to  it,  and  may 
also  have  a  place  large  enough  to  be  comfortable  during  the  night. 
The  stall  should  at  all  times  be  kept  clean  and  well  bedded,  but  par- 
ticular care  should  be  taken  regarding  these  details  at  the  time  of 
parturition. — (Mo.  Cir.  Information  27.) 

THE   CARE   OF    NEW-BORN   FOALS. 

At  present  it  is  estimated  that  some  25  per  cent  of  the  annual 
foal  crop  is  lost.  Most  of  this  mortality  might  be  prevented  by  treat- 
ing the  mare  intelligently  and  giving  proper  attention  to  the  navel 
and  bowels  of  the  new  bom  foal.  It  is  the  purpose  of  these  pages 
to  furnish  practical  instruction  on  these  matters  for  the  guidance 
of  those  having  the  charge  of  brood  mares  and  foals. 

Cause  of  Navel  and  Joint  Disease. — The  navel  cord  (umbilicus) 
connects  the  foal's  body  with  the  afterbirth  (placental  membranes) 
of  the  mare.  It  is  made  up  of  gelatinous  tissue  covering  a  large 
vein  coming  from  the  foal's  liver  and  carrying  impure  blood  to  be 
purified  in  the  lungs  of  the  mare;  two  arteries  carrying  pure 
blood  from  the  arteries  of  the  mare,  by  way  of  the  placenta,  to  the 
arteries  of  the  foal,  and  a  tube  (urachus)  from  the  foal's  bladder 
which,  while  the  colt  is  in  the  womb,  discharges  urine  into  ono 
of  the  envelopes  (allantois)  covering  the  foal. 

When  the  navel  cord  breaks  at  birth  its  blood  vessels  and  tube 
promptly  close,  if  all  goes  well.  If  pus-forming  gtrms  from  filthy 
or  soiled  bedding,  floor,  or  ground,  get  onto  the  raw  navel  cord,  how- 
ever, they  cause  infection,  inflammation  and  collections  of  pus  at 
the  point  involved  and  thence  germs  are  carried  into  the  system  and 
form  colonies  (secondary  abscesses)  elsewhere  in  the  body  and  nota- 
bly in  the  joints  of  the  extremities. 

In  cases  of  generalized  infection  (pyaemia)  abscesses  may  be 
found  in  the  liver,  kidneys,  lungs,  brain,  muscles  and  subcutaneous 
connective  tissue.  If  the  urachus  fails  to  close,  urine  dribbles  or 
streams  from  the  navel  opening  and,  in  that  event,  abscesses  of  thQ 


60  DOMESTIC  ANHIALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

joints  eventually  appear,  the  infection  having  become  general.  The 
latter  condition  is  termed  pervious  or  persistent  urachus.  A  ma- 
jority of  infected  foals  die.  Recovery  is  seldom  perfect.  The  colts 
fail  to  thrive,  or  develop,  perfectly  and  are  apt  to  have  chronic  affec- 
tions of  the  joints.  Treatment  of  the  disease  can  only  be  properly 
conducted  by  a  trained  veterinarian  and  he  may  employ  a  special 
serum  with  some  degree  of  success,  both  as  a  preventive  and  curative 
agent. 

Seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  cases  of  this  disease  affect  foals  dur- 
ing the  first  three  weeks  of  life.  Fat,  flabby  foals,  with  extra  large 
navel  cords,  often  the  get  of  overfed,  pampered,  underexercised  stal- 
lions, or  from  mares  in  like  condition — are  especially  prone  to  the 
disease  and  are  most  likely  to  succumb.  Foals  that  have  small  navel 
cords  and  are  lively  at  birth,  soon  on  their  feet  and  nursing,  are  much 
less  liable  to  attack. 

Stallions  should  be  worked,  or  abundantly  exercised,  and  so 
fed  and  maintained  as  to  insure  virility,  vigor,  stamina,  robust  con- 
stitution and  the  perfect  health  of  every  organ.  Mares  should  be 
similarly  treated.  Foals  will  then  be  likely  to  come  into  the  world 
healthy,  lively  and  strong  to  resist  disease. 

Symptoms  of  Navel  and  Joint  Disease. — A  few  days  after  birth 
the  foal  is  found  to  be  weak,  lame,  feverish  and  with  impaired  appe- 
tite. One  joint,  or  another,  is  swollen,  hot  and  painful.  Usually 
the  attack  affects  the  fetlock,  hock,  stifle,  hip,  knee,  elbow  or  shoul- 
der. Sometimes  abscesses  form  at  the  poll,  about  the  ribs,  or  along 
the  spinal  column.  The  swelling  rapidly  increase  in  size  and  sev- 
eral joints  are  affected  at  one  time.  There  is  swelling  of  the  navel, 
and  pus  oozes  from  one  or  more  openings.  Pus  forms  in  quantities 
in  the  affected  joints.  Diarrhoea  usually  comes  on,  or  may  be  alter- 
nated with  constipation.  Soon  the  foal  is  too  weak  to  stand,  loses 
appetite  entirely,  and  dies  in  a  few  days,  or  in  two  or  three  weeks,  in 
lingering  cases.  Often  urine  escapes  from  the  navel,  or  the  foal 
passes  bloody  urine ;  but  the  latter  symptoms  may,  for  a  time  at  least, 
be  present  without  noticeable  symptoms  of  pus  infection. 

Management  of  the  Pregnant  Mare. — The  mare  in  foal  should 
be  worked  lightly  or  abundantly  exercised  every  day.  Exercise  is 
absolutely  necessary.  She  should  occupy  a  roomy  box  stall.  Here 
she  will  take  some  additional  exercise  and  will  not  be  afraid  to  lie 
down.  She  will  be  less  likely  to  become  cast  and  escape  having 
stocked  legs  and  dropsical  swellings  of  the  udder  and  abdomen.  The 
bedding  should  be  kept  clean  and  dry. 

Feed  the  mare  sound,  whole  oats,  bran  and  mixed  or  timothy 
hay.  Avoid  moldy  hay  or  silage,  damaged  grain,  woody,  weathered 
fodder,  dusty  or  rusty  straw,  or  hay  containing  ergot.  _  Keep  preg- 
nant mares  out  of  corn  stalk  fields.  Provide  them  with  plenty  of 
pure,  clean  water.  In  forking  mares  avoid  jerking,  severe  pulling, 
wading  through  deep  mud,  manure  piles  or  snow  drifts.  Let  the 
work  be  light,  easy  and  steady.  Keep  the  bowels  active  by  feeding 
bran  and  a  little  flaxseed  meal,  carrots,  or  some  sweet  silage. 

The  mare  goes  48  weeks,  or  about  340  days  with  foal.  As  foal- 
ing time  approaches  decrease  the  grain  ration  and  increase  laxative 


Champion  Hackney  at  Royal  Show.    Ont.  Agr.  Soc.  Rpt.      igii. 


A  CHoicji  EAbiEiLN  Chunk.    VViiiGHX,  1,550  Pou^us.    Da^x.  o£  Aok. 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  61 

foods  to  keep  the  bowels  acting  freely.  Constipation  is  dangerous. 
When  wax  forms  on  the  teats,  about  three  days  before  foaling,  stop 
working  the  mare  and  place  her  in  a  prepared  box  stall  where  she 
can  be  watched  until  the  foal  is  born. 

After  foaling  leave  the  mare  alone  for  a  time,  if  she  is  lying 
down.  If  she  does  not  expel  her  afterbirth  promptly  when  she  rises 
from  resting,  inject  into  her  womb  one-half  gallon  of  lukewarm  1 
per  cent  solution  of  coal  tar  disinfectant,  or  other  mild  antiseptic. 
If  the  afterbirth  then  does  not  come  away  within  an  hour  or  two,  it 
should  be  removed  by  hand.  An  expert  should  be  employed  for  this 
operation  and  when  it  has  been  performed  the  womb  should  again 
be  flushed  out  with  an  antiseptic  solution.  Half  an  hour  after  the 
birth  of  the  foal,  or  about  that  time,  offer  the  mare  a  pailful  of  luke- 
warm water  and  again  at  intervals  of  two  hours.  Mares  are  thirsty 
at  this  time  and  should  be  abundantly  supplied  with  water.  An 
hour  after  foaling  the  mare  may  eat  a  mash  of  steamed  oats,  and 
bran,  if  she  has  been  accustomed  to  such  feed;  otherwise  give  her  a 
small  feed  of  her  ordinary  grain  ration.  In  a  few  days,  if  the  weather 
is  fine,  the  mare  and  foal  may  take  some  outdoor  exercise  and  in  two 
weeks,  or  thereabouts,  she  should  have  recovered  from  foaling  and 
be  taking  her  usual  feed,  grazing  grass  and  getting  ready  to  resume 
light  work  in  harness. 

The  Foaling  Box-Stall. — Two  14  by  14  foot  box  stalls  should  be 
kept  ready  for  the  use  of  mares  on  every  farm  where  foals  are  raised. 
No  mare  should  be  allowed  to  foal  in  an  ordinary  stall,  or  unpre- 
pared box  stall.  Navel  and  joint  diseases  will  not  be  likely  to  attack 
foals  bom  in  clean  places.  An  absolutely  clean  foaling  place  is  nec- 
essary and  should  be  prepared  as  follows: 

Kemove  and  burn  all  loose  litter,  and  manure.  Cleanse  and 
scrape  the  floor ;  then  saturate  it  with  a  hot  1-50  solution  of  coal  tar 
disinfectant,  or  a  solution  of  4  ounces  of  sulphate  of  copper  (blue- 
stone)  to  one  gallon  of  hot  water.  Scrub  and  cleanse  the  walls  with 
a  similar  solution  of  coal  tar  disinfectant;  or  a  1-1000  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate.  Cleanse  the  ceiling  in  the  same  way;  then  ap- 
ply to  walls  and  ceiling  fresh  made  lime  white  wash,  to  each  gallon 
of  which  has  been  added  one-third  of  a  pound  of  chloride  of  lime. 
Cover  the  floor  with  fresh,  dry  planing  mill  shavings  in  preference 
to  any  other  bedding  material.  Remove  manure  as  soon  as  it  is 
dropped. 

When  the  foal  is  bom  and  has  been  cared  for  and  the  afterbirth 
of  the  mare  has  come  away,  remove  the  mare  and  foal  to  the  second 
box  stall,  prepared  as,  was  the  first.  Then  clean  out,  disinfect,  and 
whitewash  the  stall  just  used  and  put  in  fresh,  clean  dry  shavings  in 
readiness  for  the  reception  of  the  next  mare.  The  mare  must  always 
occupy  a  clean,  specially  prepared  box-stall  and  it  should  be  perfectly 
ventilated  and  as  sunny  as  possible. 

Where  but  one  box-stall  is  available  clean  it  out,  burn  the  after- 
birth and  soiled  bedding,  use  a  disinfecting  solution  freely  on  the 
floor  and  put  in  plenty  of  fresh,  dry,  clean  shavings  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  the  birth  of  the  foal.  If  the  mare  foals  on  grass  treat  the 
foal  as  if  it  had  been  born  in  the  stable.    Navel  infection  is  less  liable 


62  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

to  occur  on  grass,  but  this  is  possible  and  preventive  treatment,  there- 
fore, is  necessary,  no  matter  where  the  foal  is  dropped. 

Treatment  of  the  Foal  at  Birth. — Attend  to  the  navel  cord 
(umbilicus)  as  soon  as  the  nose  of  the  foal  has  been  cleared  of  after- 
birth. If  possible  avoid  tying  the  navel  cord.  It  is  best  for  it  to 
break  off  naturally.  If  it  fails  to  break  and  the  mare  is  lying  down, 
make  her  get  up  and  the  cord  may  then  break. 

If  found  necessary  to  tie  the  cord  use  a  clean,  disinfected  string. 
A  dirty  string  may  cause  infection.  Soak  the  string  in  a  five  per 
cent  solution  of  lysol  or  carbolic  acid,  or  a  1-500  solution  of  corrosive 
sublimate  (bichloride  of  mercury).  Tie  the  cord  one  inch  or  a  little 
more  from  the  belly;  then  sever  the  cord  vnih  a  clean  knife.  An 
emasculator  or  ecaseur  (castrating  instruments)  may  be  used  to 
sever  the  cord  in  place  of  tying  it  and  then  cutting  through  below 
the  knot. 

Saturate  the  stump  of  the  navel  cord  immediately,  whether  tied 
or  not,  with  the  following  disinfectant:  Powdered  corrosive  sub- 
limate, 2  drams;  boiling  water,  1  pint.  When  it  has  cooled,  color 
the  solution  with  2  drams  of  tincture  of  iron,  label  the  bottle  "poi- 
son" and  keep  it  out  of  the  way  of  children.  Repeat  the  application 
twice  a  day  until  the  cord  shrivels  up,  drops  off  and  no  raw  spot  re- 
mains. To  keep  the  solution  from  blistermg  the  foal's  belly  smear 
carbolized  vaseline  or  unsalted  lard  around  the  navel  before  making 
the_  first  application.  A  good  way  to  use  the  solution  is  to  put  some 
of  it  in  a  shallow,  wide-necked  bottle,  then  hold  the  bottle  against 
the  foal's  belly  with  the  navel  stump  immersed  so  that  it  will  be 
completely  covered  by  the  fluid.  If  the  navel  cord  has  been  tied 
remove  the  string  as  soon  as  possible,  squeeze  out  the  blood  clot  and 
instantly  soak  the  navel  stump  with  the  corrosive  sublimate  solution. 
Use  the  solution  twice  a  day  until  the  navel  is  perfectly  healed.  Re- 
move sloughing  portions  of  the  cord  each  mornmg,  so  far  as  possible, 
to  allow  the  solution  to  wet  all  raw  parts  of  the  cord. 

Give  Attention  to  the  Bowels. — A  strong  foal  vdW  be  on  its  feet 
and  trying  to  nurse  in  less  than  an  hour  from  birth.  Such  a  foal 
needs  no  help,  but  a  weak  one  will  have  to  be  held  up  to  suck  until 
strong  enough  to  do  so  without  help.  Wash  the  udder  of  the  mare 
with  a  lukewarm  2  per  cent  solution  of  coal  tar  disinfectant  and 
then  rinse  off  with  warm  water  before  the  foal  is  allowed  to  suck  for 
the  first  time.  The  external  organs  (genitals),  tail  and  hind  parts 
of  the  mare  should  be  washed  with  a  similar  solution  once  a  day  for 
the  first  week  or  so  after  the  birth  of  the  foal. 

Keeping  the  udder  free  from  infective  matter  in  this  way  tends 
to  prevent  the  foal  from  scouring,  for  that  condition  of  the  bowels 
often  is  due  to  germ  infection  of  the  intestinal  tract  by  w^ay  of  the 
mouth.  Disinfection  of  the  navel  cord  also  tends  to  prevent  scour- 
ing. At  birth  the  intestine  of  the  foal  contains  a  sticky  mass  of 
fecal  matter  (meconium).  This  should  come  away  promptly  and 
usually  this  is  accomplished  by  the  first  milk  (colostrum)  which 
possesses  purgative  properties.  To  assist  nature,  either  insert  a  small 
tallow  dip  candle  (made  for  this  purpose)  in  the  foal's  rectum,  or, 
within  an  hour  from  birth,  give  an  injection  of  either  warm  water, 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  63 

warm  slippery  elm  bark  tea,  flaxseed  tea,  sweet  oil,  or  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  cream,  molasses  and  warm  water,  and  repeat  in  12 
horn's  if  required.  Harm  may  be  done  by  injecting  a  large  quantity 
of  strong,  soapy  warm  water  with  an  ordinary  horse  syringe.  A 
fountain  syringe  is  to  be  preferred  and  small,  hard  rubber  nozzle,  or 
a  small,  clean  rubber  hose  and  funnel.  Smear  vaseline  or  lard  on 
the  nozzle  and  in  rectum  before  givinj^  the  injection.  If  the  bowels 
do  not  move  within  24  hours  from  birth  and  the  foal  seems  sick, 
shake  up  two  to  four  tablespoonfuls  of  pure  castor  oil  in  milk,  or  a 
mixture  of  equal  quantities  of  castor  oil  and  sweet  oil,  according  to 
size  of  foal,  and  give  as  one  dose.  Then  continue  the  injections  at 
intervals  of  six  hours. 

Raising  an  Orphan  Foal  by  Hand. — In  case  the  mare  dies  or 
has  no  milk  the  foal  may  be  raised  on  cows'  milk,  if  the  attendant 
conducts  the  work  patiently  and  intelligently.  Choose  the  milk  of 
a  cow  that  has  recently  calved,  preferably  one  which  gives  milk  low 
in  butterfat,  for  mares'  milk  while  rich  in  sugar,  is  poor  in  fat. 
Sweeten  the  milk  with  molasses  or  sugar  and  dilute  with  warm  water. 
Give  a  little  of  this  prepared  milk  at  short  intervals  from  a  scalded 
nursing  bottle  and  large  rubber  nipple.  Be  careful  to  keep  the  bot- 
tle and  nipple  scrupulously  clean.  Add  an  ounce  of  lime  water  to 
each  pint  of  the  prepared  milk  and  allow  half  a  cupful  once  an  hour 
at  first. 

As  the  foal  grows,  gradually  increase  the  amount  of  milk  fed 
and  lengthen  the  intervals  between  meals.  In  a  few  days  food  may 
be  given  six  times  a  day  and,  later,  four  times  daily.  The  foal  will 
soon  learn  to  drink  from  a  pail,  if  allowed  to  suck  the  attendant's 
fingers  at  first. 

Until  the  bowels  move  freely,  give  rectal  injections  night  and 
morning.  If  the  foal  scours  at  any  time  give  two  to  four  tablespoon- 
fuls of  a  mixture  of  sweet  oil  and  pure  castor  oil  shaken  up  in  milk 
and  stop  feeding  milk  for  two  or  three  meals,  allowing  sweetened 
warm  water  and  limewater  instead.  Let  the  foal  lick  oatmeal  as 
soon  as  it  will  eat  and  gradually  increase  the  amount  and  add  wheat 
bran.  In  five  or  six  weeks  some  sweet,  skimmilk  may  be  given  and 
the  amount  gradually  increased  daily  until,  in  three  months  or  so, 
it  may  be  given  freely  three  times  a  day  in  place  of  new  milk.  The 
foal  at  this  age  also  will  be  eating  freely  of  grass,  grain  and  bran. 

At  all  times  supply  pure  cold  drinking  water.  Let  the  foal  run 
out  in  a  lot  or  grass  paddock  for  exercise.  Accustom  it  to  be  han- 
dled daily.  Feed  small  quantities  of  nutritious  food  often,  keeping 
all  food  vessels  clean  and  the  foal  should  thrive  and  develop  well. — 
(Wis.  Cir.  13.) 

HORSE  FEEDING. 

'Amount  of  Grain  to  Feed. — While  no  definite  rule  can  be  made 
that  will  apply  with  equal  value  in  all  cases  as  to  the  proper  amount 
of  grain  to  feed  per  day  to  work  horses,  yet  from  actual  experiments 
it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  limits  from  one-fifth  to  one  and 
one-third  pounds  of  grain  per  hundred  pounds  of  live  weight  and 
from  one  to  one  and  one-fourth  pounds  of  hay  form  a  comparatively 
safe  one  to  follow. 


64  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Time  of  Feeding. — Quite  satisfactory  results  have  been  se- 
cured by  feeding  the  grain  in  three  equal  feeds  and  by  giving  one- 
half  the  hay  at  night,  the  other  half  being  divided  between  the 
morning  and  noon  feeds. 

On  idle  days  the  grain  ration  should  be  reduced  one-half. 
Many  cases  of  Azoturia  are  undoubtedly  caused  by  high  feeding 
when  horses  are  idle. 

Comparative  Value  of  Grains. — From  the  tables  giving  the 
percentage  composition  of  the  various  food  stuffs,  it  will  be  readily 
seen  that  the  cereal  grains  resemble  each  other  quite  closely  in  com- 
position; all  are  characterized  by  fairly  low  water  content,  that  is, 
they  are  dry  and  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  protein  and 
nitrogen-free  extract  or  carbohydrates.  The  superiority  of  one  grain 
over  another  must,  therefore,  depend  on  some  factor  other  than  com- 
position. Some  cereals  are  much  more  palatable  to  some  animals 
than  are  others;  some  are  more  digestible  under  certain  conditions 
than  are  others;  some,  owing  to  their  light  weight,  are  much  safer 
to  feed  to  certain  animals  than  others. 

Oats. — Oats  undoubtedly  possess  a  flavor  that  makes  them  pala- 
table and  a  favorite  food  with  horses.  On  account  of  this  palatabil- 
ity  and  the  fact  that  they  are  readily  digested  by  horses,  makes  them 
a  favorite  food  for  horses  in  America.  They  are  considered  the 
safest  cereal  grain  to  feed  under  the  various  conditions  which  the 
various  classes  of  horses  are  fed  in  this  country.  With  most  horses 
a  serious  mistake  in  feeding  as  to  quantity  would  cause  no  serious 
results,  which  can  hardly  be  said  of  any  other  grain.  While  oats 
are  so  thoroughly  relished  by  horses,  comparatively  few  would  eat 
enough  to  cause  serious  injury;  even,  however,  if  they  have  an  op- 
portunity to  eat  all  they  desire.  Old  oats  seem  to  be  somewhat  more 
digestible  than  new  oats,  and  are  therefore  preferred  by  most  feeders. 

Barley. — Barley  is  sometimes  fed  to  horses,  although  it  is  not 
relished  as  well  as  oats  or  corn.  The  kernels  of  barley  seem  to  be  too 
hard  to  suit  most  horses ;  grinding  or  soaking  sometimes  causes  them 
to  be  eaten  more  readily.  Barley  may  be  fed  whole  to  horses  having 
sound  teeth  that  are  not  required  to  do  severe  work.  As  barley  when 
ground  forms  a  pasty  mass  when  mixed  with  the  saliva,  it  is  usually 
more  satisfactory  to  mix  a  little  bran  or  other  coarse  material  with 
it._(F.  B.  170.) 

Commercial  By-Products. — ^The  various  meals  and  cakes  rich 
in  gluten  materials  generally  speaking  are  commercial  by-products, 
OS  cotton-seed  meal  or  cotton-seed  cake  and  linseed  meal.  These  are 
by-products  in  the  manufacture  of  oils  from  cotton-seed  and  from 
linseed.  As  it  comes  from  the  mills  it  is  in  the  form  of  hard  cakes 
and  when  ground  it  becomes  meal.  Cotton-seed  meal,  while  very 
rich  in  protein,  is  not  a  popular  feed  for  horses ;  a  little  cotton-seed 
meal  mixed  with  other  ground  feeds  is  often  satisfactorily  fed,  par- 
ticularly if  the  horses  are  also  given  some  succulent  food ;  as  the  ef- 
fect of  •cotton-seed  meal  is  constipating,  it  should  be  fed  with  caution, 
except  when  fed  in  connection  with  foods  that  are  more  or  less  suc- 
culent. Linseed  meal  on  the  contrary  acts  as  a  laxative,  and  is  par- 
ticularly prized  as  a  horse  food  when  the  appearance  of  the  coat  ia 


y 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  65 

to  be  improved ;  a  little  linseed  meal  in  the  ration  seems  to  favor  the 
easy  shedding  of  the  old  coat,  and  to  produce  quickly  a  lustrous 
new  coat.— (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  170.) 

Forage  Crops, — The  leguminous  forage  crops,  as  alfalfa,  clover, 
cowpeas,  soy-beans,  etc.,  are  richer  in  protein  than  grasses.  When 
the  forage  crops  are  dried  and  cured  the  resulting  hay  is  rich  in  pro- 
portion to  its  bulk,  and  therefore  should  be  fed  more  sparingly  than 
timothy  hay.  The  value  of  different  forage  crops,  both  fresh  and 
cured,  depends  considerably  upon  the  stage  of  growth  at  the  time 
of  harvesting.  Generally  speaking,  the  nutritive  value  of  the  whole 
crop  increases  until  the  growth  of  the  whole  crop  is  completed,  but 
if  the  crop  is  harvested  before  it  is  mature,  the  resulting  forage  will 
be  richer  in  protein  than  if  the  cutting  were  delayed  until  the  plants 
were  mature.  In  this  connection,  it  should  be  stated  that  the  con- 
sumption of  protein  in  the  food  determines  quite  largely  the  amount 
of  water  consumed  by  the  animal;  consequently  the  use  to  which 
the  animal  is  put  will  often  determine  quite  largely  the  amount  of 
protein  it  should  consume.  Green  crops,  hay,  straw,  and  other 
cured  crops,  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  coarse  fodder"  or  "rough- 
age." This  term  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  contain  a  compara- 
tively small  amount  of  nourishing  material  and  the  large  proportion 
of  indigestible  crude  fibre  as  compared  with  their  total  bulk  or 
weight.  Although  inferior  to  concentrated  feeds  in  composition, 
they  are  an  essential  part  of  the  ration  for  horses  and  other  farm 
animals  serving  to  give  the  required  bulk  to  the  food.  It  is  believed 
that  unless  the  food  when  taken  into  the  stomach  is  comparatively 
bulky  and  the  mass  more  or  less  loose  in  structure,  it  will  not  be  as 
readily  acted  on  by  the  digestive  juices. — (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  170.) 

Roots  and  Tubers. — Carrots,  turnips,  beets,  parsnips  and  other 
roots  and  tubers  contain  a  high  percentage  of  water  and  small 
amounts  of  nourishing  elements.  It  must  be  admitted  however  that 
these  roots  and  tubers  have  a  feeding  value  when  given  in  connec- 
tion with  other  feeds  in  excess  of  the  digestible  compounds  which 
they  contain.  They  have  a  beneficial  effect  on  the  general  health  of 
the  animal  and  aid  in  the  digestion  of  their  food.  Ten  pounds  of 
roots  has  been  suggested  as  the  maximum  quantity  which  may  be 
safely  fed  to  the  average  work  horse.  Potatoes  are  sometimes  fed 
successfully,  particularly  to  colts.  The  practice  of  feeding  potatoes 
to  work  horses  is  more  prevalent  in  Germany  than  in  this  country. 
—  (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  170.) 

Cooked  and  Raw  Foods. — ^The  investigations  that  have  been 
made  to  compare  cooked  and  raw  feed  do  not  sustain  the  practice 
of  cooking.  It  has  not  been  shown  that  cooking  makes  the  food 
more  digestible,  except  possibly  in  a  few  instances.  Several  cases 
have  been  noted,  however,  that  showed  that  tlicre  had  been  a  some- 
what marked  advantage  as  to  palatability.  The  cost  of  cooking  is 
not  usually  made  up  for  by  the  increased  value  of  the  ration.  Some 
hard  grains  may  be  improved  by  cooking  but  the  cereals  that  are 
ordinarily  used  in  compounding  rations  for  horses  are  not  improved 
from  the  standpoint  of  digestibility. 


66  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Dry  and  Soaked  Feed. — It  is  often  claimed  that  soaked  feed, 
especially  hard  grain,  is  more  easily  masticated  and  its  digestibility 
is  improved.  This  however  is  doubtful  in  the  minds  of  many  expe- 
rienced horsemen  and  experimenters,  for  it  has  been  found  by  actual 
*jests  that  healthy  horses  with  good  teeth  digested  dry  beans  and  corn 
as  well  as  they  did  the  same  material  which  had  been  soaked  in 
water  for  24  hours.  Soaking  or  wetting  the  feed  may  sometimes  be 
of  importance  as  regards  the  health  of  horses.  The  practice  of  cut- 
ting tne  roughage  and  feeding  the  grain  with  it  causes  the  grain  to 
be  eaten  more  slowly  and  may  on  this  account  be  of  considerable 
value  with  some  animals.  Also  the  dust  in  some  coarse  fodders  may 
be  avoided  by  sprinkling. 

Ground  and  Unground  Feed. — Opinions  differ  as  regards  the 
advantages  of  grinding  grain.  For  horses  that  are  worked  hard  and 
are  out  of  the  stable  during  the  day,  it  is  quite  generally  believed 
that  all  grains  with  the  possible  exception  of  oats,  should  be  ground. 
For  idle  horses  or  those  at  light  work,  grinding  is  not  thought  to  be 
so  essential.  In  other  respects,  providing  the  animals  have  time  to 
masticate  their  rations  thoroughly,  the  grinding  is  not  necessary  ex- 
cept in  instances  where  animals  have  faulty  teeth.  When  the  ration 
is  eaten  hurriedly,  grinding  takes  the  place  of  mastication  to  some 
extent  and  increases  the  assimilation.  From  all  the  American  tests 
and  those  which  have  been  made  in  Europe,  it  appears  fair  to  say 
that  there  is  no  marked  advantage  in  grinding  grain  for  healthy 
horses  with  good  teeth. 

Cut  and  Uncut  Fodders. — It  is  the  general  opinion  that  when 
horses  have  ample  time  for  chewing  and  digesting  their  feed,  there 
is  no  necessity  for  chaffing  or  cutting  hay  and  straw.  When  the 
time  for  feeding  is  limited,  the  cutting  of  these  fodders  is  regarded 
as  somewhat  advantageous;  furthermore  chaffed  feed  occupies  less 
space  for  storage  than  uncut  hay  or  straw,  and  on  that  account  can 
be  more  readily  handled.  As  some  horses  have  a  tendency  to  eat 
their  grain  rations  too  rapidly,  a  decided  advantage  is  gained  by 
mixing  a  grain  ration  with  moistened  cut  fodder. — (Agr.  Dept. 
F.  B.170.) 

Watering  Horses. — Horses  like  other  animals  require  water 
which  should  always  be  of  good  cfuality.  It  may  be  assumed  that 
under  any  given  normal  condition  the  body  contains  a  definite 
amount  of  water.  When  any  considerable  amount  of  this  is  lost  a 
sensation  of  thirst  is  experienced.  In  addition  to  the  water  drunk 
by  horses,  a  considerable^  amount  is  obtained  in  the  succulent  food 
eaten.  The  amount  required  is  influenced  by  several  factors,  includ- 
ing season  of  the  year,  temperature  of  the  air,  character  of  the  feed, 
peculiarities  of  the  individual,  amount  and  character  of  the  work 
performed. 

The  amount  of  water  needed  increases  with  the  temperature 
and  the  amount  of  work  performed.  Less  water  is  consumed  when 
grain  and  succulent  foods  form  a  considerable  part  of  the  ration. 
In  general,  a  horse  will  drink  50  to  75  pounds  of  water  per  day,  how- 
ever under  the  influence  of  warm  weather  or  hard  work  the  amount 
may  range  from  80  to  125  pounds  or  even  more.    In  some  experi- 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  G7 

ments  in  the  British  Army,  it  was  found  that  when  allowed  to  choose, 
horses  drank  about  one-fourth  of  their  daily  allowance  in  the  morn- 
ing, about  three-eighths  at  noon,  and  about  the  same  proportion  at 
night.  The  proper  time  to  water  horses  is  a  matter  considering  which 
opinions  differ.  Many  feeders  believe  that  they  should  be  watered  be- 
fore feeding,  while  others  are  equally  certain  that  feeding  should  pre- 
cede the  watering.  Some  recent  experiments  made  in  Europe  tend 
to  show  that  the  time  of  drinking  has  no  effect  on  the  digestibility 
of  a  ration  of  hay  and  grain.  When  only  hay  was  fed  there  seemed 
to  be  a  slight  advantage  of  watering  before  feeding.  In  the  experi- 
ments referred  to,  it  was  found  that  whenever  a  change  was  made 
from  the  plan  of  w^atering  after  feeding  to  that  of  watering  before, 
the  appetite  fell  off  for  some  days.  A  similar  effect  was  not  observed 
when  •  the  reverse  change  was  made.  It  seems  best,  therefore,  to 
avoid  any  unnecessary  changes  in  the  methods  of  watering. — (Agr. 
Dept.  F.  B.  170.) 

Corn. — Next  to  oats  corn  may  be  considered  the  most  popular 
grain  for  horses  in  this  country.  It  is  so  commonly  used  especially 
in  the  South  and  West  that  it  is  difficult  to  realize  the  prejudice 
existing  against  it  in  other  countries.  It  is  perhaps  to  be  expected 
that  a  corn  ration  would  be  most  popular  where  the  most  com  is  pro- 
duced, that  is  in  the  com  producing  belt  of  the  United  States.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  corn  is  among  the  cheapest  of  grains  used  for  horse 
food,  and  consequently  the  most  economical  feeder  is  one  who  knows 
how  to  make  the  best  use  of  this  grain. — (111.  B.  141.) 

FEEDING  HORSES. 

Horses  and  mules  when  pastured  exclusively  on  Alsike  pasture 
have  in  some  instances  become  infected  with  a  disease  which  consists 
for  the  most  part  of  sores  and  ulcers  breaking  out  on  the  skin  and 
mucus-membrane  of  the  mouth  and  eyes.  This  disease  has  been 
noted  most  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The  pre- 
cise cause  has  as  yet  not  been  ascert-ained. — (Tenn.  Vol.  XVIII. 
No.  3.) 

Yearling  colts  fed  a  part  ration  of  peanut  and  coconut  meal 
showed  somewhat  larger  and  cheaper  gains  than  those  fed  on  oats, 
and  those  fed  peanut  and  coconut  meal  with  roughage  made  the  best 
returns. — (Dep.  Agr.  Bureau  Animal  Industry  Cir.  168.) 

As  a  food  for  horses,  this  food  seems  to  have  a  considerable 
value,  but  it  is  notably  deficient  in  paJatability ;  it  is  hardly  to  be 
considered  among  the  desirable  horse  concentrates. — (Ind.  B.  97.) 

The  results  of  many  trials  of  various  rations  for  farm  work 
horses  have  shown  quite  conclusively  that  com  and  oats  either 
ground  or  unground  constitute  one  of  the  safest  and  most  satisfac- 
tory rations.  A  mixture  of  corn  and  bran  equal  parts  by  weight 
maJie  a  good  substitute  for  corn  and  oats. 

Some  feeding  experiments  at  the  Florida  Station  tend  to  show 
that  southern  work  horses  fed  ten  pounds  of  com  and  ten  to  fourteen 
pounds  of  hay  improved  when  sweet  potatoes  were  substituted  for 
one  half  of  the  com  ration.  The  substitution  being  at  the  rate  of 
three  pounds  of  sweet  potatoes  for  one  of  com.    Carrying  the  com- 


68  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

parison  still  further,  a  yield  of  150  bushels  of  sweet  potatoes  per  acre 
would  have  a  feeding  value  of  50  bushels  of  corn. —  (Fla.  B.  72.) 

Cassava  was  substituted  for  a  part  of  this  corn  ration  in  a  feed- 
ing experiment,  but  was  not  relished  by  the  horses  while  sweet  pota- 
toes were  readily  eaten. 

In  some  feeding  tests  ground  rough  rice  seemed  to  be  a  very 
satisfactory  substitute  for  corn  wholly  or  in  part  when  fed  to  work- 
ing mules.  The  conclusions  being  drawn  that  a  daily  ration  con- 
taining at  least  eight  poimds  of  ground  rough  rice  per  1,000  pounds 
of  live  weight  for  horses  and  mules  doing  heavy  work. — (La. 
B.  122.) 

Millet  as  a  Forage. — The  feeding  of  millet  to  horses  was  not  at- 
tended with  favorable  results  at  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. The  results  of  the  trial  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  1. 
Millet  produced  an  increased  action  of  the  kidneys.  2.  It  caused 
lameness  and  swelling  of  the  joints.  3.  It  produced  an  infusion  of 
blood  into  the  joints.  4.  It  destroyed  the  texture  of  the  bone,  ren- 
dering it  soft  so  that  traction  caused  the  ligaments  and  muscles  to 
be  torn  loose.— (N.  Dak.  B.  26.) 

Publications  on  horses  quoted  from  and  consulted:  Wis.  Circ. 
of  Information  17,  21,  28 ;  111.  B.  122 ;  Fla.  B.  72 ;  Wis.  B.  127 ;  Dep. 
Agr.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  Circ.  137,  178,  163,  113;  Wis.  B.  158,  141,  169; 
Mo.  Circ.  Inf.  27;  Wis.  B.  188,  155;  Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  170,  145;  N. 
Dak.  B.  45;  La.  B.  122;  Ohio  B.  195;  Agr.  Dep.  Bu.  Au.  Ind.  Circ. 
124, 168;  Tenn.  B.  Vol.  XVIIL  No.  3;  N.  Dak.  26,  20;  N.  H.  B.  82; 
Ind.  B.  97;  111.  B.  150,  141;  Mich.  B.  254. 

THE  MULE. 

BREEDING  AND  FEEDING. 

There  are  two  kinds  or  classes  of  mules ;  one  the  produce  of  the 
male  ass  or  jack  and  the  mare,  the  other  the  offspring  of  the  female 
ass  or  jennet  and  the  stallion.  The  cross  betAveen  the  jack  and  the 
mare  is  properly  called  the  mule,  while  the  other,  the  produce  of  the 
stallion  and  the  jennet,  is  called  a  hinny. 

The  mule  is  the  more  valuable  animal  of  the  two,  having 
greater  size  and  more  finish  and  bone ;  in  fact  he  has  those  qualities 
which  make  that  animal  so  much  prized  as  a  useful  burden  bearing 
animal.  The  hinny  is  small  in  size  and  is  laqj^ing  in  the  qualities 
requisite  to  a  draft  animal. 

-  This  hybrid  is  supposed  not  to  breed,  as  no  instance  is  known 
in  which  a  stallion  mule  has  been  prolific,  although  he  seems  to  be 
physically  perfect.  He  shows  great  fondness  for  the  female  and 
serves  readily.  There  are  supposed  instances  on  record  where  the 
female  mule  has  produced  a  foal,  but  these  are  extremely  rare. 

Characteristics. — The  mule  partakes  of  the  several  characteris- 
tics of  both  its  parents,  having  the  head,  ear,  foot  and  bone  of  the 
jack,  while  in  height  and  body  it  follows  the  mare.  It  has  the  voice 
of  neither,  but  is  between  the  two,  and  more  nearly  resembles  the 
jack.  It  possesses  the  patience,  endurance  and  sure-footedness  of 
the  jack,  and  the  vigor,  strength  and  courage  of  the  horse.  It  is 
easily  kept,  very  hardy,  and  no  path  is  too  precipitous  or  mountain 


Pair  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


Pair  of  Single-Comb  Rhode  Island  Reds.    Dept.  of  Age. 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  71 

trail  too  difFicult  for  one  of  them  with  its  burden.  The  mule  en- 
joys comparative  immunity  from  disease,  and  lives  to  a  compara- 
tively great  age.  Pliny  gives  an  account,  taken  from  Grecian  his- 
tory, of  one  that  was  80  years  old,  and,  though  past  labor,  followed 
those  that  were  carrying  material  to  build  a  temple.  Dr.  Reese 
mentions  two  that  were  70  years  old,  in  England. 

Rome  and  Greece  had  their  mules,  w^hich  were  used  for  car- 
riages, the  saddle,  and  carrying  burdens.  At  this  day  they  are  used 
extensively  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world  wdicre  agricultural  pur- 
suits are  carried  on,  as  well  as  in  the  mining  regions,  the  cotton  belt, 
and  all  sugar-growing  countries,  where  they  have  largely  supplanted 
the  horse.  Mules  are  much  used  in  Europe ;  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy, 
and  France,  being  the  countries  where  they  are  most  used,  and  are 
prized  highly  for  their  gentleness  and  faithfulness. — (Dep.  Agr. 
Bu.  An.  Ind.  8th  and  9th  Annual  Rpt.) 

Endurance. — There  is  no  kind  of  labor  to  which  a  horse  can  be 
put  for  which  a  mule  may  not  be  made  to  answer,  while  there  are 
many  for  which  mules  are  more  peculiarly  adapted  than  horses; 
among  the  rest,  that  of  mining,  where  the  mule  is  used,  and  many 
of  them  need  no  drivers.  They  can  endure  more  hardships  than 
the  horse,  can  live  on  less,  and  do  more  work  on  the  same  feed  than 
any  other  beast  of  burden  we  use  in  America. 

A  cotton-planter  in  the  South  would  feel  unwilling  to  raise  his 
crop  with  horses  for  motive  power.  The  horse  and  the  labor  of  the 
cotton  belt  could  not  harmonize,  while  the  negro  is  at  home  with  the 
mule.  A  mule  may  be  worked  until  completely  fagged,  when  a 
good  feed  and  a  night's  rest  will  enable  it  to  go ;  but  it  is  not  so  with 
a  horse. 

The  mule  being  better  adapted  for  carrying  burdens,  for  the 
plow,  the  wagon,  building  of  railroads,  and  in  fact  all  classes  of 
heavy  labor,  let  us  see  how  it  compares  with  that  noble  animal,  the 
horse,  in  cost  of  maintenance. 

From  repeated  experiments  that  have  come  under  my  observa- 
tion in  the  past  twenty-five  years,  it  has  been  found  that  three  mules 
15  hands  high,  that  were  constantly  worked,  consumed  about  as 
much  forage  as  two  ordinary-sized  horses  worked  in  the  same 
way,  and  while  the  mules  were  fat  the  horses  were  only  in  good 
working  order.  Although  a  mule  will  live  and  work  on  very  low 
fare,  he  also  responds  as  quickly  as  any  animal  to  good  feed  and 
kind  treatment.  True,  it  is  charged  that  the  mule  is  vicious,  stub- 
born, and  slow,  but  an  experience  in  handling  many  mules  on  the 
farm  has  failed  to  sustain  the  charge,  save  in  few  instances,  and  in 
these  the  propensities  were  brought  about  by  bad  handling.  They 
are  truer  pullers  than  tlie  horse,  and  move  more  quickly  under  the 
load.  Their  hearing  and  vision  are  better  than  the  horse.  A  farmer 
has  used  them  in  all  the  different  branches  of  farming,  from  the 
plow  to  the  carriage  and  buggy,  and  thinks  they  are  liable  to  become 
frightened  and  start  suddenly;  and  if  they  do  start,  they  usually 
stop  before  damage  is  done,  while  the  horse  seldom  stops  until  com- 
pletely freed.  A  farmer  once  had  a  runaway  of  six  teams  in  a  corn- 
field, five  of  them  being  mules  and  the  sixth  a  horse.    The  mules 


72  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

ran  and  capered  until  they  came  to  the  first  batch  of  green  grass, 
and  there  stopped  to  regale  themselves,  while  the  horse  ran  on  until 
he  stuck  the  plow  in  his  back,  greatly  frightened.  In  less  than  ten 
minutes  the  five  mule  plows  were  going  without  a  bolt  broken,  while 
the  plow  after  the  horse  was  a  wreck,  and  the  horse  ruined  for  life. 
The  mule  is  more  steady  while  at  work  than  the  horse,  and  is  not 
so  liable  to  become  exhausted,  and  often  becomes  so  well  instructed 
as  to  need  neither  driver  nor  lines. 

They  are  also  good  for  light  harness,  many  of  them  being  very 
useful  buggy  animals,  traveling  a  day's  journey  equal  to  some 
horses.  The  writer  obtained  one  from  a  firm  of  jack  breeders  in  his 
vicinity,  that  was  bred  in  the  purple  by  them,  as  an  experiment, 
being  out  of  a  thoroughbred  mare  by  a  royally  bred  jack.  She  is  1'6' 
hands  high,  as  courageous  as  most  any  horse.  In  traveling  a  dis- 
tance of  32  miles,  this  mule,  with  two  men  and  the  baggage,  made 
it,  as  the  saying  goes,  "under  a  pull,"  in  four  hours,  and  when  ar- 
rived at  the  journey's  end  seemed  willing  to  go  on. 

We  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  underrating  the  horse,  for 
it  is  a  noble  animal,  ^yell  suited  for  man's  wants,  but  for  burden- 
bearing  and  drudgery  is  more  than  equaled  by  the  patient,  faithful, 
hardy  mule. 

The  Kind  of  Sire  to  Breed  From. — ^There  are  two  kinds  of 
jacks — the  mule  jack  and  the  jennet  jack,  or  combined  jack,  that  is 
^od  for  either  mares  or  jennets,  and  is  used  chiefly  in  breeding 
jacks  for  stock  purposes.  It  is  only  with  the  mule  jack  that  we  will 
deal,  as  the  jennet  jack  is  too  costly  to  breed  to  mares,  as  a  rule,  un- 
less the  mares  are  of  extra  quality. 

A  good  mule  jack  ought  to  be  not  less  than  15  hands  high,  and 
have  allof  the  weight,  head,  ear,  foot,  bone,  and  length  that  can  be 
obtained,  coupled  with  a  broad  chest,  wide  hips,  and  with  all  the 
style  attainable  with  these  qualities.  Smaller  jacks  are  often  fine 
breeders,  and  produce  some  of  our  best  mules,  and  when  bred  to 
the  heavier,  larger  class  of  mares  show  good  results,  but  as  "like  pro- 
duces like,"  the  larger  jacks  are  preferable. 

Black,  with  light  points,  is  the  favorite  color  for  a  jack,  but 
many  of  our  gray,  blue,  and  even  white  jacks  have  produced  good 
mules.  In  fact,  some  of  the  nicest,  smoothest,  red-sorrel  mules  have 
been  the  product  of  these  off -colored  jacks;  but  the  black  jacks  get 
the  largest  proportion  of  good-colored  colts  from  all  colored  mares. 

The  breed  of  the  jack  is  also  to  be  looked  into.  There  are  now 
so  many  varieties  of  jacks  in  the  United  States,  all  of  which  have 
merits,  that  it  will  be  well  to  examine  and  see  what  jack  has  shown 
the  best  results.  We  have  the  Catalonian,  the  Andalu.sian,  the  Malt- 
ese, the  Majorca,  the  Italian,  and  the  Poitou — all  of  which  are  im- 
ported— and  the  native  jack.  Of  all  the  imported,  the  Catalonian  is 
the  finest  type  of  animal,  being  a  good  black,  with  white  points,  of 
fine  style  and  action,  and  from  l^Vz  to  15  hands  high,  rarely  16 
harids,  with  a  clean  bone.  The  Andalusian  is  about  ihe  same  type 
of  jack  as  the  Catalonian,  having  perhaps  a  little  more  weight  and 
bone,  but  are  all  off  colors.  The  Maltese  is  smaller  than  the  Cata- 
lonian, rarely  being  over  145^  hands  high,  but  is  nice  and  smooth. 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  73 

The  Majorca  is  the  largest  of  the  imported  jacks,  the  heaviest  in 
weight,  bone,  head,  and  ear,  and  frequently  grows  to  16  hands. 
These  are  raised  in  the  rich  island  of  Majorca  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  While  they  excel  in  weight  and  size,  they  lack  in  style,  finish, 
and  action.  The  Italian  is  the  smallest  of  all  the  imported  jacks, 
being  usually  from  13  to  14  hands  high,  but  having  good  foot,  bone, 
and  weight,  and  some  of  them  make  good  breeders.  The  Poitou  is 
the  latest  importation  of  the  jack,  and  is  little  known  in  the  United 
States.  He  is  imported  from  France,  and  is  reported  to  be  the  sire 
of  some  of  the  finest  mules  in  his  native  land.  These  jacks  have 
long  hair  about  the  neck,  ears,  and  legs,  and  are  in  some  respects  to 
the  jack  race  what  the  Clydesdale  is  to  other  horses.  He  is  heavy 
set,  has  good  foot  and  bone,  fine  head  and  ear,  and  of  good  size, 
being  about  15  hands  high. 

The  native  jack,  as  a  class,  is  heavier  in  body,  having  a  larger 
bone  and  foot  than  the  imported,  and  shows  in  his  entire  make-up 
the  result  of  the  limestone  soil  and  grasses  common  in  this  country. 
He  is  of  all  colors,  having  descended  from  all  the  breeds  of  imported 
jacks.  But  the  breeders  of  this  country,  seeing  the  fancy  of  their 
customers  for  the  black  jack  with  light  points,  have  discarded  all 
other  colors  in  selecting  their  jacks  to  breed  to  jennets,  and  the  con- 
sequence is  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  jeicks  in  the  stud  now,  for 
mares,  are  of  this  color. 

The  native  jack,  being  acclimated  and  to  the  manor  bom,  seems 
to  give  better  satisfaction  to  breeders  of  mules  than  any  other  kind. 
From  observation  and  experience  it  is  believed  that  our  native  jacks, 
with  good  imported  crosses  behind  them,  will  sire  the  mules  best 
suited  to  the  wants  of  those  who  use  them  in  this  country,  and  will 
supply  the  market  with  what  is  desired  by  the  dealers.  The  colts 
by  this  class  of  jacks  are  stronger  in  make-up,  having  better  body, 
with  more  lengtli,  larger  head  and  ear,  more  foot  and  bone,  com- 
bined with  style  equal  to  the  colts  of  the  imported  jacks. 

"While  many  fine  mules  are  sired  by  imported  jacks,  this  is  not 
to  be  understood  as  meaning  that  imported  jacks  do  not  get  good 
foals,  yet,  taken  as  a  class,  we  think  that  the  mule  by  the  native  jack 
is  superior  to  any  other  class.  This  conclusion  is  borne  out  by  an 
experience  and  observation  of  some  years,  and  by  many  of  the  best 
breeders  and  dealers  in  the  United  States. 

The  Kind  of  Mare  to  Breed  From. — As  the  mule  partakes  very 
largely  in  its  bodj  and  shape  of  its  mother,  it  is  necessary  that  care 
should  be  taken  in  selecting  the  dam.  Many  suppose  that  when  a 
mare  becomes  diseased  and  unfit  for  breeding  to  the  horse  then  she 
is  fit  to  breed  for  mules.  This  is  a  sad  mistake,  for  a  good,  growing, 
sound  colt  must  have  good,  sound  sire  and  dam. 

The  jack  may  be  ever  so  good,  yet  the  result  will  be  a  disap- 
pointment unless  the  mare  is  good,  sound,  and  properly  built  for 
breeding.  First,  she  should  be  sound  and  of  good  color;  black,  bay, 
brown,  or  chestnut  is  preferred.  Her  good  color  is  needed  to  help  to 
give  the  foals  proper  color,  and  this  is  a  matter  of  no  small  impor- 
tance, as  we  shall  see  further  on. 


■74  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

This  should  not  be  understood  as  ignoring  the  other  colors,  for 
some  of  the  best  mules  ever  seen  were  the  produce  of  gray  or  light- 
colored  mares,  as  many  dealers  and  breeders  will  attest.  The  mare 
should  be  well  bred ;  that  is,  she  would  give  better  results  by  having 
some  good  crosses.  By  all  means  let  her  have  a  cross  of  thorough- 
bred, say  one-quarter,  supplemented  with  strong  crosses  of  some  of 
the  larger  breeds,  and  the  balance  of  the  breeding  may  be  made  up 
of  the  better  class  of  the  native  stock.  The  mare  should  have  good 
length,  large,  well-rounded  barrel,  good  head,  long  neck,  good,  broad, 
flat  bone,  broad  chest,  wide  between  the  hips,  and  good  style. 

How  to  Breed  the  Mule. — The  dam  should  be  bred  about  the 
first  of  April  in  the  latitude  of  Tennessee,  and  at  other  places  as  the 
season  opens,  according  to  climate.  Before  being  bred,  to  prevent 
accidents,  the  mare  should  be  hobbled  or  pitted.  Having  taken  this 
precaution,  the  jack  may  be  brought  out,  and  both  will  be  ready  for 
service.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  overserve  the  jack,  as  he  should 
not  be  allowed  to  serve  over  two  mares  a  day,  and  not  nearer  than 
eight  hours  apart. 

The  mare,  after  being  served,  may  be  put  to  light  work,  or  put 
upon  some  quiet  pasture  by  herself  for  several  days  until  she  passes 
out  of  season,  when  she  may  be  turned  out  wdth  other  stock  to  run 
until  the  eighteenth  day,  when  she  should  be  taken  up  to  be  teased 
by  a  horse,  to  ascertain  if  she  be  in  season,  and  if  so,  she  should  be 
bred  again.  Some  breeders  think  the  ninth,  some  the  twelfth,  and 
some  the  fifteenth  day  after  service  is  the  proper  day  to  tease,  but 
observation  has  taught  us  that  the  best  results  come  from  the  eigh- 
teenth-day plan.  After  she  becomes  impregnated  she  should  have 
good  treatment;  light  work  will  not  hurt  her,  but  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  overexert.  She  should  have  good,  nutritious  grass  if 
she  runs  out  and  is  not  worked,  but  if  worked  she  should  be  well  fed 
on  good  feed.  The  foal  will  be  due  in  about  three  hundred  and  thir- 
ty-three days.  As  the  time  approaches  for  foaling  the  mare  should 
be  put  in  a  quiet  place,  away  from  other  stock,  until  the  foal  is 
dropped.  She  wall  not  need  any  extra  attention,  as  a  rule,  but 
should  be  looked  after  to  see  that  everything  goes  right. 

After  the  foal  comes  it  will  not  hurt  the  mare  or  colt  for  the 
dam  to  do  light  work,  provided  she  is  well  fed  on  good,  nutritious 
food.  Should  she  not  be  worked  and  is  on  good  grass,  and  fed  lightly 
on  grain,  the  colt  will  grow  finely,  if  the  mare  gives  plenty  of  milk ; 
if  she  does  not  the  foal  should  be  taught  to  eat  such  feed  as  is  most 
suitable. 

Feeders,  dealers,  and  buyers  prefer  the  mare  mule  to  the  horse, 
and  they  sell  more  readily.  The  females  mature  earlier,  are  plumper 
and  rounder  of  body,  and  fatten  more  readily  than  the  male.  When 
carried  to  the  Southern  market,  where  the  buffalo  gnats  exist,  these 
pests  trouble  the  males  more  by  biting  their  sheaths.  The  males  are 
also  more  leggy  and  angular  of  body,  are  slower  in  maturing,  and, 
as  a  rule,  must  be  older  to  fatten  readily. 

In  weaning  the  colt,  much  is  accomplished  by  proper  treat- 
ment, preparatory  to  this  trying  event  in  the  mule's  life.  It  should 
be  taught  to  eat  while  following  its  mother,  so  that  when  weaned  it 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  75 

Avill  at  once  know  how  to  subsist  on  that  which  is  fed  to  it.  The  best 
way  to  wean  is  to  take  several  colts  and  place  them  in  a  close  barn, 
with  plenty  of  good,  soft  feed,  such  as  bran  and  oats  mixed,  plenty 
of  sound,  sweet  hay,  and  in  season,  cut-grass,  remembering  at  all 
times  that  nothing  can  make  up  for  want  of  pure  water  in  the  sta- 
ble. Many  may  be  weaned  together  properly.  After  they  have  re- 
mained in  the  stable  for  several  days  they  may  be  turned  on  good, 
rich  pasture.  Do  not  forget  to  feed,  as  this  is  a  trying  time.  The 
change  from  a  lactic  to  a  dry  diet  is  severe  on  the  colt.  They  may 
all  be  huddled  in  a  barn  together,  as  they  seldom  hurt  each  other. 
Good,  rich  clover  pastures  are  fine  for  mules  at  this  age,  but  if  they 
are  to  be  extra  fine,  feed  them  a  little  grain  all  the  while. 

There  is  little  variety  in  the  feed  until  the  mules  are  2  years  old, 
at  which  time  they  are  very  easily  broken.  If  halter-broken  as  they 
grow  up,  all  there  is  to  do  in  breaking  one  is  to  put  on  a  harness 
and  place  the  young  animal  beside  a  broken  mule,  and  go  to  work. 
When  it  is  thoroughly  used  to  the  harness  the  mule  is  already 
broken.  Light  work  in  the  spring  when  the  mule  is  2  years  old  will 
do  no  hurt,  but  in  the  opinion  of  many  breeders  and  dealers  make  it 
better,  provided  it  is  carefully  handled  and  fed. 

How  to  Fatten  the  Mule. — This  is  one  of  the  most  important 
parts  of  mule-raising,  for  when  the  mule  is  offered  to  a  buyer  he 
will  at  once  ask,  "Is  he  fat?"  and  fat  goes  far  in  effecting  a  sale.  A 
rough,  poor  mule  could  hardly  be  sold,  while  if  it  is  fat  the  buyer 
%vill  take  it  because  it  is  fat. 

The  sugar  mule  should  be  placed  in  the  barn  with  plenty  of 
room,  and  not  much  light,  about  the  1st  of  November,  before  it  is  2 
years  old,  and -fed  about  12  ears  of  corn  per  day  and  all  the  nice, 
well-cured  clover  hay  it  wall  eat,  and  there  kept  until  about  the  1st 
of  April.  Then  in  the  climate  of  middle  Tennessee  the  clover  is 
good,  and  the  mule  may  be  turned  out  on  it,  and  the  corn  increased 
to  about  20  ears  or  more  per  day.  They  will  then  eat  more  grain, 
without  fear  of  "firing" ;  that  is,  heating  so  as  to  cause  scratches,  as 
the  green  clover  removes  all  danger  from  this  source.  During  the 
time  they  run  on  the  clover  they  eat  less  hay,  but  this  should  always 
be  kept  by  them.  About  the  1st  of  May,  the  clover  blooms,  and  is 
large  enough  to  cut,  in  the  latitude  of  Tennessee.  The  mules  should 
bo  placed,  then,  in  the  bam,  with  a  nice,  smooth  lot  attached,  and 
plenty  of  pure  water.  A  manger  should  be  built  in  the  lot,  4  feet 
wide  by  4  feet  high,  and  long  enough  to  accommodate  the  number 
of  mules  it  is  desired  to  feed.  This  should  be  covered  over  hy  a  shed 
high  enough  for  the  mule  to  stand  under,  to  prevent  the  clover  from 
wilting.  The  clover  should  be  cut  while  the  dew  is  on,  as  this  pre- 
serves the  aroma,  and  they  like  it  better.  While  this  is  going  on  in 
the  lot,  the  troughs  and  racks  in  the  barn  should  bo  supplied  with  all 
the  shelled  corn  the  mules  will  eat.  "Why  shell  it?"  some  one  will 
ask.  Because  they  eat  more  of  it,  and  relish  it.  A  valuable  addition 
at  all  times  consists  of  either  short-cut  sheaf  oats,  or  shelled  oats, 
and  bran,  if  not  too  expensive. 

From  the  1st  to  the  15th  of  June  barley  is  harvested  in  this 
latitude,  and  it  should  be  ground  coarsely.    The  mules  should  be  fe4 


76  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

on  this,  all  they  will  eat,  taking  care  that  no  feed  is  permitted  to  get 
sour.  We  usually  have  about  this  time  some  early  varieties  of  corn, 
planted  for  the  purpose  of  making  early  roasting  ears ;  this  is  now 
cut  in  the  field,  and  carried  to  the  manger  in  the  lot,  and  the  ears 
pulled  off,  carefully  husked  and  placed  in  the  troughs  in  the  barn, 
the  stalks  put  in  the  manger.  At  no  time  must  the  feed  be  mixed, 
but  the  shelled  com,  oats,  bran,  and  roasting  ears  kept  at  all  times 
in  separate  parts  of  the  trough.  By_  this  time  the  mule  is  something 
of  an  epicure,  and  no  more  wants  its  feed  mixed  than  a  gentleman 
does  his  bread,  meat,  and  potatoes. 

From  this  time  the  mule  should  be  pressed  with  all  the  richest 
of  feed,  if  it  is  desired  to  make  it  what  is  termed  in  mule  parlance 
"hog  fat."  All  the  roasting  ears,  ground  barley,  shelled  oats,  bran, 
and  shelled  corn,  should  be  fed,  not  forgetting  to  salt  regularly  all 
the  while,  nor  omitting  the  hay  and  green-corn  blades.  While  all 
those  are  essential,  shelled  oats  and  bran,  although  at  some  places 
expensive,  are  regarded  as  the  ne  plus  ultra  for  fattening  a  mule, 
and  giving  a  fine  suit  of  hair.  Be  sure  to  keep  the  barn  well  bedded, 
for  if  the  hair  becomes  soiled  from  rolling  it  lowers  the  value,  as  the 
mule  is  much  estimated  for  its  fine  coat. 

The  grain  makes  the  flesh,  the  green  stuff  keeps  the  system  of 
the  mule  cool,  and  balances  the  excess  of  carbonaceous  elements  in 
the  grain  fed.  This  manner  of  feeding,  if  properly  carried  out,  wiih 
the  proper  foundation  to  start  with,  will  make  sugar  mules,  2  years 
old  past,  weigh  from  1,150  to  1,350  pounds  by  September  1,  at 
which  time  the  market  opens. 

A  feeder  of  eighteen  years'  experience  claims  that  shelled  oats 
and  bran  will  j)ut  on  more  fine  flesh  in  a  given  time,  coupled  with  a 
smoother,  glossier  coat  of  hair,  than  any  other  kno^vn  feed.  The  ex- 
perienced feeder  follows  this  method  from  weaning  till  2  years  old. 

The  same  care  and  attention  requisite  in  feeding  the  sugar 
mule  must  be  observed  in  the  cotton  mule,  only  the  cotton  mule  is 
taken  up  about  the  1st  of  August  after  it  is  2  years  old,  and  fed  on 
green  corn,  shelled  corn,  plenty  of  good  hay,  and  any  kind  of  good 
green  stuff  at  hand.  Having  fed  it  in  the  barn  with  door  open  into 
the  lot  until  about  November  1,  when  the  weather  will  begin  to  be 
bad,  the  mule  should  be  kept  up  in  the  barn  and  well  bedded.  If 
the  hair  does  not  appear  as  well  as  it  ought  to  by  the  1st  of  Novem- 
ber some  shelled  oats  and  bran  might  be  fed,  to  put  on  the  fine  fin- 
ished, glossy  coat  and  fat.  This  feeding  until  the  1st  of  January  will 
make  the  mule  ready  for  the  market. 

How  to  Sell  the  Mule. — New  Orleans  is  the  center  of  the  sugar 
mule  distributing  region,  while  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Louisville,  Ky., 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  and  Columbia,  Tenn.,  and  other  cities  contribute 
largely  in  sending  their  products  to  the  Southern  markets  of  both 
classes  of  mules.  All  of  the  cities  of  the  Western  and  Southern 
States  demand  large  mules  for  their  drays  and  heavy  hauling. 

If  the  seller  has  properly  colored,  well  shaped,  fine  haired,  fat 
mare  mules  in  car-load  lots,  he  should  let  the  buyers  know  he  has 
them^  and  there  need  be  no  trouble  in  selling.    If  one  owner  has  not 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


77- 


a  car-load,  he  should  seek  some  one  who  is  making  up  a  car-load  to 
ship. 

Market  Classes. — The  market  classes  of  mules  are  determined  by 
the  use  to  which  they  are  put,  but  in  order  for  a  class  to  exist  there 
must  be  a  demand  for  sufficient  numbers  of  a  definite  type.  In  the 
East  St.  Louis  market,  which  is  the  largest  mule  market  in  the  world, 
there  are  five  market  classes,  viz :  mining  mules,  cotton  mules,  sugar 
mules,  farm  mules,  and  draft  mules.  As  with  horses,  the  class  em- 
bodies groups  of  mules  of  a  general  type,  while  the  grades  are  divis- 
ions of  the  class  and  refer  to  quality,  conformation,  condition,  and 
action. 

Classes.  Grades.  Classes,  Grades. 


Choice 

'Choice 

MINING  MULES 

Good 
Medium 
Common 
Inferior 

Choice 

FARM 

MULES 

Good 
Medium 
Common 
Inferior 

Choice 

COTTON  MULES 

Good 
Medium 
Common 
Inferior 

Choice 

DRAFT 

MULES , 

Good 
Medium 
Common 
Jnferior 

SUGAR  MULES , 

Good 
Medium 
Common 
Inferior 

Mining  mules  are  those  purchased  with  which  to  operate  mines. 
They  are  heavy  boned,  rugged,  compactly  built  individuals,  with 
large  feet  and  strong  constitution.  They  range  in  height  from  12  to 
16  hands  and  weigh  from  600  to  1350  pounds. 

Cotton  mules  are  lighter  boned  than  miners  and  not  so  compactly 
built.  They  are  round  bodied,  smoothly  turned  and  possess  consid- 
erable quality.  They  range  in  height  from  13-2  to  15-2  hands  and 
weigh  from  750  to  1100  pounds. 

Sugar  mules  are  those  shipped  south  to  use  on  the  sugar  farms 
of  Georgia,  Louisiana  and  other  southern  states.  They  are  taller, 
larger,  and  more  breedy  looking  than  cotton  mules  and  have  heavier 
bone.  They  stand  from  16  to  17  hands  and  weigh  from  1150  to  1300 
pounds. 

Farm  mules  are  those  purchased  to  be  used  on  the  farms  of  the 
central  states.  They  are  somewhat  lacking  in  uniformity  of  type 
and  many  of  them  are  young  and  somewhat  thin  in  flesh.  An  aver- 
age height  is  from  15-2  to  16  hands  and  weigh  from  900  to  1250 
pounds. 

Draft  mules  are  large  heavy  boned,  heavy  set  mules  that  possess 
quality  and  mggedness.  They  are  used  in  cities  for  heavy  teaming 
^nd  by  contractors  for  all  kinds  of  heavy  work,  such  as  railroad  gracF 


78 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


ing,  etc.    They  range  in  height  from  16  to  18  hands  and  weigh  from 
1200  to  1900  pounds  and  upwards. 

(Publications  on  Mules  Quoted  From  and  Consulted. — Agrl. 
Dep.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  8th  &  9th  Annual  Repts.,  1891  &  1892 ;  Fla.  B. 
72;  111.  B.  122;  La.  B.  122;  Tenn.  Vol.  XVIII.  No.  3;  Agr.  Dep.  Bu. 
An.  Ind.  Circ.  124). 

Pulse,  Temperature  and  Respiration  of  Domestic  Animals. 


Name  of  Animal. 


Horse   

Cow    

Sheep  and  Goat. 

Hog    

Dog  

Cat    


Internal 

Number  of 

Number  of 

temperature 

pulsations  per 

respirations 

Degrees  F. 

minute. 

per  minute. 

100.2 

34-40 

8-12 

102.2 

40-60 

12-16 

103.1 

60-80 

20-30 

102.3 

60-80 

20-30 

101.3 

55-75 

20-30 

100.9 

70-90 

15-20 

—  (Y.  R.  1900.) 

HORSE  AND  MULE  RAISING. 

In  the  South. — ^With  the  development  of  agriculture  in  the 
South  and  the  discussion  of  the  best  methods  to  follow  and  the  best 
policies  to  adopt  a  few  subjects  have  received  more  attention  from 
public  speakers  and  writers  than  the  production  in  that  section  of 
the  animals  needed  for  work  purposes  and  meat  production.  The 
idea  is  not  only  that  the  South  should  supply  its  own  demand  for 
these  animals,  but  that  southern  farmers  should  feed  as  far  as  pos- 
sible the  enormous  amount  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  cake  which  is 
now  shipped  out,  and  thus  replace  commercial  fertilizers  to  a  consid- 
erable extent  and  keep  up  fertility  with  barnyard  manure.  Southern 
farm  methods  now  in  vogue  have  been  criticised  by  outsiders,  but 
none  have  been  more  severe  than  the  leaders  in  agricultural  progress 
in  the  South  who  are  southern  bred  and  born. 

It  certainly  seems  anomalous  to  contemplate  a  vast  section  of 
our  country  spending  millions  annually  for  horses  and  mules,  for 
beef  and  pork,  and  for  commercial  fertilizers,  and  selling  hundreds 
of  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  fertility  as  cotton-seed  meal  and  cake, 
when  we  realize  that  the  condition  of  soil  and  climate  generally 
throughout  the  South  are  excellent  for  animal  production.  This 
condition  is  still  more  surprising  when  we  know  that,  properly  fed, 
cotton-seed  meal  is  probably  the  most  valuable  protein-bearing  feed 
the  country  produces,  and  that  its  fertilizing  value  after  having  gone 
through  an  animal's  body  is  almost  as  great  as  its  feed  value.  It  is 
also  more  than  passing  strange  that  a  southern  farmer  will  buy  hay 
shipped  from  the  West  at  from  $15  to  $23  per  ton  when  his  own  land 
will  often  yield  more  hay  per  acre  than  the  land  where  the  western 
hay  was  produced  and  of  as  good  a  quality. 

Inadequacy  of  Local  Supply  of  Horses  and  Mules. — According 
to  figures  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture there  were  83,026  horses  in  South  Carolina  on  January  1,  1907. 
TJiese  horses  had  a  total  farm  valuation  of  $10,437,182,  arj  average 


Morgan  Stallion,  "General  Gates."    Dept.  of  Agr. 


A  Choice  Express  Horse,  Weight,  1,375  Pounds.    Dept.  os  Agr. 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  79 

of  $126  a  head.  The  same  authority  estimates  the  number  of  mules 
in  the  State  on  the  same  date  at  134,690,  with  a  total  farm  value  of 
$20,598,121  and  an  average  of  $153  a  head. 

The  average  life  of  a  horse  in  South  Carolina  from  the  time  he  is 
mature  may  be  estimated  at  eight  years  and  that  of  a  mule  at  ten 
years.  The  stock  of  horses  and  mules  must  therefore  be  replaced 
once  in  each  eight  or  ten  years,  respectively ;  or,  to  express  it  differ- 
ently, 10,000  horses  and  13,000  mules  must  be  raised  or  brought  into 
the  State  annually.  If  all  were  bred  in  South  Carolina  that  would 
require  at  least  135  stallions  and  12,500  mares  for  horse  breeding, 
estimating  a  stallion  to  get  75  colts  annually  and  75  per  cent  of  the 
mares  to  breed  each  year.  For  breeding  mules  the  number  of  jacks 
required  would  be  at  least  240  and  the  number  of  mares  26,000,  esti- 
mating a  jack  to  get  50  mules  a  year  and  about  50  per  cent  of  the 
mares  bred  to  jacks  to  breed.  This  would  mean  a  total  of  at  least 
38,000  brood  mares.  To  keep  up  this  supply  of  breeding  mares 
probably  10,000  more  should  be  added  to  the  total.  In  other  words, 
at  least  one-half  of  the  total  number  of  horses  now  in  the  State  should 
be  mares  used  in  breeding  both  horses  and  mules. 

Furthermore,  these  estimates  do  not  take  into  account  the  num- 
ber of  foals  and  horses  from  one  to  four  years  old  necessary  to  keep  up 
this  number,  which  would  be  nearly  as  many  more.  Therefore,  if 
South  Carolina  produced  her  own  horses  and  mules,  nearly  as  many 
horses  and  mares  as  the  State  now  has  altogether  w^ould  have  to  be 
in  the  breeding  ranks.  In  other  words,  the  State  has  only  half  as 
many  horses  as  are  actually  needed.  If  we  had  no  proof,  this 
alone  would  show  that  the  State  goes  elsewhere  for  its  horses  and 
mules. 

Reasons  for  Raising  Horses  and  Mules  at  Home. — In  the  opin- 
ion of  the  writer,  there  are  three  reasons  why  South  Carolina  farmers 
should  raise  their  own  horses  and  mules.  The  first  one  is  to  keep 
within  the  State  the  great  sum  which  is  paid  annually  for  stock 
shipped  in  from  the  North  and  "West.  From  the  estimates  given  and 
from  the  best  information  at  hand,  which  is  largely  in  the  nature  of 
estimates  of  southern  men  of  experience  and  authority,  it  would  ap- 
pear that  probably  only  about  2,000  of  the  horses  and  1,000  of  the 
mules  used  annually  are  raised  in  the  State.  Estimating  the  cost  of 
the  horses  delivered  to  the  South  Carolina  farmer  at  $125  each  and  of 
mules  at  $175  each,  the  amount  of  monev  sent  out  of  the  State  an- 
nually is  $1,000,000  for  horses  and  $1,925,000  for  mules— $3,000,- 
000  in  round  numbers,  which  could  be  retained  in  the  State  to  good 
advantage. 

It  may  be  said  that  if  the  State  produced  its  own  horses  and 
mules  the  general  market  of  the  country  might  suffer,  and  local 
horse  and  mule  breeders  might  not  be  able  to  raise  them  at  a  profit. 
It  is  doubtful  if  this  is  true,  in  view  of  the  tremendous  activity  of  the 
horse  and  mule  markets.  The  year  1906  was  one  of  unparalleled 
prosperity  for  horse  and  mule  breeders.  Pricas  bounded  skyward, 
and  for  all  classes  there  was  a  demand  greater  than  the  market  could 
supply.    This  demand  shows  every  indication  of  being  maintained 


80  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

until  the  suppljr  can  meet  it,  and  as  long  as  conditions  in  business 
are  good  there  is  little,  if  any,  reason  to  fear  an  oversupply.  The 
rise  in  prices  of  horses  in  the  United  States  has  been  such  that  the 
export  trade  has  practically  ceased  except  for  the  best  grades  of  light 
horses.  The  European  market  can  not  pay  the  American  prices. 
Should  domestic  prices  decline  to  the  European  standard,  the  export 
trade  would  begin  again,  and  this  would  prevent  them  from  falling 
below  a  profitable  level. 

The  second  reason  is  that  by  producing  its  own  horses  and  mules 
the  South  has  stock  already  adapted  to  its  use.  No  time  is  lost  in 
getting  an  animal  to  do  his  best  under  southern  conditions.  Further- 
more, they  would  be  produced  at  cost,  without  having  to  include  in 
the  expense  bill  a  profit  to  any  other  producer  or  middleman.  Not 
only  that,  but  after  a  horse  or  mule  is  2  years  old  he  will  earn  his 
way,  and  a  moderate  amount  of  work  is  good  for  him.  In  this  way 
the  animal  has  been  raised  to  5  years  of  age  at  a  minimum  cost. 
Not  only  is  all  this  a  great  advantage,  but  the  breeding  of  the  stock 
is  known,  or  if  not  it  can  readily  be  ascertained.  This  is  of  im- 
mense importance.  If  a  farmer  owns  a  good  horse  or  mule,  natur- 
ally he  wants  another  like  him,  and  if  the  sire  is  within  reach  it  is 
an  easy  matter  to  breed  mares  to  him  with  a  reasonable  expectation 
that  the  sire  will  duplicate  his  previous  performances. 

Let  us  digress  for  a  moment  to  point  out  more  in  detail  the  value 
of  knowing  something  of  an  animal's  ancestry  before  buying.  The 
laws  of  heredity  are  powerful,  and  they  work  not  through  the  parents 
alone,  but  through  grandparents,  great-grandparents,  and  even  more 
remote  ancestors.  If  a  line  of  breeding  is  proposed  which  is  com- 
posed entirely  of  animals  of  merit,  the  mating  is  almost  sure  to 
result  satisfactorily;  but  if  there  is  a  stain  in  it,  if  some  animal  was 
below  standard,  its  faults  will  crop  out  somewhere  in  its  descendants. 
That  is  the  reason  why  pure  breeding  is  surer  than  haphazard  breed- 
ing, and  why  it  is  undesirable  to  breed  to  scrubs.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  the  persistent  use  of  purebred  sires  of  the  same  breed  is  sure  to 
show  great  improvement  over  the  original  foundation  stock.  If  for 
no  other  reason,  then,  southern  farmers  should  breed  their  own 
animals  so  that  they  can  know  their  breeding  and  use  this  knowl- 
edge for  future  benefit. 

The  third  reason  why  the  South  Carolina  farmers  should  breed 
horses  and  mules  is  that  the  State  has  excellent  possibilities  for  stock 
raising,  and  that  when  the  supply  is  increased  beyond  local  needs 
the  demands  of  outside  markets  can  be  filled.  The  greatest  horse- 
raising  State  in  the  country  is  Iowa,  and  the  greatest  horse  market 
for  the  number  handled  is"  Chicago.  However,  it  is  estimated  that 
at  least  half  of  these  horses  are  sent  from  Chicago  to  other  points, 
some  for  final  sale,  others  for  further  fitting  for  market.  The 
highest  class  of  horses  will  generally  be  found  in  the  East,  in  New 
York  and  Boston,  and  the  highest  prices  for  good  horses  are  to  bo 
had  in  these  cities.  Now,  if  an  Iowa  farmer  sells  a  horse  to  a  Chicago 
buyer,  and  the  horse  eventually  goes  to  New  York,  that  buyer's 
profit  and  the  other  expenses  incident  to  sale  must  be  included  in 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  81 

the  price  obtained  in  New  York.  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  and  Columbia, 
S.  C.,  are  quite  near  the  geographical  centers  of  their  respective 
States.  Columbia  is  over  400  miles  nearer  New  York  and  Boston 
than  is  Des  Moines.  Columbia  is  just  that  much  nearer  the  coun- 
try's best  horse  market,  and  there  are  three  large  cities  and  three 
great  ports  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  between  Columbia  and  New 
York,  all  of  them  on  a  direct  line  from  Columbia. 

So  far  as  the  markets  are  concerned,  the  South  Carolina  farmer 
has  as  good  advantages  as  the  Iowa  farmer.  These  advantages  are 
not  developed,  it  is  true,  but  the  conditions  are  full  of  latent  possi- 
bilities. If  good  horses  are  bred  in  the  South,  the  buyers  will  soon 
find  it  out  and  there  need  be  no  fear  that  good  prices  will  not  be 
obtained  for  good  products. 

Possibilities  of  Southern  Mule  Markets. — Let  us  now  consider 
the  possibilities  of  the  mule  market.  Although  many  of  the  best 
draft  mules  are  sold  to  the  cities  of  the  North  at  top  prices  and  many 
are  used  on  the  farms  of  the  Central  West,  the  backbone  of  the  mule 
industry  is  the  southern  demand.  These  mules  are  bred  mainly  in 
the  States  within  touch  of  Kansas  City  and  St.  Louis,  and  these 
markets  handle  most  of  the  mules  of  the  country.  St.  Louis,  Mem- 
phis, New  Orleans,  and  Atlanta  are  the  great  distributing  points. 
South  Carolina  is  probably  too  far  from  Kansas  City  or  St.  Louis 
for  her  mules  to  sell  on  those  markets  in  competition  with  those 
raised  in  Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Kentucky,  and  these  States  are  also 
much  nearer  the  Memphis  market.  Further,  St.  Louis  is  40  miles 
nearer  New  Orleans  than  Columbia,  and  on  a  direct  line ;  but  look 
at  Atlanta.  Columbia  is  only  253  miles  from  Atlanta,  via  Augusta; 
yet  Memphis  is  419  miles  from  Atlanta,  St.  Louis  is  733  miles  away, 
and  Kansas  City  is  903  miles  away.  Atlanta  is  coming  to  be  one 
of  the  great  mule-distributing  points  of  the  South,  and  is  now  the 
greatest  one  in  the  Southeast.  No  doubt  South  Carolina  farmers 
get  many  of  their  mules  from  Atlanta,  which  were  first  sold  on 
markets  two  or  three  times  as  far  from  Atlanta  as  Columbia.  The 
reason  for  this  is  surely  not  that  South  Carolina  can  not  produce 
good  mules,  because  there  were  on  exhibition  at  the  1906  meeting 
of  the  South  Carolina  Dairy  and  Live  Stock  Association  native 
mules  which  were  as  good  as  any  market  requires.  With  the  devel- 
opment of  Atlanta  as  a  mule  market,  the  reason  that  more  mules 
are  not  bred  in  South  Carolina  can  not  be  that  there  is  not  a  con- 
venient market.  A  golden  opportunity  exists  here  for  anyone  brave 
enough  to  break  away  from  custom  and  act  as  a  pioneer  in  mule 
raising.  South  Carolina  farmers  need  thousands  of  mules  of  a  good 
grade,  and  at  their  very  door  is  a  market  which  is  in  touch  with  the 
demand  of  half  a  dozen  States.    What  more  could  be  -desired? 

Methods  of  Breeding  and  Management. — The  methods  of  breed- 
ing and  management  that  should  be  used  to  produce  horses  and 
mules  in  South  Carolina  will  next  be  considered.  It  is  a  compara- 
tively easy  matter  to  discuss  this  phase  of  the  subject  from  the 
standpoint  of  central  western  conditions,  but  the  writer  must  confess 
that  he  approaches  it  with  considerable  trepidation  when  applied  to 


82  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

southern  conditions.  So  far  as  soil,  climate,  pasture,  and  forage  are 
concerned,  the  conditions  in  the  South  are  very  nearly  ideal,  but 
there  are  other  circumstances  to  be  considered,  chief  of  which  are 
the  use  of  negro  labor  and  the  general  inferiority  of  the  stock  which 
must  be  used  as  the  foundation  on  which  to  build.  As  to  the  negroes, 
no  suggestions  will  be  advanced  except  that  many  horsemen  prefer 
them  for  hostlers  and  grooms.  Throughout  Kentucky  the  negro 
seems  to  be  the  favorite  stable  hand  in  many  of  the  best  breeding 
establishments,  and  it  is  well  known  that  Mr.  Ed  Geers,  the  famous 
trotting  horseman,  will  not  have  a  white  man  in  his  stables  if  he 
can  help  it.  These  facts  seem  to  show  that  the  negro  has  possibili- 
ties as  a  horse  handler. 

Necessity  for  the  Improvement  of  Native  Stock. — The  inferior- 
ity of  the  native  horse  stock  is  mentioned  not  to  find  fault  unneces- 
sarily, but  to  get  a  point  from  which  to  approach  the  subject.  We 
might  as  well  be  frank  and  recognize  that  a  candid  acknowledg- 
ment of  defects  in  the  animals  under  consideration  will  better  enable 
us  to  reach  a  logical  and  definite  conclusion.  The  class  of  horses 
which  supply  the  southern  markets  is  not  a  desirable  one.  Consult 
the  market  reports  for  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  and  Chicago, 
and  it  will  be  found  that  the  classes  known  as  southern  horses,  south- 
ern chunks,  etc.,  bring  the  lowest  prices  of  any.  They  are  variable 
in  type,  ranging  from  very  inferior  light  chunks  to  a  pretty  fair 
type  of  drivers.  As  a  general  rule,  they  are  horses  which  the  Central 
West  can  well  afford  to  sell  at  any  price  and  the  South  can  ill  afford 
to  buy,  no  matter  how  cheap  they  may  be.  This  is  said  solely  from 
the  breeder's  standpoint.  They  may  be  the  best  farm  horses  for 
southern  conditions,  and  on  that  point  the  southern  farmer's  opinion 
is  more  valuable  than  that  of  the  writer,  but  the  writer  can  not  resist 
the  temptation  to  say  that  it  is  doubtful  if  they  are  more  valuable 
than  their  market  price  would  indicate.  Two  things  are  certain — 
most  of  the  horses  which  the  South  has  are  obtained  from  the  North, 
and  the  quality  of  these  horses  is  generally  the  poorest  of  any  sold 
on  northern  markets.  It  is  not,  therefore,  unreasonable  to  conclude 
that,  judged  solely  as  horseflesh,  the  southern  horse  is  not  a  very 
superior  animal. 

Whatever  the  value  of  the  native  southern  stock  it  is  there,  and 
the  mares  must  be  used  as  the  foundation  for  any  improvement  which 
may  be  made.  Improvement  should  be  begun  gradually,  without 
any  expectation  of  jumping  from  mediocrity  to  the  highest  excel- 
lence at  one  bound,  and  it  should  begin  with  the  idea  of  improving, 
first,  the  general  average  of  the  farm  horse  of  the  South. 

The  first  step  is  the  elimination  of  unsoundness,  which  should  be 
done  as  rapidly  as  possible.  In  selecting  mares  for  breeding  only 
those  should  be  chosen  which  are  sound  in  wind  and  free  from  ring- 
bones, sidebones,  curbs,  and  spavins.  The  tendency  for  unsoundness 
to  appear  is  hereditary,  and  the  presence  of  unsoundness  makes  a 
horse  practically  unsalable. 

For  most  sections  of  the  South  the  next  step  should  be  the  in- 
crease of  size,  and  this  should  be  done  somewhat  gradually.    The  in- 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  83 

crease  in  the  size  of  farm  horses  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  espe- 
cially where  heavy  clay  soils  are  common.  Two  1,200-pound  horses 
■^Wll  probably  do  more  work  and  eat  less  than  3  weighing  800  pounds 
each,  and  larger  ones  probably  in  similar  proportion. 

Next,  conformation  should  be  improved.  Conformation  is  im- 
portant not  only  because  it  has  a  great  effect  on  the  selling  price,  but 
because  a  horse  with  good  conformation  will  do  more  work  and  last 
longer  than  one  with  poor  conformation.  The  points  especially  to  be 
sought  are  as  follows :  Wide,  open  nostrils ;  medium-sized,  clean-cut 
muzzle;  clean-cut,  open  jaws;  clean-cut  head;  straight  face;  wide 
forehead;  large,  clear,  intelligent  eyes;  medium-sized,  smartly  car- 
ried ears,  set  close  together;  clean-cut  throatlatch;  clean-cut,  well- 
muscled,  long  neck,  smoothly  joined  to  the  shoulders;  and  sharp, 
smooth  withers.  The  shoulders  should  be  sloping,  and  should  extend 
well  into  the  back ;  the  arm  should  be  well  muscled  and  well  thrown 
back.  The  forearm  should  be  w^de  and  muscular,  the  knees  -wide 
and  strong  and  strongly  supported.  The  canon  should  be  flat  and 
well  developed,  so  that  there  is  no  falling  away  below  the  knee.  The 
fetlocks  should  be  wide  and  straight,  the  pastern  of  medium  length, 
strong,  and  inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  The  feet 
should  be  of  good  size,  with  large  hoof  heads,  dense  bone,  well-de- 
veloped frogs,  and  wide  heels  of  good  height.  The  back  should  be 
straight,  broad,  and  well  muscled,  and  the  ribs  well  sprung.  The 
loins  should  be  straight,  broad,  well  muscled,  and  closely  coupled  to 
the  hind  quarters;  the  croup  wide  and  straight;  the  quarters  fully 
developed;  and  the  tail  set  high  and  smartly  carried.  The  flanks 
should  be  full.  The  hocks  should  be  clean  cut,  wide,  strong,  and 
straight,  and  the  supporting  canons  broad  and  flat.  Further  de- 
scription of  the  hind  limb  practically  corresponds  to  that  of  the  fore 
limb. 

The  necessity  of  these  points  from  the  standpoint  of  durability 
is  obvious  on  a  moment's  reflection,  A  wide,  open  nostril  generally 
indicates  good  lung  capacity  and  therefore  good  constitution.  A 
wide  forehead  usually  indicates  brain  capacity;  a  straight  face,  do- 
cility; a  full,  clear  eye,  intelligence;  an  erectly  carried  ear,  alertness. 
Roman  noses  frequently  indicate  strongheadedness  and  dished  faces 
viciousness.  A  horse  with  a  narrow  nostril,  Roman  nose,  small 
bear  eye,  narrow  forehead,  and  badly  placed  lop  ears  is  usually 
one  to  be  suspected  of  being  capable  of  all  kinds  of  equine  villainy. 
A  thick  throatlatch  and  short,  thick  neck  indicate  a  horse  which  will 
probably  be  thick  in  the  wind.  Meaty  withers  and  shoulders  are 
seldom  found  with  good  action.  A  straight  shoulder  and  pastern 
shows  a  limb  predisposed  to  ringbones,  sidebones,  and  other  diseases, 
and  a  horse  with  such  conformation  will  not  Tvear  well.  Good  feet 
are  necessary,  as  shown  by  the  old  adage.  No  foot,  no  horse.  The 
development  of  the  middle  piece — the  body — is  necessary  for  many 
ob^'^ous  reasons.  A  horse  with  a  narrow,  shallow  body,  low  back, 
and  weak  coupling  is  not  only  a  weak  horse  with  little  constitution, 
but  a  poor  keeper;  a  fully  developed  back,  well-sprung  ribs,  deep 
body,  and  closely  coupled  loins  usually  indicate  a  strong  one.    The 


84  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

development  of  the  floating  ribs  is  important,  especially  in  a  brood 
mare,  to  allow  full  room  for  the  development  of  the  digestive  and 
reproductive  organs.  A  full  hind  flank  is  important  for  the  reason 
that  a  wasp-wadsted  horse  is  usually  a  poor  feeder  and  laclvs  stamina. 

The  development  of  the  hind  quarters  is  necessary,  because  the 
greatest  amount  of  the  animal's  propelling  power  is  developed  there. 
Not  only  is  muscular  development  necessary,  but  the  hind  legs  must 
be  well  shaped  to  endure  the  great  strain  that  is  exerted  when  pulling 
a  load.  The  hocks  and  the  legs  from  these  joints  to  the  pasterns 
should  be  parallel  and  set  rather  close  together.  Viewing  the  leg 
from  the  side,  the  back  line  from  the  point  of  the  hock  to  the  ground 
should  be  perpendicular.  The  angles  of  the  bones  of  the  lower  leg 
should  form  an  angle  at  the  hock  with  the  cannon  of  about  60  de- 
grees. If  this  angle  is  greater  we  have  what  is  known  as  a  strdght 
leg,  and  consequently  a  hock  predisposed  to  curbs.  If  the  angle  is 
much  less  a  sickle  hock  results.  Deflection  of  the  hocks  inward 
causes  what  are  known  as  cow  hocks.  Bad  conformation  in  the 
hock  joint  and  light  development  of  the  joint  predispose  to  spavin, 
one  of  the  most  serious  forms  of  unsoundness. 

This,  in  a  general  way,  covers  the  points  to  be  looked  for  in  con- 
formation and  the  reasons  for  them.  Next,  we  should  look  for  qual- 
ity. This  is  shown  in  the  cleanness  of  the  head,  neck,  and  bones  of 
the  leg,  by  the  clean-cut  appearance  of  the  tendons,  the  softness  and 
fineness  of  the  hair,  and  the  texture  of  the  skin.  Quality  is  an  index 
of  the  breeding  of  a  horse  and  of  his  stamina  and  durability. 

Next,  action  should  be  looked  for.  This  in  a  farm  horse  is  most 
important  at  the  walk,  which  should  be  regular,  straight,  free,  and, 
above  all  rapid.  A  fast  walker  is  a  far  more  valuable  worker  than 
a  slow  one,  and  will  turn  many  more  furrows  in  a  day.  Action  at 
the  trot  should  be  quick  and  free,  straight  and  true.  High  action  is 
not  necessary  in  a  farm  horse,  but  the  knees  and  hocks  should  be 
flexed  well  with  snap  and  precision.  Finally,  in  breeding  stock  the 
farmer  should  look  for  uniformity.  His  mares  should  be  as  nearly 
alike  as  possible,  and  should  be  so  bred  as  to  produce  uniform  colts. 

This  will  give  an  idea  of  the  type  of  farm  horse  which  will  read- 
ily do  work  enough  to  pay  for  his  keep.  Any  specific  mention  of  the 
proper  size  for  such  horses  has  purposely  been  omitted,  for  the  reason 
that  this  matter  is  so  important  that  it  can  well  be  taken  up  again 
in  addition  to  what  has  already  been  said.  It  is  useless  to  expect  a 
farm  mare  to  produce  a  good-sized  mule  or  work  horse  if  she  herself 
is  undersized.  If  the  South  is  to  produce  good  salable  mules  the 
size  of  the  farm  mares  must  be  increased.  If  it  is  ever  to  sell  horses 
at  a  profit  on  the  New  York  or  Boston  markets,  the  same  thing  must 
be  done.  In  the  writer's  opinion  the  standard  weight  of  a  farm  mare 
should  be  1,200  pounds.  A  mare  having  the  description  given,  with 
this  weight,  would  produce  a  good  mule  when  bred  to  a  good-sized 
jack,  and  when  bred  to  a  suitable  stallion  would  produce  a  good  work 
horse  for  the  farm.  This  statement  of  standard  weight  applies  to 
South  Carolina  under  present  conditions,  and  does  not  apply  to  con- 
ditions which  might  obtain  in  other  sections  of  the  country,  and 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  85 

might  not  hold  even  in  South  Carolina  after  several  generations  of 
systematic  breeding  up,  as  will  be  shown  later  on. 

Selecting  a  Stallion. — The  selection  of  stallions  to  be  used  in 
improving  the  native  stock"  is  the  next  consideration.  In  breeding 
animals  on  the  farm  one  idea  should  be  continually  in  the  farmer's 
mind — breed  true  and  do  not  cross.  Nothing  will  produce  mongrels 
more  quickly  than  to  breed  mares  to  a  stallion  of  one  breed,  their 
progeny  to  another,  theirs  to  another,  and  so  on.  Breeding  the  same 
mares  to  different  stallions  each  year  will  result  in  the  same  thing  in 
the  long  run.  To  make  success  reasonably  sure  the  farmer  should 
determine  for  himself  which  breed  of  horses  suits  him  best  and  which 
type  in  the  breed.  He  should  have  only  his  own  necessities  and 
market  demands  in  mind.  After  making  such  a  decision  he  should 
select  a  good,  sound,  purebred  stallion  and  breed  to  him,  selecting 
others  as  may  be  needed  to  prevent  inbreeding. 

How  to  Buy  the  Stallion. — After  the  decision  has  been  made  to 
improve  the  native  stock  by  breeding  to  purebred  stallions,  steps 
should  be  taken  to  get  such  a  horse  if  one  is  not  in  the  vicinity.  As 
a  general  rule  it  is  probable  that  purebred  stallions  are  not  found  in 
very  many  parts  of  the  South,  and  few  farmers  have  enough  mares 
to  warrant  the  purchase  of  a  horse  outright.  Where  such  is  the  case,, 
enough  men  in  a  neighborhood  to  represent  the  ownership  of,  say, 
75  or  80  mares  might  hand  together  and  organize  a  company  for  the 
purchase  of  a  horse,  each  man  paying  into  the  treasury  of  the  com- 
pany a  sum  proportioned  to  the  number  of  mares  he  wishes  to  breed. 
Then  let  this  company  decide  on  the  breed  to  use  and  send  a  com- 
petent representative  to  visit  breeding  farms  and  select  a  horse. 
This  same  plan  may  be  used  for  the  purchase  of  a  jack.  By  purchas- 
ing in  this  way  animals  can  be  obtained  at  the  lowest  possible  fig- 
ures and  the  company  has  the  advantage  of  dealing  with  the  breeders 
direct  rather  than  through  their  agents.  Furthermore,  if  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  company  is  qualified  to  judge,  the  company  is  likely 
to  get  good  value. 

The  company  system  of  selling  stallions  used  by  many  importers 
and  breeders  is  applied  in  the  opposite  manner.  A  representative  of 
a  stallion  owner  visits  a  community  and  himself  proceeds  to  organize 
a  company.  He  frequently  associates  some  prominent  man  with 
him,  giving  him  a  share  of  stock  for  his  influence.  When  sufficient 
men  come  in  to  cover  the  selling  price  of  the  stallion  at  the  fixed 
price  for  shares,  each  member  gives  his  note  for  the  amount  repre- 
sented by  his  share,  the  agent  discounts  these  notes,  and  the  horse  is 
sold.  It  is  an  unfortunate  thing  that  this  company  method  of  selling 
stallions  is  used.  Many  horsemen  condemn  it  strongly,  even  though 
they  may  use  it.  Its  existence  is  condoned  on  the  plea  that  if  it  were 
not  used  the  horses  would  not  be  sold ;  that  the  horse  must  be  taken 
to  the  buyer,  because  the  buyer  will  not  go  to  the  horse.  That  may 
have 'been  true  in  the  Central  West  several  years  ago,  and  it  may  be 
true  in  some  parts  of  the  South  to-day,  but  in  this  day  of  tremendoua 
prices  for  horses  of  all  kinds  it  seems  strange  that  a  really  good 
horse  can  not  be  sold  on  its  merits. 


86  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

The  decline  of  the  company  system  of  selling  in  the  corn  belt  is 
being  followed  by  the  adoption  of  the  public  sale  by  some  breeders, 
and  the  firms  that  use  the  company  system  most  extensively  are  car- 
rying it  into  the  South  and  far  West,  where  less  experience  has  been 
had  with  it.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  people  of  these  sections, 
too,  will  soon  find  out  the  faults  of  the  system,  and  we  can  look  for- 
ward to  the  time  when  it  shall  have  passed  from  us  forever.  The 
objections  to  the  system  are  its  expensiveness  and  general  unreliabil- 
ity. To  send  an  agent  into  the  field  for  several  weeks  to  sell  one 
horse  (and  often  the  horse  is  with  him,  and  a  groom  also),  to  pay 
this  agent's  commission  and  the  discount  on  the  notes,  piles  up  a  tre- 
mendous expense  bill,  which  must  be  added  to  the  cost  of  the  horse 
and  paid  for  by  the  purchaser.  Stallion  owners  estimate  that  it 
costs  on  an  average  about  $1,000  to  sell  a  stallion  by  the  company 
system.  A  home-organized  company  could  send  a  man  to  Europe 
for  a  horse  at  a  smaller  expense  than  that. 

The  unreliability  of  the  system  rests  on  the  fact  that,  under  the 
law,  firms  are  liable  for  the  acts  of  their  agents  only  when  agents 
act  within  the  limits  of  their  authority.  If  a  firm  wishes  to  do  so, 
when  a  purchasing  company  finds  an  agent's  promises  of  no  value, 
it  can  retire  behind  the  excuse  that  the  agent  exceeded  his  author- 
ity. However,  there  are,  no  doubt,  more  honest  agents  than  dis* 
honest  ones,  just  as  there  are  more  honest  stallion  owners  than  dis- 
honest ones. 

The  element  of  unreliability  is  of  course  not  always  present  in 
the  sale  of  a  horse  by  the  company  system,  for  the  representations 
of  an  honest  agent  of  an  honest  firm  can  be  depended  on  to  the 
letter.  But  no  firm  can  sell  a  horse  in  this  way  without  great  cost  to 
the  purchasers,  in  many  cases  more  than  the  horse  ds  really  worth 
and  in  most  cases  more  than  the  shareholders  can  ever  hope  to  get 
out  of  their  investment.  The  system  has  one  great  merit,  namely, 
that  it  is  taking  many  good  horses  into  sections  of  the  country  where 
they  are  sorely  needed,  and  probably  the  value  of  such  horses  to  a 
community  will  be  equal  in  the  long  run  to  the  price  paid  for  them, 
although  this  may  not  show  in  the  books  of  the  companies  which 
purchase  them. 

The  Breed  of  the  Stallion. — Beginners  will  find  themselves 
confronted  at  once  by  the  question  whether  to  choose  a  horse  of  a 
light  breed  or  of  a  heavy  breed.  By  a  light  breed  is  meant  one  of 
the  carriage,  roadster,  or  saddle  breeds,  such  as  the  Standardbred, 
Hackney,  French  Coacher,  Saddle  Hoi-se,  or  Thoroughbred.  By  a 
heavy  breed  is  meant  one  of  the  draft  breeds,  such  as  the  Percheron, 
Belgian,  Clydesdale,  Shire,  etc.  By  selecting  a  horse  of  one  of  the 
light  breeds  the  beginner  starts  on  the  road  of  producing  first  what 
our  markets  call  general-purpose  horses,  and  eventually  horses  of  a 
better  class — carriage  horses,  drivers,  and  saddlers.  If  a  heavy 
horse  is  selected,  the  first  cross  will  probably  be  a  general-purpose 
horse  also,  but  with  less  quality  than  when  the  light  breeds  are  used. 
Eventually,  however,  this  route  leads  to  the  production  of  heavy 
horses — the  expressers  and  drafters  of  the  market.    The  possibilities 


Champion  Hackney  Staluon.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


Thoroughbred  Stallion.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  89 

of  these  two  methods  are  merely  suggested  without  an  attempt  to 
advise  specifically  which  one  to  follow. 

HOW  TO  JUDGE  DRAFT  HORSES. 

The  judging  of  horses  is  an  art  to  be  acquired  by  careful  ob- 
servation, practice  and  experience.  Not  every  man  has  the  natu- 
rally keen  observing  powers  and  love  of  the  subject  peculiar  to  some 
men  who  become  notable  experts;  yet  all  may  acquire  a  practical, 
useful  knowledge  of  the  exterior  of  the  horse  by  methodical  and  con- 
scientious study.  To  become  a  proficient  judge  of  horses  is  worth 
striving  after.  The  attainment  gives  its  possessor  personal  satisfac- 
tion, the  necessary  information  for  iise  in  breeding,  buying,  selling 
and  managing  horses  and  enables  him  to  help  his  fellowmen  by 
counsel  in  horse  matters,  or  the  selection  of  prize  winners  in  the  show 
ring.  Masters  of  the  art  wield  a  mighty  influence  on  the  horse 
breeding  operations  of  the  country. 

How  to  Acquire  the  Art. — A  horseman  should  get  into  the 
habit  of  sizing  up  every  horse  he  sees.  By  comparing  one  horse  with 
another,  he  will  gain  experience  and  be  able  to  estimate  correctly  the 
values  of  component  parts  and  to  judge  of  beauty,  symmetry,  corre- 
lation of  members  and  adaptability  for  breeding  purposes  or  work. 
After  learning  the  names  of  the  various  parts  of  the  horse's  exterior 
he  is  equipped  to  analyze  the  value  or  deficiency  of  each  and  at 
length  will  be  able  to  judge  quickly  and  intelligently  of  the  value 
of  the  entire  combination  of  points  constituting  the  individual  horse. 

A  great  number  of  horses  must  be  examined.  Then  several 
must  be  considered  together  and  one  compared  with  the  other  until 
each  can  be  placed  in  its  proper  position  as  regards  merit  and  utility. 
Horses  of  varying  breed,  age,  type,  quality,  soundness  and  service- 
ability should  be  used  as  material  for  study.  Where  possible  the 
student  of  horses  should  visit  horse  breeding  establishments,  sale 
stables  and  shows  to  continue  his  studies  and  round  out  his  expe- 
rience, as  soon  as  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  work  of  judging  has 
been  acquired. 

How  to  Examine  a  Horse. — Have  the  animal  led  out  to  halter 
and  stood  at  ease  in  an  open,  well  lighted  place.  View  the  horse  from 
all  directions.  In  this  way  an  impression  of  the  conformation, 
style,  character  and  general  appearance  of  the  animal  and  peculiari- 
ties or  excellencies  of  the  various  members  is  obtained.  The  horse 
may  be  moved  around,  first  at  a  walk  and  then  at  a  trot,  to  afford 
the  judge  a  broadside  view.  This  should  be  followed  by  a  careful 
study  of  the  animal  as  he  walks  from  and  to  the  observer  and  is  then 
led  away  and  back  at  a  trot.  The  examination  may  then  follow  in 
detail.  This  analytical  work  is  often  best  accomplished  by  means  of 
the  score  card. 

The  student  of  horses  should  learn  to  use  his  eyes  rather  than 
his  hands  in  judging.  The  eye  is  master  of  the  situation.  The  hand 
should  only  be  used  as  an  assistant  to  the  eye.  It  may  be  used  when 
the  eye  unaided  cannot  determine  a  question  of  quality,  size,  condi- 
tion or  soundness.  For  example,  the  eye  sees  plumpness  of  flesh,  but 
the  hand  must  be  used  to  decide  its  depth  on  the  ribs  or  other  part; 


90  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

or  the  eye  detects  what  appears  to  be  a  bone  spavin  and  the  hand 
by  feeling  corroborates  or  disproves  the  suspicion.  As  a  general 
rule  much  handling  is  to  be  avoided.  Excessive  handling  suggests 
lack  of  confidence,  experience  and  mature  judgment. 

Purpose  of  the  Score  Card. — The  use  of  the  score  card  in  judg- 
ing teaches  the  student  to  analyze  the  component  parts  of  the  horee 
one  by  one  until  he  becomes  thoroughly  efficient  in  estimating  the 
value  of  all  points  combined  in  the  animal.  Practice  with  it  will,  in 
time,  enable  him  to  rapidly  look  over  a  horse,  note  its  good  and  bad 
points  and  arrive  at  a  correct  estimate  of  its  value.  For  the  beginner 
who  would  become  a  capable  judge  of  horses  it  is  necessary  at  first 
to  examine  each  of  the  points  noted  on  the  accompanying  score  card. 
The  experienced  judge  does  not  use  a  score  card  in  the  judging  ring. 
By  long  practice  he  has  learned  to  quickly  observe  and  weigh  all  of 
the  points  of  the  horse  and  estimate  their  relative  importance,  in 
placing  the  animals  of  a  group  in  their  proper  positions.  The  use 
of  the  score  card  trains  the  student  so  that  in  time  he  is  able  to  judge 
without  its  help.  The  points  or  parts  of  the  horse,  referred  to  above, 
are  shown  herein.  They  should  be  thoroughly  learned  and  then 
demonstrated  to  a  competent  judge  who  should  explain  the  characters 
of  an  ideal  draft  hoi-se.  Then  repeated  judging  of  many  widely  dif- 
ferent horses  by  the  score  card  cannot  fail  to  make  an  intelligent 
horse  judge  of  the  one  who  earnestly  strives  to  become  proficient  in 
this  useful  art. 

Method  of  Using  the  Score  Card. — It  will  be  noticed  that  on 
the  score  card  the  body  of  the  horse  is  considered  in  sections,  after 
study  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  animal,  which  is  allowed  29 
points  as  a  perfect  score.  Each  section  is  given  a  total  value — as, 
Body — 9  points — and  each  member  composing  the  section  is  studied 
in  proper  order  and  weighted  according  to  perfection  or  deficiency 
noted.  The  student  is  advised  to  first  note  readily  observable  excel- 
lencies and  deficiencies  or  faults.  The  latter  should  be  first  consid- 
ered and  marked  off  on  the  score  card.  If,  for  example,  the  horse  is 
notably  deficient  in  body,  on  account  of  lack  of  depth,  spring  of  rib, 
wealth  of  muscle  or  strength  of  loin  and  coupling,  these  points  should 
first  be  cut  upon  the  score  card,  under  head  of  Form  and  then  under 
Body  as  regards  ribs ;  back ;  loins ;  underline. 

Supposing  the  horse  is  otherwise  admirable  in  general  appear- 
ance but  woefully  deficient  in  legs  and  action,  these  deficiencies 
should  first  be  depreciated  by  cutting  down  the  perfect  score  allowed 
for  each  part  contributing  to  the  deficiency.  The  major  defects 
having  thus  been  noted  on  the  score  card,  the  student  may  proceed 
to  consider  each  other  point  in  turn  and,  wherever  necessary,  cut 
proportionately  according  to  the  degree  of  each  noticeable  departure 
from  ideal  type. 

Rule  for  Scoring. — In  scoring  a  draft  horse  by  the  score  card 
the  amount  cut  for  any  defect  should  never  exceed  half  of  the  total 
number  of  points  allowed  for  the  part  under  consideration.  Neither 
should  a  cut  of  less  than  .25  point  be  made.  For  example,  on  the 
Head,  which  is  allowed  one  point,  never  cut  over  .50  nor  less  than 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  91 

.25,  if  at  all.  In  the  case  of  the  feet  which  are  given  eight  points 
when  perfect,  never  cut  more  than  four  points  nor  less  than  .25. 
The  scorer  must  use  his  judgment  in  deciding  the  proportionate  score 
to  allow  between  these  limits. 

Estimating  Matters  of  Soundness. — So  far  as  possible  sound 
horses  should  at  first  be  studied  in  score  card  work.  The  location  of 
the  various  unsoundnesses  may  be  studied  as  soon  as  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  various  points  mentioned  on  the  score  card  has  been 
attained.  Then  actual  unsoundnesses  may  be  studied  on  the  live  ani- 
mal and  for  practice  to  detect  and  point  out  unsoundnesses.  Where 
an  unsound  horse  has  to  be  used  for  score  card  work  the  unsoundness 
should  first  be  located;  scoring  may  then  proceed  as  though  the  un- 
soundness were  absent. 

In  the  actual  show  judging  of  horses  to  be  used  for  breeding 
purposes  or  when  buying  such  horses,  a  notable  unsoundness  of 
hereditary  nature  necessitates  rejection  of  the  animal,  despite  ideal 
value  and  perfection  apari;  from  the  question  of  soundness.  In  judg- 
ing or  buying  horses  for  work  purposes  this  also  would  hold  true. 
The  judge  or  buyer  would  reject  or  greatly  discount  in  value  a  blind, 
lame  or  wind  broken  horse  which  otherwise  might  be  well  nigh  per- 
fect in  make-up  as  judged  by  the  score  card.  The  subject  of  "sound- 
ness" should  be  specially  studied,  after  one  has  become  proficient 
in  ordinary  score  card  judging. 

When  one  has  become  familiar  with  the  common  unsoundnesses 
of  horses  he  should  be  able  to  detect  most  of  them  without  using  the 
hand.  In  public  judging  the  hand  should  be  used  as  little  as  pos- 
sible. In  the  judging  ring  care  should  be  taken  not  to  draw  unnec- 
essary attention  to  noted  unsoundnesses.  The  judge  need  satisfy 
himself  alone  and  that  in  an  unobtrusive  manner. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  SCORING. 

Height. — A  horse's  height  is  measured  in  hands  (4  inches) 
from  the  summit  of  the  withers  to  the  ground.  A  typical,  ideal 
draft  horse  stands  over  16  hands  (5  feet  4  inches)  and  under  18 
hands  high.  Tall,  leggy  horses,  if  deficient  in  weight,  width  and 
quality,  are  undesirable.  Such  horses  often  are  found  affected  with 
St.  Vitus'  dance  (Chorea).  Exceptionally  tall  horses  (over  17.2 
hands)  are  difficult  to  match  in  pairs  and  therefore  may  not  meet 
with  ready  sale  on  the  market.  Such  horses  are  chiefly  used  for 
single  work  or  as  the  middle  horses  of  three  horse  teams.  Numerical 
values  are  not  given  to  height  on  the  score  card.  One  must  learn 
to  use  judgment  in  estimating  height  and  approximating  its  com- 
parative value  for  the  special  purpose  of  the  individual  horse. 

Weight. — A  draft  horse  should  weigh  1600  pounds,  or  more, 
in  ordinary  flesh.  Perfect  score,  6  points.  Weight  in  a  draft  horse 
is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  hauling  of  heavy  loads.  It  enables 
the  horse  to  derive  full  benefit  from  the  strength  of  his  muscles,  adds 
to  the  eff'ect  of  his  motions,  and  gives  him  a  firm  grip  upon  the 
ground.  Heavy  weight  is  a  useless  burden  when  not  associated  with 
adequately  developed  frame  and  muscle.  It  should  be  accompanied 
by  vigor  and  energy. 


92  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

The  Score  Card  for  Draft  Horses. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


Age    

GE3NBRAL.  APPEARANCE— 29   POINTS 

Height,    estimated liands,    actual 

Weight,  over  1600  lbs. ;  estimated lbs.,  score 

Action,  "Walk :  fast,  elastic,  regular,  straight 

Form,  broad,  massive,  evenly  proportioned,  symmetrical, 
blocky  

Quality,  refined;  bone  clean,  large,  strong;  tendons  clean, 
defined,  prominent ;  skin  and  hair  fine ;  "feather,"  if  pres- 
ent, silky   

Action,  Walk :  fast,  elastic,  regular,  straight 

Trot :  free,  springy,  balanced,  straight 

Temperament,  energetic ;  disposition,  good 


HEAD  AND  NECK— 8  POINTS 

Head,   proportionate   size,   clean  cut,   well   carried;    profile 

straight     

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Eyes,  bright,  clear,  full,  same  color 

Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried,  alert 

Muzzle,  neat;  nostrils  large,  flexible;  lips  thin,  even,  firm. 

Lower  Jaw,  angles  wide,  space  clean 

Neck,  muscled,  arched ;  throat-latch,  fine ;  windpipe,  large . 

FOREQUARTERS— 22  POINTS 

Shoulder,  moderately  sloping,  smooth,  snug,  extending  well 
back     

Arm,  short,  strong  muscled,  thrown  back,  well  set 

Forearm,  long,  wide,  clean,  heavily  muscled 

Knees,  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,  clean 

Canons,  short,  wide,  clean ;  tendons  clean,  defined,  promi- 
nent   

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns,  moderately  sloping,   strong,   clean 

Feet,  large,  even  size,  sound ;  horn  dense,  waxy ;  soles  con- 
cave ;  bars  strong,  full ;  frogs  large,  elastic ;  heels  wide, 
one-half  length  of  toe,  vertical  to  ground 

BODY— 9  POINTS 

Chest,  deep,  wide ;  breast  bone,  low ;  girth,  large 

Ribs,  deep,  well  sprung,  closely  ribbed  to  hip 

Back,    broad,    strong,    muscular 

Loins,  short,  wide,  thick  muscled 

Underline,  low,  flanks  full 


HINDQUARTERS— 32  POINTS 

Hips,  broad,  smooth,  level,  well  muscled 

Croup,  wide,  heavily  muscled,  not  markedly  drooping 

Thighs,  deep,  broad,  strong,  muscular 

Quarters,  plump  with  muscle,  deep 

Stifles,  large,  strong,  muscular,  clean 

Gaskins  (lower  thighs)  long,  wide,  clean,  heavily  muscled.  . 

Hocks,  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean,  well  set 

Canons,  short,  wide,  clean ;  tendons  clean,  defined,  promi- 
nent   

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns,  moderately  sloping,   strong,   clean 

Feet,  large,  even  size,  sound ;  horn  dense,  waxy ;  soles  con- 
cave ;  bars  strong,  full ;  frogs,  large,  elastic ;  heels,  wide, 
one-half  length  of  toe,  vertical  to  ground 


Per- 
fect 
Score 


Points  Deficient. 


Student's 
Score 


Total   100 


In  a  draft  horse  additional  weight  over  the  average  is  worth  25 
cents  or  more  per  pound  in  the  great  horse  markets.  For  practical 
purposes  the  great  weight  of  a  draft  horse  should  be  made  up  of 
compact  frame,  large  bones  and  powerful  muscles.    Fat  should  be 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  93 

discounted  in  buying  a  draft  horse  for  work  or  breeding  and,  in 
judging,  one  should  note  the  development  of  muscle  rather  than  fat. 
A  draft  colt  should  weigh  approximately  100  pounds  for  each  month 
of  age  at  12  months.  A  horse  is  mature  at  five  years  old,  but 
should  attain  practically  full  weight  a  year  or  so  earlier,  and  if  pure- 
bred, weigh  1600  or  over  at  three  years. 

In  scoring  mature  draft  horses  reject  those  under  1600  pounds 
in  weight.  Cut  immature  draft  animals  for  lack  of  development 
with  respect  to  age.  A  young  animal,  not  yet  mature,  should  weigh 
proportionately  to  the  mature  one  and  be  cut  if  markedly  under 
weight  for  age. 

Form. — The  form  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  broad,  deep,  mas- 
sive, evenly  proportioned  and  symmetrical,  the  entire  make-up  sug- 
gesting great  strength  and  weight.  The  body  should  be  blocky,  and 
compact,  with  short,  broad,  clean,  well  set  legs  showing  fine  skin, 
large  joints  and  prominent  tendons.    Perfect,  4  points. 

The  entire  appearance  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  indicative 
of  strength  for  heavy  hauling.  A  massive  body,  set  squarely  on 
sturdy  legs,  is  required.  Discount  the  horse  for  marked  departures 
from  such  form. 

Quality. — Good  quality  is  shown  by  fine,  bright,  silky  hair; 
soft,  pliable  skin;  clean,  well  defined  tendons;  smooth,  well  devel- 
oped muscles;  strong,  smooth  bones.  It  usually  is  associated  with 
style,  spirit  and  intelligence  indicative  of  breeding.    Perfect,  6  points. 

The  term  quality  is  applied  to  the  e\'idence  of  refinement,  as 
opposed  to  coarseness,  grossness,  and  sluggishness.  Symmetry,  high 
spirits,  lively  action,  endurance,  all  should  be  observed.  Quality  is 
plainly  evidenced  when  the  legs  are  free  from  meatiness,  appear 
broad,  flat,  and,  when  showing  feather  (the  long  hair  under  knees 
and  hocks) ,  this  springs  as  a  silky  fringe  from  the  rear  of  the  ten- 
dons. Quality  is  the  opposite  of  grossness  and  combines  grac«  with 
great  weight  and  power.  Excessive  quality  may  denote  weakness, 
slimness,  narrowness  and  lightness  of  bone.  It  is  then  highly  ob- 
jectionable. 

Action. — The  draft  horse  should  walk  spryly,  with  regular, 
straight  steps  and  elastic  tread.  The  action  when  trotting  should  be 
free,  springy  and  straight.    Perfect  walk,  6  points ;  trot,  4  points. 

A  draft  horse  does  most  of  his  hard  work  at  the  walking  gait. 
It  is  therefore  important  that  he  should  be  able  to  walk  fast  without 
tiring.  He  should  be  able  to  walk  four  miles  an  hour  with  a  load. 
To  do  this  the  action  must  be  perfectly  regular,  straight  and  level. 
Joints  must  be  quickly  and  fully  flexed ;  feet  must  be  advanced  and 
set  down  without  deviation  from  a  straight  line.  Soles  of  the  feet 
should  turn  up  and  show  the  shoes  plainly  as  the  horse  moves  away 
from  the  obser\'er,  at  both  walk  and  trot.  The  feet  should  be  lifted 
quickly,  and  evenly,  and  be  set  down  squarely  and  firmly. 

There  should  be  no  paddling,  dishing,  or  winging  in  or  out, 
cutting  or  interfering,  nor  should  the  fore  legs  swing  out  or  roll, 
or  the  hind  legs  be  carried  too  close  together  or  too  far  apart.  In 
judging  of  the  action  the  observer  must  note  the  movements  of  each 


94  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

leg  and  foot,  the  handling  of  each  joint  and  the  carriage  of  the  en- 
tire body,  as  the  horse  walks  and  trots.  Watch  closely  for  lameness. 
The  hocks  should  be  carried  well  together  when  in  motion.  Rolling, 
or  waddling  in  front  is  due  to  too  great  width  of  chest.  Knee  and 
hock  action  should  both  be  free  and  comparatively  high.  Perfection 
of  action  at  the  walk  is  of  highest  importance  in  the  draft  horse. 

Temperament — The  draft  horse  should  show  a  vigorous,  lively, 
energetic  disposition,  yet  be  docile,  tractable  and  intelligent.  He 
should  be  neither  sluggish,  nor  irritable,  nor  excessively  nervous. 
Perfect,  3  points.  Noticeable  vices,  as  cribbing,  wind  sucking,  weav- 
ing, tail  switching,  shying,  biting,  kicking,  head  shaking,  etc.,  are 
undesirable  and  a  horse  showing  one  or  more  of  these  habits  should 
be  cut  sharply.  Sluggishness  associated  with  fat  should  be  avoided, 
as  it  induces  disease.  Stupidity,  clumsiness,  meanness  or  excessive 
nervousness  are  objectionable  and  should  discount  the  animal. 

Head. — Should  be  large,  proportionate  in  size  to  the  body  and 
well  formed,  clean,  free  from  coarseness  and  irregularities.  Perfect, 
1  point.  Strength  may  be  shown  in  the  head  as  well  as  the  rest  of 
the  body.  It  should  not  be  excessively  fleshy  or  irregular.  It  should 
be  carried  well  up  and  balanced  properly  upon  the  neck. 

Forehead. — Should  be  broad,  full  and  not  dished  or  too  promi- 
nent. The  profile  of  the  face  should  not  be  too  straight  or  of  Roman 
nose  form.  There  should  be  good  width,  and  fullness  between  the 
eyes,  which  indicates  power  and  intelligence.     Perfect,  1  point. 

Eyes. — Should  be  bright,  clear,  mild,  full,  sound,  of  the  same 
color.  The  lids  should  be  smooth,  well  arched  and  free  from  angu- 
larities and  wrinkles.  Perfect,  1  point.  The  eyes  should  be  free 
from  cloudiness,  specks  and  white  spots.  They  should  not  be  staring 
or  bulging.  Test  the  eyes  by  gently  threatening  to  strike  with  the 
hand.  A  horse  with  good  sight  will  flinch  under  this  test.  The 
pupil  should  be  elliptical  in  form,  not  circular,  and  should  contract 
when  the  animal  is  suddenly  brought  into  the  light  from  a  dark 
stable. 

Ears. — Should  be  of  medium  size,  well  placed,  alert,  normally 
active  and  free  from  coarseness.  Perfect,  1  point.  The  ears  should 
be  in  proportion  to  the  body  in  size,  neither  too  large  nor  too  small. 
They  should  be  of  good  quality,  soft,  pliable  and  free  from  excessive 
amount  of  coarse  hair. 

Muzzle. — The  nostrils  should  be  large  and  flexible,  the  lips  thin, 
even  and  firm  and  all  of  the  parts  neat  and  clean  cut.  Perfect,  1 
point.  The  skin  and  hair  of  the  muzzle  should  be  of  good  quality. 
Small  nostrils  and  a  narrow  face  indicate  poor  breathing  power. 
Note  the  lining  membrane  of  the  nostrils  and  the  partition  between 
them  to  see  that  it  is  pink  in  color,  healthy,  free  from  ulcers  or 
purple  spots  and  with  no  discharge  or  bad  odor.  The  lips  should  be 
even,  firmly  held  without  drooping  and  be  free  from  sores  or  wounds. 

Lower  Jaw. — There  should  be  a  wide  space  between  the  lower 
jaw  bones,  free  from  meatiness,  abscesses  or  tumors.  Perfect,  1 
point.  Jaw  bones  that  are  too  close  together  indicate  deficiency  in 
ability  to  chew  food  and  the  animal  is  usually  hard  to  keep  in  good 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  96 

flesh.  The  lower  jaw  bones  should  be  smooth  and  even  and  the  skin 
soft  and  free  from  much  long  hair. 

Neck. — A  well  arched,  evenly  muscled  neck  in  proportion  to 
size  of  body  and  large  windpipe  and  smooth  insertion  into  the  shoul- 
der is  desirable.  Perfect,  2  points.  The  neck  should  be  well  arched, 
not  curved  downward  (ewe  neck)  or  broken  in  crest.  It  should  fit 
neatly  into  the  head  and  be  free  from  thickness,  coarseness  and  en- 
largements at  the  throatlatch.  The  neck  should  merge  evenly  and 
smoothly  into  the  withers  and  shoulders  and  be  free  from  sores  at  the 
seat  of  the  collar.  The  mane  should  be  thick,  lie  properly  and  of 
good  quality.  Largeness  of  the  windpipe  indicates  good  breathing 
powers.  The  jugular  vein  should  show  no  scars  of  bleeding  and  the 
glands  about  the  throat  should  be  clean  and  of  normal  size. 

Shoulder. — The  shoulder  of  a  draft  horse  should  be  moderately 
sloping,  smooth  and  extending  well  back.  Perfect,  3  points.  A  ma- 
jority of  poorly  formed  draft  horses  have  shoulders  which  are  too 
steep.  Occasionally  the  shoulders  are  too  sloping.  Either  extreme 
in  a  draft  horse  i^  objectionable.  Trouble  with  collars  comes  from 
these  causes  when  the  horse  is  doing  heavy  pulling.  The  correctly 
laid  shoulder  should  form  a  smooth  comfortable  bed  for  the  collar. 
Straight  or  upright  shoulders  detract  from  easy,  free  action  of  the 
forelegs  and  generally  are  found  associated  with  upright  pasterns. 
The  shoulders  should  be  smoothly  and  deeply  covered  with  muscles 
and  be  free  from  coarseness,  roughness,  sores  and  tumors.  The 
withers  should  be  well  covered  and  moderately  high. 

Arm. — The  arm  of  the  horse  extends  from  the  point  of  the 
shoulder  to  the  elbow  and  should  be  short,  heavily  muscled  and  well 
thrown  back.  Perfect,  1  point.  This  part  is  formed  of  the  arm  bone 
(humerus)  and  must  be  so  laid  as  to  bring  the  leg  in  proper  posi- 
tion to  support  the  weight  of  the  forequarters.  The  elbows  should 
be  prominent,  clean,  and  not  held  too  far  out  or  too  close  in  to  the 
body.  Score  off  for  straight,  poorly  placed  or  inadequately  muscled 
arms.  Forearm. — The  forearm,  extending  from  the  elbow  to  the 
knee,  should  be  long,  flat,  wide,  heavily  muscled  and  free  from 
coarseness.  Perfect,  2  points.  This  portion  of  the  body  of  the  draft 
horse,  together  with  the  lower  thigh  (gaskin)  of  the  hind  leg,  can- 
not be  fattened,  but  is  composed  chiefly  of  lean  muscle  and  bone. 
The  muscles  should  be  prominent  in  front  and  above  and  the  entire 
part  clean  and  free  from  puffiness  or  coarseness.  For  weakness, 
lack  of  length,  or  deficiency  in  muscle,  cut  sharply. 

Knees. — The  knees  should  be  straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly 
formed  and  smooth.  Perfect,  2  points.  So  long  as  these  and  other 
joints  are  free  from  puffs,  bony  growths  and  meatiness,  they  cannot 
well  be  too  large  or  too  strongly  developed.  Knees  should  be  straight 
and  so  set  as  to  perfectly  carry  the  weight  of  the  body.  Sprung 
knees,  or  buck  knees,  bent  in  the  forward  direction  are  as  objection- 
able as  those  of  the  reverse  type  which  are  known  as  calf  knees. 
Examine  the  knees  for  blemishes  and  the  canons  for  splints  close 
up  to  the  knees.  Splints  will  be  likely  to  cause  lameness.  Flemishes 


96  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

may  indicate  tendency  to  falling.  Score  off  for  small,  weak,  crooked 
or  tied  in  knees  or  those  that  are  rough,  coarse,  fleshy  or  scarred. 

Canons. — The  canons,  extending  from  knees  to  fetlocks,  are 
composed  chiefly  of  bones  and  tendons.  They  should  be  short, 
strong,  clean,  wide  and  with  tendons  prominent  and  smooth.  Per- 
fect, 2  points.  The  desirable  flat  appearance  of  these  short,  strong 
bones  is  largely  due  to  prominence  of  back  tendons  and  to  lack  of 
coarseness  and  meatiness.  Feather,  if  present,  should  be  fine,  silky, 
springing  from  the  rear  of  the  tendons.  Such  hair  indicates  fine, 
strong  dense  quality  of  bone  and  is  usually  associated  with  strong 
tendons.  Coarse,  kinky  hair,  growing  from  the  rear  and  sides  of  the 
canons,  indicates  coarse  skin  overlying  spongy  bone  and  gives  the 
legs  a  round  appearance. 

Fetlocks. — These  should  be  wide,  straight,  strong  and  free 
from  puffs,  callouses  or  interfering  sores.  Perfect,  1  point.  What 
has  been  said  about  feather  in  the  foregoing  paragraph  applies 
equally  to  these  joints.  Sores  or  callouses  caused  by  interfering, 
knuckling,  cocking  forward  or  breaking  backward  are  highly  objec- 
tionable. 

At  the  back  part  of  each  fetlock,  under  the  "footlock"  of  hair, 
will  be  found  a  horny  projection,  known  as  the  ergot.  This  is  large 
and  prominent  in  some  draft  horses,  but  less  developed  in  horses  of 
the  light  breeds.  These  and  the  chestnuts  on  the  inner,  lower  part 
of  the  hock  joints  are  considered  vestigial  hoofs  of  the  prehistoric 
horse.    Chestnuts  are  also  found  above  the  knees. 

Pasterns. — These  bones,  extending  from  fetlocks  to  hoofheads, 
should  be  moderately  sloping,  strong  and  clean.  Perfect,  3  points. 
The  tendency  in  the  average  draft  horse  is  toward  short,  upright 
pasterns  and  stubby  gait.  This  is  highly  objectionable  as  are  also 
very  long,  weak  pasterns,  which  bring  the  back  of  the  fetlocks  too 
close  to  the  ground.  The  latter  cause  strain  upon  the  tendons  when 
drawing  heavy  loads.  The  short  upright  pasterns  are  even  more 
objectionable  since  they  prevent  springy,  elastic  action  of  the  feet 
and  allow  concussion  to  jar  the  bony  columns  of  the  legs.  The  irri- 
tation and  inflammation  induced  by  continued  jarring  often  result 
in  sides  bones,  ring  bones,  corns  and  kindred  diseases.  The  bone  of 
the  pastern  should  have  a  slope  of  about  45  degrees  and  the  front  of 
the  foot  50  degrees.  Horses  having  upright  pasterns  and  consequent 
stubby  action  wear  out  quickly  when  used  upon  paved  streets. 

Feet. — ^The  hoofs  should  be  ample  in  size,  sound,  smooth  and 
symmetrical  in  shape.  Perfect,  8  points.  The  hoof  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  skin  of  the  parts  above.  The  color  of  the  skin  decides  the 
color  of  the  hoof.  Dark  colored  hoofs  are  preferred.  Color  counts 
for  little,  however,  if  the  hoofs  are  of  poor  shape  and  texture.  The 
horn  should  be  smooth,  waxy  looking  and  free  from  cracks  or  ridges 
and  the  coronets  (hoof  heads)  should  be  open,  prominent  and  wide 
at  the  heels.  The  sole  should  be  slightly  cupped  (conclave) ,  not  flat, 
or  bulging  (convex)  ;  the  frog  large,  elastic,  healthy  and  without  a 
deep  cleft;  the  bars  prominent.  Discount  small,  weak,  brittle,  flat, 
Jow-heeled  or  over  large,  spongy,  soft,  shelly  feet  as  well  as  thosQ 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  97 

that  are  unsound.  Poor  fore  feet  are  one  of  the  commonest  and 
most  serious  faults  in  draft  horses. 

Chest. — As  this  part  encloses  the  heart  and  lungs  it  should  be 
roomy  in  every  respect.  Perfect,  2  points.  The  chest  is  judged 
from  the  front  and  sides.  It  should  be  fairly  wide,  markedly  deep, 
with  the  breast  bone  low  and  level  and  the  heart  girth  large.  A 
narrow,  shallow  chest  denotes  poor  constitution,  lack  of  endurance, 
and  deficient  breathing  organs.  If  too  wide  the  action  tends  to  wad- 
dling or  rolling.  A  narrow  chest  and  high  knee  action  often  go  to- 
gether. An  ample,  wide,  deep  chest  denotes  vigor,  power,  strong 
constitution  and  easy  keeping  qualities. 

Ribs. — These  form  the  barrel  and  should  be  deep,  well  sprung 
and  carried  low  at  the  flank  and  close  to  the  hip.  Perfect,  2  points. 
Flat  ribs  mean  lack  of  room  for  the  digestive  organs;  the  rounded 
barrel  indicates  good  keeping  qualities  and  ability  for  hard  work. 
A  cut  up  flank,  with  short,  fiat  ribs  and  a  long,  loose  coupling,  indi- 
cates weakness,  poor  digestive  powers  and  poor  keeping  qualities, 
tendency  to  scour  and  constitutional  debility. 

Back. — The  general  appearance  of  the  back  should  denote  great 
strength  and  compactness.  Perfect,  2  points.  The  back  extends 
from  the  rear  of  the  withers  to  the  last  rib  and  should  be  broad, 
straight,  and  muscular.  If  the  ribs  are  poorly  sprung  the  back  will 
be  narrow  and  sharp.  A  rounded  barrel  tends  to  give  a  horse  a 
slightly  leggy  appearance.    This  must  be  considered  in  judging. 

Loins. — The  loin  is  the  part  of  the  back  not  supported  by  ribs. 
It  couples  the  body  to  the  hips  and  should  be  short,  wide,  deep  and 
strong.  Perfect,  2  points.  Long  low  loins  are  objectionable.  Ac- 
tion of  the  hind  legs  is  defective  (slouching  and  scuflBing)  where 
there  is  such  conformation.  A  roach  back  is  the  opposite  of  a  sway 
back,  and  is  preferable  to  the  latter.  The  loin  of  the  mare  is  longer 
than  that  of  the  male,  but  should  be  strong,  not  sagging. 

Underline. — From  the  floor  (sternum)  of  the  chest  the  under- 
line of  the  body  should  run  back  full  and  low.  Perfect,  1  point. 
If  the  underline  slopes  sharply  upward  to  the  stifle  the  abdomen  hag 
a  cut  up  appearance.  This  indicates  lack  of  roominess  and  denotes 
poor  keeping  qualities. 

Hips. — The  upper  part  of  the  hind  quarter  should  show  great 
development  of  wide,  thick,  smooth  muscle  and  freedom  from' 
angularities  and  coarseness.  Perfect,  2  points.  The  muscles  of  the 
hips,  and  hind  quarters  in  general,  give  the  hind  legs  the  power  to 
start  and  draw  heavy  loads.  The  region  should  be  capacious  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  maximum  amount  of  muscle.  Steepness 
toward  the  root  of  the  tail  (croup)  detracts  from  the  symmetry  of 
form  and  lessens  the  space  available  for  attachment  of  muscles. 

Croup. — The  part  of  the  hind  quarter  from  the  top  of  the  hip  to 
the  insertion  of  the  tail.  It  should  show  comparative  levelness,  am- 
ple muscle  and  great  strength.  Perfect,  2  points.  The  most  nota- 
ble deficiency  of  this  part  in  draft  horses  is  excessive  droop,  or  steep- 
ness and  shortness,  with  weakness  of  muscle.  Such  conformation 
tends  to  slouchiness  in  gait  and  often  is  associated  with  sickle  hocks. 


98  D03IESTIG  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

The  draft  croup  should  be  smooth,  of  fair  length,  and  neither  too 
steep  nor  perfectly  level. 

Thighs. — From  the  hips,  down  to  the  stifles ;  should  be  strongly- 
muscular,  wide  and  long.  Perfect,  3  points.  Slim,  light,  narrow, 
poorly  muscled  thighs  denote  lack  of  draft  power.  It  is  important 
that  the  thighs  and  all  other  parts  of  the  hind  quarters  should  be 
richly  supplied  with  muscles. 

Quarters. — Looking  from  the  rear  the  plump  muscles  of  the 
inner  sides  of  the  thighs  form  the  quarters  and  should  be  full,  thick 
and  carried  well  down  to  the  second  thighs  (gaskins).  Perfect,  2 
points. 

Stifles. — These  joints  should  be  strong,  thick  with  muscle,  clean 
cut  in  front  and  free  from  dropsical  swellings.  Like  the  elbows 
they  should  be  so  set  as  to  allow  of  straight,  free  action,  and  there- 
fore neither  appreciably  turned  toward  or  away  from  the  body.  Per- 
fect, 2  points. 

Gaskins. — These  are  the  lower  thighs  and  correspond  to  the 
forearms  and  what  is  true  of  the  latter  also  applies  equally  to  the  gas- 
kins. The  muscles  should  be  large,  prominent  in  front  of  the  bone 
and  carried  well  downward.    Perfect,  2  points. 

Hocks. — These  are  most  important  joints  as  the  great  strain  of 
load  starting  and  hauling  falls  upon  them  and  they  must  be  im- 
mensely strong  and  perfectly  sound  or  soon  they  will  break  down. 
The  joints  should  be  large,  clean,  sharply  defined,  wide,  deep,  and 
well  set.  Perfect,  8  points.  Poor  hocks  are  a  common  fault  in  draft 
horses.  It  is  important  to  improve  this  deficiency.  To  that  end 
breeding  animals  should  have  good  hocks  and  for  work  horses  this 
also  is  imperative.  The  hock  (not  hind  knee)  is  commonly  the  seat 
of  some  one  of  such  diseases  as  bone  and  bog  (not  blood)  spavin, 
thoroughpin  and  curb.  These  should  be  avoided.  The  joint  should 
look  and  feel  firm,  hard  and  with  each  bone  well  defined,  free  from 
meatiness  and  of  great  size.  The  point  of  the  hock  should  be  prom- 
inent, clean  and  sharp  and  the  tendons  under  it  straight,  distinct, 
but  free  from  bulging. 

Canons,  Fetlocks,  Pasterns,  Feet. — What  has  been  said  rela- 
tive to  these  members  of  the  fore  leg  applies  with  equal  truth  to  the 
corresponding  parts  of  the  hind  extremity.  The  canons  of  the 
hind  leg  should  have  the  same  wide,  flat  appearance  desirable  in 
those  of  the  fore  leg.  As  the  hind  feet  strike  the  ground  a  slanting 
blow,  while  concussion  on  the  fore  feet  is  direct,  absolute  correctness 
in  form  and  perfect  soundness  is  somew^hat  more  important  in  the 
fore  feet  than  in  the  hind  feet.  The  hind  pasterns  may  be  slightly 
more  upright  than  those  of  the  fore  leg.  The  hoofs  of  the  hind  limbs 
are  steeper  and  narrower  than  those  of  the  fore  legs.  The  hind  fet- 
locks are  most  likely  to  be  blemished  by  puffs  and  interfering  sores. 

SOUNDNESS  AND  UNSOUNDNESS. 

The  professional  veterinarian  when  examining  a  horse  for 
soundness  proceeds  on  the  basis  of  a  negative  test.  He  looks  in  turn 
for  one  of  a  number  of  possible  unsoundnesses  each  at  its  particular 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  99 

location.  Not  finding  an  unsoundness  present  he  accounts  the  part 
sound.  If  all  parts  are  found  to  be  sound,  the  animal  is  certified  to  as 
sound.  There  is  no  such  condition  as  sen-iceably  sound.  A  horse  ia 
either  sound,  or  unsound.  He  may  be  too  unsound  to  work,  or  able 
to  work  despite  unsoundness.  The  seriousness  of  the  particular  un- 
soundness present  is  to  be  estimated  by  the  judge  and  for  that  inti- 
mate knowledge  and  experience  are  necessary. 

For  breeding  purposes  any  disease  is  serious.  A  disease  con- 
sidered hereditary  is  most  serious.  A  distortion,  deformity  or  blem- 
ish, due  to  accident,  is  not  serious  on  the  score  of  transmissibility, 
but  depreciates  sale  value.  In  work  horses  the  degree  to  which  a 
disease  or  unsoundness  is  temporary  or  permanent  and  likely  to  de- 
tract from  serviceability  for  work,  must  be  carefully  considered.  A 
horse  may  be  afflicted  with  strangles  (distemper)  and  recover  per- 
fectly ;  or  the  attack  may  pass  off,  but  leave  the  animal  a  roarer.  The 
attack  of  strangles  would  constitute  a  temporary  unsoundness;  the 
roaring  a  permanent  and  serious  unsoundness  in  a  work  animal. 
In  a  breeding  animal  it  should  constitute  an  unsoundness  unfitting 
the  horse  for  breeding  purposes.  A  large  barb  wire  cut  scar  would 
ordinarily  be  considered  a  blemish  or  eye  sore;  but  should  it  have 
caused  permanent  lameness  it  would  be  a  serious  unsoundness  in 
a  work  animal.  In  a  breeding  animal,  not  used  for  work,  the  blem- 
ish and  even  the  lameness,  would  be  of  slight  gravity,  not  being 
transmissible  to  progeny. 

COMMON   UXSOUNDNESSES  TO  BE  NOTED. 

Having  learned  how  to  judge  the  various  parts  of  the  horse's 
exterior,  as  regards  correctness  of  form,  the  student  should  next 
acquire  a  fair  degree  of  skill  in  detecting  the  more  common  and 
serious  unsoundnesses.  A  judge  should  describe  and  show  the  loca- 
tion of  each  and,  when  possible,  demonstrate  from  affected  animals. 
The  diseases  and  unsoundnesses  should,  as  follows,  be  studied  ac- 
cording to  each  part  involved: 

Head. — Poll  evil  is  an  enlargement  of  the  poll,  containing  or 
discharing  pus;  due  to  bruise;  not  hereditary;  a  serious  unsound- 
ness; often  difficult  to  cure;  recovered  case  may  leave  neck  perma- 
nently stiff.     Look  for  scars. 

Eyes. — ^Test  for  blindness.  Pupil  of  the  eye  should  contract  in 
the  light.  Cloudiness  or  opacity  denote  moon  blindness  (periodic 
ophthalmia)  or  cataract.  Specks  may  be  due  to  injuries;  unimpor- 
tant if  the  sight  is  not  impaired  thereby. 

Ears. — Excessive  mobility  may  indicate  unpaired  vision,  vi- 
ciousness,  or  nervousness;  lack  of  mobility  may  indicate  deafness, 
or  tetanus  (lock  jaw).  Base  of  ear  sometimes  seat  of  troublesome 
discharging  fistula. 

Muzzle. — Nostrils  should  be  free  from  discharge  of  chronic 
catarrh  or  glanders.  Sometimes  plugged  with  sponge  to  hide  roar- 
ing. Lining  membrane  should  be  healthy  pink  in  color;  free  from 
ulcers,  or  purple  spots  or  bad  smelling  discharge.  Lips  not  torn; 
free  from  chronic  sores  from  bit  at  angle  of  mouth. 


100  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Teeth. — Examine  for  diseased,  missing  or  projecting  molars; 
overlapping  incisors  (parrot  mouth)  ;  bishoping  (artificial  mark- 
ing of  the  incisor  teeth  to  alter  indications  of  age)  and  under-shot 
jaw. 

Tongue. — ^See  that  the  tongue  is  intact  and  healthy.  Part  of  it 
may  be  missing,  or  mutilations  present.  See  that  floor  of  mouth 
is  sound  where  bit  rests. 

Under  Jaw. — Look  for  discharging,  or  plugged  fistula  of  sal- 
ivary duct  or  one  connecting  with  a  molar  tooth  root ;  abscesses  and 
tumors. 

Neck. — Broken  crest  in  stallions;  sores;  skin  disease;  watch  for 
artificially  braided  in  mane. 

Withers. — Fistula  of  the  withers,  acute,  chronic  or  healed;  col- 
lar sores. 

Shoulder. — Collar  boils ;  fibroid  tumors  from  bruising ;  sweeney ; 
fistula  or  abscess. 

Elbow. — Shoe  boil,  from  bruising  of  point  of  elbow. 

Knee. — Scars  from  broken  knee,  due  to  falling;  puffs;  buck 
knee  (bent  forward);  calf  knee  (bent  backward);  high  splint; 
capped  knee. 

Canons. — Splints  are  abnormal  bony  growths  formed  at  the 
sides  of  the  canon  bones  where  the  small  splint  bones  (metacarpals 
in  front,  metatarsals  in  hind  leg)  overlie  the  large  canon  bones. 
They  are  objectionable,  may  cause  lameness  when  forming,  are  often 
an  indication  of  light  bone,  but  ordinarily  should  not  be  deemed  to 
constitute  hereditary  unsoundness.  If  found  on  all  legs,  of  large 
size  and  associated  with  other  bony  growths  (exostoses)  they  may 
indicate  a  hereditary  tendency  to  such  bony  growths  (bony  diathe- 
sis) and  the  animal  should  be  rejected  for  breeding  purposes.  Ex- 
amine back  tendons  for  thickening  or  bowed  condition.  In  examin- 
ing horses  having  hairy  legs  search  for  evidences  of  grease  and  grease 
heel,  such  as  old  scars,  fissures,  grape-like  growths  or  discharge 
having  bad  odor;  also  for  scratches. 

Fetlocks. — 'Seat  of  puffs  (wind  galls),  interfering  sores;  knuck- 
ling or  cocked  ankles;  grease,  grease  heel  and  scratches.  Examine 
on,  just  above  or  below  for  scars  of  unnerving  (neurotomy). 

Pasterns. — Seat  of  ringbones;  a  serious,  hereditary  unsound- 
ness. These  bony  growths  are  found  on  the  upper,  middle  or  lower 
portions  of  the  pastern  bones,  may  partially  or  wholly  encircle  the 
bone,  and  in  aggravated  cases,  cause  lameness  and  involve  and  inter- 
fere with  the  proper  action  of  the  fetlock  joint  above,  or  with  the 
coffin  joint  at  the  lower  end  of  the  pastern  bone.  They  give  a  bulg- 
ing appearance  to  the  part  of  the  bone  affected,  have  the  feel  of  bone 
and  constitute  unsoundness.  In  work  horses  ringbone  involving  a 
fore  pastern  is  much  more  serious  than  ringbone  on  the  hind  pastern. 

Coronets  (hoof  heads). — Sidebones  are  located  under  the  skin 
of  the  coronet,  at  the  quarters.  They  are  due  to  the  lateral  cartilages 
at  these  parts  changing  to  bone.  When  present  they  may  be  detected 
as  prominent,  hard,  bony  masses  protruding  above  the  hoof  at  the 
Bides  of  the  feet  towards  the  heels  and  bulging  the  hoof  under  the 


BREEDS  OF  HOUSES  101 

part  involved.  When  sidebones  are  absent  the  cartilages  can  be 
grasped  between  the  fingers  and  thumb  and  moved  or  bent  from 
side  to  side  as  if  they  were  formed  of  stout  rubber.  Sidebones  are 
common  in  draft  horses  and  constitute  unsoundness.  Horses  having 
wide,  flat  low  heeled  hoofs  are  most  subject  to  this  unsoundness. 
Horses  afflicted  \\'ith  sidebones  and  ringbones  should  not  be  used  for 
breeding  purposes.  Quittor,  a  fistulous  abscess,  is  also  a  common 
unsoundness  of  the  coronet. 

Feet. — Na\acular  disease  causes  hardening  and  contraction  of 
the  hoof  and  chronic  lameness.  The  affected  horse  points  his  lame 
foot  fonvard  when  standing  at  rest,  starts  off  lame  and  warms  out 
of  the  lameness.  The  tendency  to  the  disease  is  deemed  hereditary. 
It  constitutes  a  grave  unsoundness  for  all  purposes.  Other  common 
unsoundnesses  to  be  looked  for  are  founder,  indicated  by  rings  and 
ridges  on  the  hoof  wall,  abnormal  projection  at  the  toe,  convexity  at 
the  sole  (dropped  sole)  and  lameness;  sand  crack  (in  wall  at  front  of 
toe)  ;  quarter  crack  (in  wall  at  quarter)  ;  corns,  in  the  sole  at  the 
angle  of  bar  and  heel;  and  "thrush,"  a  diseased  condition  of  the  frog 
characterized  by  a  bad  smelling  discharge  from  its  cleft. 

Hips. — Examine  for  fractures  of  the  point  or  shaft  of  the  hip 
(ilium)  indicated  by  distortion,  on  comparing  one  hip  with  the 
other  from  the  rear;  also  examine  for  similar  distortion  on  haunch 
at  side  of  tail  (from  fracture  of  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium). 

Tail. — The  black  skin  of  the  under  side  of  the  tail  and  nearby 
parts  often  is  the  seat  of  cancerous,  malanotic  or  pigment  tumors 
in  aging  white  or  grey  horses.  The  disease  is  incurable  and  consti- 
tutes unsoundness  in  both  work  and  breeding  horses.  Examine  end 
that  the  tail  is  not  artificial  and  joined  on. 

Stifle. — Should  be  free  from  dropsical  swellings  and  the  knee 
cap  (patella)  should  remain  firmly  in  place  during  motion. 

Hocks. — These  important  joints  should  be  free  from  bone 
spavin,  bog,  spavin,  thoroughpin  and  curb.  Each  constitutes  an  un- 
soundness in  both  work  and  breeding  animals;  tendency  to  them  is 
considered  hereditary.  Bone  spavin  is  a  bony  growth  upon  the  sur- 
face or  among  the  small  bones,  on  the  inner,  lower  part  of  the  hock 
joint,  or  may  involve  the  tnie  joint  higher  up.  A  bony  growth 
appearing  upon  the  outer  part  of  the  joint  is  called  a  jarde.  In 
spavin  lameness  the  horse  starts  out  lame  and  improves  or  recovers 
with  exercise.  Bog,  or  so-called  blood  spavins,  are  soft,  fluctuating 
distensions  of  the  capsular  ligaments  (synovial  or  joint  oil  sacs)  of 
the  hock  joints,  and  give  a  bulging  appearance  to  the  front  of  the 
part  involved.  Curb  appears  as  a  bulging,  calloused  enlargement 
upon  the  rear  portion  of  the  hind  leg,  just  under  the  hock  joint,  in- 
volving the  tendons  and  ligaments  and  sometimes  the  bone  of  the 
part..  Crooked  or  sickle  hocks  are  most  prone  to  curb  which  follows 
undue  strain  when  at  play  or  work.  Actual  unsoundness,  implicat- 
ing the  hock  joint  and  objectionable  conformation,  rendering  the 
joint  liable  to  contract  disease  or  become  unsound,  should  be  care- 
fully avoided  in  the  selection  of  breeding  stock  and  work  animals. 


102  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

OTHER  UNSOUNDNESSES. 

Chorea,  Shivering,  or  St.  Vitus'  Dance. — This  is  considered 
a  hereditary  disease  and  also  constitutes  unsoundness  in  work  horses. 
It  is  commonest  in  nervous,  tall,  narrow  animals.  The  disease  is 
most  readily  detected  when  moving  the  horse  from  one  side  to  the 
other,  or  in  backing  out  of  the  stall.  The  leg  is  jerked  up  once  or 
twice  at  these  times  and  the  tail  and  muscles  quiver  momentarily. 
The  symptoms  disappear  when  the  horse  is  exercised.  Stringhalt 
(akin  to  chorea)  is  the  term  applied  to  the  exaggerated  jerking  up 
action  of  the  hind  leg  seen  in  some  horses.  The  trouble  in  some  in- 
stances is  remediable  by  operation  (peroneal  tenotomy). 

Roaring. — (Laryngeal  hemiplegia)  is  characterized  by  noisy 
breathing  when  the  horse  is  exercised.  It  constitutes  unsoundness 
in  both  work  and  breeding  horses. 

Heaves. — (Emphysema  of  the  lungs),  is  indicated  by  double 
bellow^like  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles  as  the  horse  breathes; 
cough  also  is  present.  Like  roaring  it  is  an  unsoundness  of  the 
breeding  animal  and  work  horse. 

Vices. — They  are  such  as  cribbing,  windsucking  and  weaving 
and  are  best  discovered  when  the  horse  is  in  the  stall  and  although 
not  certainly  hereditary  are  highly  objectionable  and  detrimental 
unsoundnesses. —  (Wis.  Circ.  17.) 

HORSESHOEING. 

Bad  and  indifferent  shoeing  frequently  leads  to  diseases  of  the 
feet  and  to  irregularities  of  gait  which  may  render  a  horse  unservice- 
able. It  is  important,  therefore,  to  consider  the  principles  involved 
in  shoeing  healthy  hoofs.  In  this  discussion  of  the  subject  it  is  in- 
tended to  give  the  intelligent  horse  owner  sufficient  information, 
based  on  experience  and  upon  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 
foot  and  leg,  to  enable  him  to  avoid  the  more  serious  consequences  of 
improper  shoeing. 

The  Foot. — Let  us  first  examine  the  mechanism  of  the  foot  and 
leam  something  of  its  structure  and  of  the  natural  movements  of  its 
component  parts,  that  we  may  be  prepared  to  recognize  deviations 
from  the  normal  and  to  apply  the  proper  corrective. 

Gross  Anatomy  of  the  Foot. — The  bones  of  the  foot  are  four 
in  number,  three  of  which — the  long  pastern,  short  pastern,  and  cof- 
finbone — ^placed  end  to  end,  form  a  continuous  straight  column  pass- 
ing downward  and  forward  from  the  fetlock  joint  to  the  ground.  A 
small  accessory  bone,  the  navicular,  or  "shuttle,"  bone,  lies  cross- 
wise in  the  foot  between  the  wings  of  the  coffinbone  and  forms  part 
of  the  joint  surface  of  the  latter.  The  short  pastern  projects  about 
iy2  inches  above  the  hoof  and  extends  about  an  equal  distance 
into  it. 

Hinge  Joints. — The  pasterns  and  the  coffinbone  are  held  to- 
gether by  strong  fibrous  cords  passing  between  each  two  bones  and 
placed  at  the  sides  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  fori\'ard  and  back- 
ward movement  of  the  bones.  The  joints  are  therefore  hinge  joints, 
though  imperfect,  because,  while  the  chief  movements  are  those  oC 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  103 

extension  and  flexion  in  a  single  plane,  some  slight  rotation  and 
lateral  movements  are  possible. 

Tendons  and  Flexors. — The  bones  are  still  further  bound  to- 
gether and  supported  by  three  long  fibrous  cords  or  tendons.  One, 
the  extensor  tendon  of  the  toe,  passes  down  the  front  of  the  pasterns 
and  attaches  to  the  coffinbone  just  below  the  edge  of  the  hair;  when 
pulled  upon  by  its  muscle  this  tendon  draws  the  toe  forward  and 
enables  the  horse  to  place  the  hoof  flat  upon  the  ground.  The  other 
two  tendons  are  placed  behind  the  pasterns  and  are  called  flexors, 
because  they  flex,  or  bend,  the  pasterns  and  coffinbone  backward. 
One  of  these  tendons  is  attached  to  the  upper  end  of  the  short  pas- 
tern, while  the  other  passes  down  between  the  heels,  glides  over  the 
under  surface  of  the  navicular  bone  and  attaches  itself  to  the  under 
surface  of  the  coffinbone.  These  two  tendons  not  only  flex,  or  fold 
up,  the  foot  as  the  latter  leaves  the  ground,  during  motion,  but  at 
rest  assist  the  suspensory  ligament  in  supporting  the  fetlock  joint. 

Foot- Axis. — The  foot-axis  is  an  imaginary  line  passing  from 
the  fetlock  joint  through  the  long  axes  of  the  two  pasterns  and  coffin- 
bone.  This  imaginary  line,  which  shows  the  direction  of  the  pas- 
terns and  coffinbone,  should  ahvays  he  straight — that  is,  never 
broken,  either  forward  or  backward  when  viewed  from  the  side, or  in- 
ward or  outward  when  obsers'ed  in  front.  Viewed  from  one  side, 
the  long  axis  of  the  long  pastern,  when  prolonged  to  the  ground, 
should  be  parallel  to  the  line  of  the  toe.  Viewed  from  in  front,  the 
long  axis  of  the  long  pastern,  when  prolonged  to  the  ground,  should 
cut  the  hoof  exactly  at  the  middle  of  the  toe. 

Raising  the  heels  or  shortening  the  toe  not  only  tilts  the  cof- 
finbone forward  and  makes  the  hoof  stand  steeper  at  the  toe,  but 
slackens  the  tendon  that  attaches  to  the  under  surface  of  the  coffin- 
bone,  and  therefore  allows  the  fetlock  joint  to  sink  downward  and 
backward  and  the  long  pastern  to  assume  a  more  nearly  horizontal 
position.  The  foot-axis,  viewed  from  one  side,  is  now  broken  forward ; 
that  is,  the  long  pastern  is  less  steep  than  the  toe,  and  the  heels 
are  either  too  long  or  the  toe  is  too  short.  On  the  other  hand,  rais- 
ing the  toe  or  lowering  the  heels  of  a  foot  with  a  straight  foot-axis 
not  only  tilts  the  coffinbone  backward  and  renders  the  toe  moro 
nearly  horizontal,  but  tenses  the  perforans  tendon,  which  then 
forces  the  fetlock  joint  forward,  causing  the  long  pastern  to  stand 
steeper.  The  foot-axis,  seen  from  one  side,  is  now  broken  backward 
— an  indication  that  the  toe  is  relatively  too  long  or  that  the  heels  are 
relatively  too  low. 

Lateral  Cartilages  and  Plantar  Cushion. — The  elastic  tissues  of 
the  foot  are  preeminently  the  lateral  cartilages  and  the  plantar 
cushion.  The  lateral  cartilages  are  two  irregularly  four-sided  plates 
of  gristle,  one  on  either  side  of  the  foot,  extending  from  the  wings  of 
the  coffinbone  backward  to  the  heels  and  upward  to  a  distance  of  an 
inch  or  more  above  the  edge  of  the  hair,  where  they  may  be  felt  by 
the  fingers.  When  sound,  these  plates  are  elastic  and  yield  readily 
to  moderate  finger  pressure,  but  from  various  causes  may  undergo 


104  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

ossification,  in  which  condition  they  are  hard  and  unyielding.  The 
plantar  cushion  is  a  wedge-shaped  mass  of  tough,  elastic,  fibro-fatty 
tissue  filling  all  the  space  between  the  lateral  cartilages,  forming  the 
fleshy  heels  and  the  fleshy  frog,  and  serving  as  a  buffer  to  disperse 
shock  when  the  foot  is  set  to  the  ground.  It  extends  forward  under- 
neath the  navicular  bone  and  perforans  tendon,  and  protects  these 
structures  from  injurious  pressure  from  below.  Instantaneous  pho- 
tographs show  that  at  speed  the  horse  sets  the  heels  to  the  ground 
before  other  parts  of  the  foot — conclusive  proof  that  the  function 
of  this  tough,  elastic  structure  is  to  dissipate  and  render  harmless 
violent  impact  of  the  foot  with  the  ground. 

Pododerm  (foot  skin). — The  horn-producing  membrane,  or 
quick  as  it  is  commonly  termed,  is  merely  a  downward  prolongation 
of  the  derm,  or  true  skin,  and  may  be  conveniently  called  the  podo- 
derm (foot  skin).  The  pododerm  closely  invests  the  coffinbone, 
lateral  cartilages,  and  plantar  cushion,  much  as  a  sock  covers  the 
human  foot,  and  is  itself  covered  by  the  horny  capsule,  or  hoof.  It 
differs  from  the  external,  or  hair,  skin  in  having  no  sweat  or  oil 
glands,  but,  like  it,  is  richly  supplied  with  blood  vessels  and  sensi- 
tive nerves.  And,  just  as  the  derm  of  the  hair  skin  produces  upon 
its  outer  surface  layer  upon  layer  of  horny  cells  (epiderm),  which 
protect  the  sensitive  and  vascular  derm,  so,  likewise,  in  the  foot  the 
pododerm  produces  over  its  entire  surface  soft  cells,  which,  pushed 
away  by  more  recent  cells  forming  beneath,  lose  moisture  by  evapo- 
ration and  are  rapidly  transformed  into  the  corneous  material  which 
we  call  the  hoof.  It  is  proper  to  regard  the  hoof  as  a  greatly  thick- 
ened epiderm,  having  many  of  the  qualities  possessed  by  such  epi- 
dermal structures  as  hair,  feathers,  nails,  claws,  etc.  The  functions 
of  the  pododerm  are  to  produce  the  hoof  and  to  unite  it  firmly  to 
the  foot. 

There  are  five  parts  of  the  pododerm,  easily  distinguishable 
when  the  hoof  has  been  removed,  namely:  (1)  The  perioplic  band, 
a  narrow  ridge  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch  wide, 
running  along  the  edge  of  the  hair  from  one  heel  around  the  toe  to 
the  other.  This  band  produces  the  perioplic  horn,  the  thin  varnish- 
like layer  of  glistening  horn,  which  forms  the  surface  of  the  wall, 
or  "crust,"  and  whose  purpose  seems  to  be  to  retard  evaporation  of 
moisture  from  the  wall.  (2)  The  coronary  band,  a  prominent  fleshy 
cornice  encircling  the  foot  just  below  and  parallel  to  the  perioplic 
band.  At  the  heels  it  is  reflected  forward  along  the  sides  of  the  fleshy 
frog  to  become  lost  near  the  apex  of  this  latter  structure.  The  coro- 
net produces  the  middle  layer  of  the  wall,  and  the  reflected  portions 
produce  the  "bars,"  which  are,  therefore,  to  be  regarded  merely  as 
a  turning  forward  of  the  wall.  (3)  The  fleshy  leaves,  500  to  600  in 
number,  parallel  to  one  another,  running  downward  and  forward 
from  the  lower  edge  of  the  coronary  band  to  the  margin  of  the  fleshy 
sole.  They  produce  the  soft,  light-colored  horny  leaves  which  form 
the  deepest  layer  of  the  wall,  and  serve  as  a  strong  bond  of  union, 
between  the  middle  layer  of  the  wall  and  the  fleshy  leaves  with  which 


A  Choice  Cavalry  Horse.    Weight  About  IjIoo  Pounds.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


A  Chok  I  1 1   V.  \  i^iv.u  i  ,,,  1  ii jij  i:,x  CouEiESX  OX  Bkeeder's  Gazeixe.  Depi.  oj  Agr. 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  107 

they  dovetail.  (4)  The  fleshy  sole,  which  covers  the  entire  under 
surface  of  the  foot,  excepting  the  fleshy  frog  and  bars.  The  horny 
sole  is  produced  by  the  fleshy  sole.  (5)  The  fleshy  frog,  which 
covers  the  under  surface  of  the  plantar  cushion  and  produces  the 
horny  frog. 

Horny, Box,  or  Hoof. — The  homy  box,  or  hoof,  consists  of  wall 
and  bars,  sole  and  frog.  The  wall  i^  all  that  part  of  the  hoof  which 
is  visible  when  the  foot  is  on  the  ground.  As  already  stated,  it  con- 
sists of  three  layers — ^the  periople,  the  middle  layer,  and  the  leafy 
layer. 

Bars. — The  bars  are  forward  prolongations  of  the  wall,  and 
are  gradually  lost  near  the  point  of  the  frog.  The  angle  between 
the  wall  and  a  bar  is  called  the  buttress.  Each  bar  lies  against 
the  horny  frog  on  one  side  and  incloses  a  wing  of  the  sole  on  the 
other,  so  that  the  least  expansion  or  contraction  of  the  homy  frog 
separates  or  approximates  the  bars,  and  through  them  the  lateral  car- 
tilages and  the  walls  of  the  quarters.  The  lower  border  of  the  wall 
is  called  the  bearing  edge,  and  is  the  surface  against  which  the  shoe 
bears.  By  dividing  the  entire  lower  circumferences  of  the  wall  into 
five  equal  parts,  a  toe,  two  side  walls,  and  two  quarters  will  be  ex- 
hibited. The  "heels,"  strictly  speaking,  are  the  two  rounded  soft 
prominences  of  the  plantar  cushion,  lying  one  above  each  quarter. 
The  outer  wall  is  usually  more  slanting  than  the  inner,  and  the 
more  slanting  half  of  a  hoof  is  always  the  thicker.  In  front  hoofs 
the  wall  is  thickest  at  the  toe  and  gradually  thins  out  toward  the 
quarters,  where  in  some  horses  it  may  not  exceed  one-fourth  of  an 
inch.  In  hind  hoofs  there  is  much  less  difference  in  thickness  be- 
tween the  toe,  side  walls,  and  quarters.  The  homy  sole,  from  which 
the  flakes  of  old  horn  have  been  removed,  is  concave  and  about  as 
thick  as  the  wall  at  the  toe.  It  is  rough,  uneven,  and  often  covered 
by  flakes  of  dead  horn  in  process  of  being  loosened  and  cast  off. 
Behind,  the  sole  presents  an  opening  into  which  are  received  the 
bars  and  horny  frog.  This  opening  divides  the  sole  into  a  body  and 
two  wings. 

The  periphery  of  the  sole  unites  with  the  lower  border  of  the 
wall  and  bars  through  the  medium  of  the  white  line,  which  is  the 
cross  section  of  the  leafy  horn  layer  of  the  wall,  and  of  short  plugs 
of  horn  which  grow  down  from  the  lower  ends  of  the  fleshy  leaves. 
This  white  line  is  of  much  importance  to  the  shoer,  since  its  dis- 
tance from  the  outer  border  of  the  hoof  is  the  thickness  of  the  wall, 
and  in  the  white  line  all  nails  should  be  driven. 

The  Frog. — The  frog,  secreted  by  the  pododerm  covering  the 
plantar  cushion  or  fatty  frog,  and  presenting  almost  the  same  form 
as  the  latter,  lies  as  a  soft  and  very  elastic  wedge  between  the  bars 
and  between  the  edges  of  the  sole  just  in  front  of  the  bars.  A  broad 
and  shallow  depression  in  its  center  divides  it  into  two  branches, 
which  diverge  as  they  pass  backward  into  the  horny  bulbs  of  the 
heel.  In  front  of  the  middle  cleft  the  two  branches  unite  to  fonn 
the  body  of  the  frog,  which  ends  in  the  point  of  the  frog.    The  bar 


108  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

of  a  bar  shoe  should  rest  on  the  branches  of  the  frog.  In  unshod 
hoofs  the  bearing  edge  of  the  wall,  the  sole,  frog,  and  bars  are  all  on 
a  level ;  that  is,  the  under  surface  of  the  hoof  is  perfectly  flat,  and 
each  of  these  structures  assists  in  bearing  the  body  weight. 

The  Hoof. — With  respect  to  solidity,  the  different  parts  of  the 
hoof  vary  widely.  The  middle  layer  of  the  wall  is  harder  and  more 
tenacious  than  the  sole,  for  the  latter  crumbles  away  or  passes  off  in 
larger  or  smaller  flakes  on  its  under  surface,  while  no  such  sponta- 
neous shortening  of  the  wall  occurs.  The  white  line  and  the  frog 
are  soft  horn  structures,  and  differ  from  hard  horn  in  that  their  horn 
cells  do  not,  under  natural  conditions,  become  hard  and  hornlike. 
They  are  very  elastic,  absorb  moisture  rapidly,  and  as  readily  dry 
out  and  become  hard,  brittle,  and  easily  fissured.  Horn  of  good 
quality  is  fine-grained  and  tough,  while  bad  horn  is  coarse-grained, 
and  either  mellow  and  friable  or  hard  and  brittle.  All  horn  is  a 
poor  conductor  of  heat,  and  the  harder  (dryer)  the  horn,  the  more 
slowly  does  it  transmit  extremes  of  temperature. 

Physiological  Movements  of  the  Hoof. — A  hoof  while  support- 
ing the  body  weight  has  a  different  form,  and  the  structures  in- 
closed within  the  hoof  have  a  different  position  than  when  not  bear- 
ing weight.  Since  the  amount  of  weight  borne  by  a  foot  is  continu- 
ally changing,  and  the  relations  of  internal  pressure  are  continuously 
varying,  a  foot  is,  from  a  physiological  viewpoint,  never  at  rest.  The 
most  marked  changes  of  form  of  the  hoof  occur  when  the  foot  bears 
the  greatest  weight,  namely,  at  the  time  of  the  greatest  descent  of 
the  fetlock.  Briefly,  these  changes  of  form  are:  (1)  An  expansion 
or  widening  of  the  whole  back  half  of  the  foot  from  the  coronet  to 
the  lower  edge  of  the  quarters.  This  expansion  varies  between  onfr- 
fiftieth  and  one-twelfth  of  an  inch.  (2)  A  narrowing  of  the  front 
half  of  the  foot,  measured  at  the  coronet.  (3)  A  sinking  of  the 
heels  and  a  flattening  of  the  wings  of  the  sole.  These  changes  are 
more  marked  in  the  half  of  the  foot  that  bears  the  greater  weight. 

The  changes  of  form  occur  in  the  following  order:  When  the 
foot  is  set  to  the  ground  the  body-weight  is  transmitted  through  the 
bones  and  sensitive  and  horny  leaves  to  the  wall.  The  coffinbone 
and  navicular  bone  sink  a  little  and  rotate  backward.  At  the  same 
time  the  short  pastern  sinks  backward  and  downward  between  the 
lateral  cartilages  and  presses  the  perforans  tendon  upon  the  plantar 
cushion.  This  cushion  being  compressed  from  above  and  being  un- 
able to  expand  downward  by  reason  of  the  resistance  of  the  ground 
acting  against  the  horny  frog,  acts  like  any  other  elastic  mass  and 
expands  toward  the  sides,  pushing  before  it  the  yielding  lateral  car- 
tilages and  the  wall  of  the  quarters.  This  expansion  of  the  heels  is 
assisted  and  increased  by  the  simultaneous  flattening  and  lateral 
expansion  of  the  resilient  horny  frog,  which  crowds  the  bars  apart. 
Of  course,  when  the  lateral  cartilages  are  ossified  not  only  is  no  ex- 
pansion of  the.  quarters  possible,  but  frog  pressure  often  leads  to 
painful  compression  of  the  plantar  cushion  and  to  increase  of  lame- 
ness.   Frog  pressure  is  therefore  contra-indicated  in  lameness  due 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  109 

to  sidebones  (ossified  cartilages).  Under  the  descent  of  the  coffin- 
bone  the  horny  sole  sinks  a  little ;  that  is,  the  arch  of  the  sole  around 
the  point  of  the  frog,  and  the  wings  of  the  sole  become  somewhat 
flattened.  All  these  changes  of  form  are  most  marked  in  sound  un- 
shod hoofs,  because  in  them  ground  pressure  on  the  frog  and  sole  ia 
pronounced ;  they  are  more  marked  in  fore  hoofs  than  in  hind  hoofs. 

The  movement  of  the  different  structures  mthin  the  foot  and 
the  changes  of  form  that  occur  at  every  step  are  indispensable  to 
the  health  of  the  hoof,  so  that  these  elastic  tissues  must  be  kept 
active  by  regular  exercise,  with  protection  against  drying  out  of  the 
hoof.  Long  continued  rest  in  the  stable,  drying  out  of  the  hoof,  and 
shoeing  decrease  or  alter  the  physiological  movements  of  the  hoof 
and  sometimes  lead  to  foot  diseases.  Since  these  movements  are 
complete  and  spontaneous  only  in  unshod  feet,  shoeing  must  be  re- 
garded as  an  evil,  albeit  a  necessary  one,  and  indispensable  if  we 
wish  to  keep  horses  continuously  serviceable  on  hard  artificial  roads. 
However,  if  in  shoeing  we  bear  in  mind  the  structure  and  functions 
of  the  hoof  and  apply  a  shoe  whose  branches  have  a  wide  and  level 
bearing  surface,  so  as  to  interfere  as  little  as  may  be  with  the  expan- 
sion and  contraction  of  the  quarters,  in  so  far  as  this  is  not  hindered 
by  the  nails,  we  need  not  be  apprehensive  of  trouble,  provided  the 
horse  has  reasonable  work  and  his  hoofs  proper  care. 

Growth  of  the  Hoof. — All  parts  of  the  hoof  grow  downward 
and  forward  with  equal  rapidity,  the  rate  of  growth  being  largely  de- 
pendent upon  the  amount  of  blood  supplied  to  the  pododerm,  or 
quick.  Abundant  and  regular  exercise,  good  grooming,  moistness 
and  suppleness  of  the  hoof,  going  barefoot,  plenty  of  good  food,  and 
at  proper  inter\\T.ls  removing  the  overgrowth  of  hoof  and  regulating 
the  bearing  surface,  by  increasing  the  volume  and  improving  the 
quality  of  the  blood  flowing  into  the  pododerm,  favor  the  rapid 
growth  of  horn  of  good  quality;  while  lack  of  exercise,  dryness  of 
the  horn,  and  excessive  length  of  the  hoof  hinder  growth. 

The  average  rate  of  growth  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  a 
month.  Hind  hoofs  grow  faster  than  fore  hoofs  and  unshod  ones 
faster  than  shod  ones.  The  time  required  for  the  horn  to  grow  from 
the  coronet  to  the  ground,  though  influenced  to  a  slight  degree  by 
the  precited  conditions,  varies  in  proportiin  to  the  distance  of  the 
coronet  from  the  ground.  At  the  toe,  depending  on  its  height,  the 
horn  grows  down  in  eleven  to  thirteen  months,  at  the  side  wall  in 
six  to  eight  months,  and  at  the  heels  in  three  to  five  months.  We 
can  thus  estimate  with  tolerable  accuracy  the  time  required  for  the 
disappearance  of  such  defects  in  the  hoof  as  cracks,  clefts,  etc. 

Irregular  growth  is  not  infrequent.  The  almost  invariable 
cause  of  this  is  an  improper  distribution  of  the  body  weight  over  the 
hoof — that  is,  an  unbalanced  foot.  Colts  running  in  soft  pasture 
or  confined  for  long  periods  in  the  stable  are  frequently  allowed  to 
grow  hoofs  of  excessive  length.  The  long  toe  becomes  dished — that 
is,  concave  from  the  coronet  to  the  ground — the  long  quarters  curl 
forward  and  inward  and  often  completely  cover  the  frog  and  lead 


110  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

to  contraction  of  the  heels,  or  the  whole  hoof  bends  outward  or  in- 
ward, and  a  crooked  foot,  or,  even  worse,  a  crooked  leg,  is  the  result 
if  the  long  hoof  be  allowed  to  exert  its  powerful  and  abnormally 
directed  leverage  for  but  a  few  months  upon  young  plastic  bones  and 
tender  and  lax  articular  ligaments.  All  colts  are  not  foaled  with 
straight  legs,  but  failure  to  regulate  the  length  and  bearing  of  the 
hoof  may  make  a  straight  leg  crooked  and  a  crooked  leg  worse,  just 
as  intelligent  care  during  the  growing  period  can  greatly  improve  a 
congenitally  crooked  limb.  If  breeders  were  more  generally  cogniz- 
ant of  the  power  of  overgrown  and  unbalanced  hoofs  to  divert  the 
lower  bones  of  young  legs  from  their  proper  direction,  and,  there- 
fore, to  cause  them  to  be  moved  improperly  with  loss  of  speed  and 
often  with  injury  to  the  limbs,  we  might  hope  to  see  fewer  knock- 
kneed,  bow-legged,  splay-footed,  pigeon-toed,  cow-hocked,  interfer- 
ing, and  paddling  horses. 

If  in  shortening  the  hoof  one  side-wall  is,  from  ignorance,  left 
too  long  or  cut  down  too  low  with  relation  to  the  other,  the  foot  will 
be  unbalanced,  and  in  traveling  the  long  section  will  touch  the 
ground  first  and  will  continue  to  do  so  till  it  has  been  reduced  to  its 
proper  level  (length)  by  the  increased  wear  which  will  take  place 
at  this  point.  While  this  occurs  rapidly  in  unshod  hoofs,  the  shoe 
prevents  wear  of  the  hoof,  though  it  is  itself  more  rapidly  worn  away 
beneath  the  high  (long)  side  than  elsewhere,  so  that  by  the  time 
the  shoe  is  worn-out  the  tread  of  the  shoe  may  be  flat.  If  this  mis- 
take be  repeated  from  month  to  month,  the  part  of  the  wall  left  too 
high  will  grow  more  rapidly  than  the  low  side  whose  pododerm  is 
relatively  anemic  as  a  result  of  the  greater  weight  falling  into  this 
half  of  the  hoof,  and  the  ultimate  result  will  be  a  wry,  or  crooked 
foot. 

Care  of  Unshod  Hoofs. — The  colt  should  have  abundant  exer- 
cise on  dry  ground.  The  hoofs  will  then  wear  gradually  and  it  will 
only  be  necessary  from  time  to  time  to  regulate  any  uneven  wear 
with  the  rasp  and  to  round  off  the  sharp  edge  about  the  toe  in  order 
to  prevent  breaking  away  of  the  wall. 

Colts  in  the  stable  can  not  wear  down  their  hoofs,  so  that  every 
four  to  six  weeks  they  should  be  rasped  down  and  the  lower  edge  of 
the  wall  well  rounded  to  prevent  chipping.  The  soles  and  clefts  of 
the  frog  should  be  picked  out  every  few  days  and  the  entire  hoof 
washed  clean.  Plenty  of  clean  straw  litter  should  be  provided.  Hoofs 
that  are  becoming  awry  should  have  the  wall  shortened  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  straighten  the  foot-axis.  This  will  ultimately  pro- 
duce a  good  hoof  and  will  improve  the  position  of  the  limb. 

Characteristics  of  a  Healthy  Hoof. — A  healthy  hoof  is  equally 
warm  at  all  parts,  and  is  not  tender  under  pressure  with  the  hands 
or  moderate  compression  with  pincers.  The  coronet  is  soft  and  elastic 
at  all  points  and  does  not  project  beyond  the  surface  of  the  wall.  The 
wall  is  straight  from  coronet  to  ground,  so  that  a  straightedge  laid 
against  the  wall  from  coronet  to  ground  parallel  to  the  direction  of 
the  horn  tubes  will  touch  at  every  point.    The  wall  should  be  cov- 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  111 

ered  with  the  outer  varnish-like  layer  (periople)  and  should  show  no 
cracks  or  clefts.  Every  hoof  shows  ring-formation,  but  the  rings 
should  not  be  strongly  marked  and  should  always  run  parallel  to 
the  coronary  band.  Strongly  marked  ring-formation  over  the  en- 
tire wall  is  an  evidence  of  a  weak  hoof,  but  when  limited  to  a  part  of 
the  wall  is  evidence  of  previous  local  inflammation.  The  bulbs  of 
the  heels  should  be  full,  rounded,  and  of  equal  height.  The  sole 
should  be  well  hollowed  out,  the  whit^  line  solid,  the  frog  well  de- 
veloped, the  middle  cleft  of  the  frog  broad  and  shallow,  the  spaces 
between  the  bars  and  the  frog  wide  and  shallow,  the  bars  straight 
from  the  buttresses  toward  the  point  of  the  frog,  and  the  buttresses 
themselves  so  far  apart  as  not  to  press  against  the  branches  of  the 
frog.  A  hoof  can  not  be  considered  healthy  if  it  presents  reddish 
discolored  horn,  cracks  in  the  wall,  white  line,  bars,  or  frog,  thrush 
of  the  frog,  contraction  or  displacement  of  the  heels.  The  lateral 
cartilages  should  yield  readily  to  finger  pressure. 

Varioiis  Forms  of  Hoofs. — As  among  a  thousand  himian  faces 
no  two  are  alike,  so  among  an  equal  number  of  horses  no  two  have 
hoofs  exactly  alike.  A  little  study  of  different  forms  soon  shows  us, 
however,  that  the  form  of  every  hoof  is  dependent  in  great  measure 
on  the  direction  of  the  two  pastern  bones  as  viewed  from  in  front 
or  behind,  or  from  one  side ;  and  that  all  hoofs  fall  into  three  classes 
when  we  view  them  from  in  front  and  three  classes  when  we  observe 
them  in  profile.  Inasmuch  as  the  form  of  every  foot  determines 
the  peculiarities  of  the  shoe  that  is  best  adapted  to  it,  no  one  who  is 
ignorant  of,  or  who  disregards  the  natural  form  of,  a  hoof,  can  hope 
to  understand  physiological  shoeing. 

The  Feet. — By  the  direction  of  the  imaginary  line  passing 
through  the  long  axes  of  the  two  pasterns  is  determined  whether  or 
not  the  hoof  and  pasterns  stand  in  proper  mutual  relation.  In  the 
regular  standing  position  the  foot-axis  runs  straight  downward  and 
forward.  Viewing  the  foot  in  profile  the  foot-axis  should  be  straight ; 
the  long  pastern,  short  pastern,  and  wall  at  the  toe  should  have  the 
same  slant. 

A  Front  Hoof  of  the  Regular  Standing  Position. — ^The  outer 
wall  is  a  little  more  slanting  and  somewhat  thicker  than  the  inner. 
The  lower  border  of  the  outer  quarter  describes  the  arc  of  a  smaller 
circle — that  is,  is  more  sharply  bent  than  the  inner  quarter.  The 
weight  falls  near  the  center  of  the  foot  and  is  evenly  distributed  over 
the  whole  bottom  of  the  hoof.  The  toe  forms  an  angle  \vith  the 
ground  of  45°  to  50°  and  is  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  long 
pastern.  The  toe  points  straight  ahead,  and  when,  the  horse  is  mov- 
ing fon\'ard  in  a  straight  line  the  hoofs  are  picked  up  and  carried 
forvN'ard  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  middle  line  of  the  body,  and  are  set 
down  flat.  Coming  straight  toward  the  observer  the  hoofs  seem  to 
rise  and  fall  perpendicularly. 

A  Hoof  of  the  Base-Wide  Position. — This  is  always  awry.  The 
out€r  wall  is  more  slanting,  longer,  and  thicker  than  the  inner,  the 
outer  quarter  more  curved  than  the  inner,  and  the  outer  half  of  the 


112  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

• 

sole  wider  than  the  inner.  The  weight  falls  largely  into  the  inner 
half  of  the  hoof.  In  motion  the  hoof  is  moved  in  a  circle.  From  its 
position  on  the  ground  it  breaks  over  the  inner  toe,  is  carried  for- 
ward and  inward  close  to  the  supporting  leg,  thence  forward  and 
outward  to  the  ground,  which  the  hoof  meets  first  with  the  outer  toe. 
Horses  that  are  toe- wide  (splay-footed — toes  turned  outward)  show 
all  these  peculiarities  of  hoof-form  and  hoof-flight  to  a  still  more 
marked  degree  and  are  therefore  more  prone  to  interfere  when  in 
motion. 

A  Hoof  of  the  Base-Narrow  Position. — This  also  is  awry,  but 
not  to  so  marked  a  degree  as  the  base-wide  hoof.  The  inner  wall  is 
usually  a  little  more  slanting  than  the  outer,  the  inner  half  of  the 
sole  wider  than  the  outer,  and  the  inner  quarter  more  curved  than 
the  outer.  The  outer  quarter  is  often  flattened  and  drawn  in  at  the 
bottom.  The  weight  falls  largely  into  the  outer  half  of  the  hoof.  In 
motion  the  hoof  breaks  over  the  outer  toe,  is  carried  forward  and 
outward  at  some  distance  from  the  supporting  leg,  thence  forward 
and  inward  to  the  ground,  which  it  generally  meets  with  the  outer 
toe.  The  foot  thus  moves  in  a  circle  whose  convexity  is  outward, 
a  manner  of  flight  called  paddling.  A  base-narrow  horse  whose  toes 
point  straight  ahead  frequently  interferes,  while  a  toe-narrow  (pig- 
eon-toed) animal  seldom  does. 

Regular  Hoof. — A  regular  hoof,  viewed  from  one  side,  has  a 
straight  foot-axis  inclined  to  the  horizon  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  50°. 
The  weight  falls  near  the  center  of  the  foot  and  there  is  moderate 
expansion  of  the  quarters. 

Acute-angled  Hoof. — An  acute-angled  hoof  has  a  straight  foot- 
axis  inclined  at  an  angle  less  than  45°  to  the  horizon.  The  weight 
falls  more  largely  in  the  back  half  of  the  hoof  and  there  is  greater 
length  of  hoof  in  contact  with  the  ground  and  greater  expansion  of 
the  heels  than  in  the  regular  hoof. 

Upright,  or  Stumpy,  Hoof. — In  the  upright,  or  stumpy,  hoof 
the  foot-axis  is  straight  and  more  than  55°  steep.  The  hoof  is  rela- 
tively short  from  toe  to  heel,  the  weight  falls  farther  forward,  and 
there  is  less  expansion  of  the  heels  than  in  the  regular  hoof. 

Wide  and  Narrow  Hoofs. — Finally,  there  are  wide  hoofs  and 
narrow  hoofs,  dependent  solely  upon  race  and  breeding.  The  wide 
hoof  is  almost  circular  on  the  ground  surface,  the  sole  but  little  con- 
cave, the  frog  large,  and  the  quality  of  the  horn  coarse.  The  nar- 
row hoof  has  a  strongly  cupped  sole,  a  small  frog,  nearly  perpendicu- 
lar side  walls,  and  fine-grained,  tough  horn. 

Hind  Hoofs. — Hind  hoofs  are  influenced  in  shape  by  different 
directions  of  their  pasterns  much  as  front  feet  are.  A  hind  hoof  is 
not  round  at  the  toe  as  a  front  hoof  is,  but  is  more  pointed.  Its 
greatest  width  is  two-thirds  of  the  way  back  from  toe  to  heel,  the 
sole  is  more  concave,  the  heels  relatively  wider,  and  the  toe  about  10° 
steeper  than  in  front  hoofs. 

The  Shoe. — The  object  of  the  examination  is  to  ascertain  the 
direction  and  position  of  the  limbs,  the  shape,  character,  and  qual^ 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  113 

ity  of  the  hoofs,  the  form,  length,  position,  and  wear  of  the  shoe,  the 
number,  distribution,  and  direction  of  the  nails,  the  manner  in 
which  the  hoof  leaves  the  ground,  its  line  of  flight,  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  set  to  the  ground,  and  all  other  peculiarities,  that  at  the 
next  and  subsequent  shoeings  proper  allowances  may  be  made  and 
observed  faultcs  corrected.  The  animal  must  therefore  be  observed 
both  at  rest  and  in  motion. 

At  rest,  the  observer  should  stand  in  front  and  note  the  slant 
of  the  long  pasterns.  Do  they  drop  perpendicularly,  or  slant  down- 
ward and  outward  (base-wide  foot),  or  downward  and  inward  (base- 
narrow  foot)  ?  Whatever  be  the  direction  to  the  long  pastern,  an 
imaginary  line  passing  through  its  long  axis,  when  prolonged  to 
the  ground,  should  apparently  pass  through  the  middle  of  the  toe. 
But  if  such  line  cuts  through  the  inner  toe  the  foot-axis  is  not 
straight,  as  it  should  be,  but  is  broken  inward  at  the  coronet,  an 
indication  that  either  the  outer  wall  of  the  hoof  is  too  long  (high)  or 
that  the  inner  wall  is  too  short  (low).  On  the  contrary,  if  the  cen- 
ter line  of  the  long  pastern  falls  through  the  outer  toe  the  foot-axis 
is  broken  outward  at  the  coronet,  an  indication  that  either  the  inner 
wall  is  too  long  or  the  outer  wall  too  short. 

The  observer  should  now  place  himself  at  one  side,  two  or  three 
paces  distant,  in  order  to  view  the  limb  and  hoof  in  profile.  Note 
the  size  of  the  hoof  in  relation  to  the  height  and  weight  of  the  ani- 
mal, and  the  obliquity  of  the  hoof.  Is  the  foot-axis  straight?  That 
is,  does  the  long  pastem  have  the  same  slant  as  the  toe?  Or  does 
the  toe  of  the  hoof  stand  steeper  than  the  long  pastem? — in  which 
case  the  foot-axis  is  broken  forward  at  the  coronet,  an  indication, 
usually,  that  the  quarters  are  either  too  high  or  that  the  toe  is  too 
short.  If  the  long  pastem  stands  steeper  than  the  toe  the  foot-axis 
is  broken  backward,  in  which  case  the  toe  is  too  long  or  the  quarters 
are  too  low  (short). 

Next,  the  feet  should  be  raised  and  the  examiner  should  note 
the  outline  of  the  foot,  the  conformation  of  the  sole,  form  and  qual- 
ity of  the  frog,  form  of  the  shoe,  wear  of  the  shoe,  and  the  number 
and  distribution  of  the  nails.  Does  the  shoe  fully  cover  the  entire 
lower  border  of  the  wall?  or  is  it  too  narrow  or  fitted  so  full  on  the 
inside  that  it  has  given  rise  to  interfering?  or  has  the  shoe  been 
nailed  on  crooked?  or  has  it  become  loose  and  shifted?  is  it  too  short 
or  so  wide  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  as  not  to  support  the  buttresses 
of  the  hoof?  Does  the  shoe  correspond  with  the  form  of  the  hoof? 
Are  the  nails  distributed  so  as  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with 
the  expansion  of  the  quarters?  are  there  too  many?  are  they  too 
large?  driven  too  fine  or  too  high?  These  are  questions  which  the 
observer  should  put  to  himself. 

Note  carefully  the  wear  of  the  old  shoe.  It  is  the  unimpeach- 
able evidence  of  the  manner  in  which  the  hoof  has  been  set  to  the 
ground  since  the  shoe  was  nailed  to  it,  and  gives  valuable  pointers 
in  leveling  the  hoof.  Wear  is  the  effect  of  friction  between  the  shoe 
and  the  ground  at  the  moment  of  contact.    Since  the  properly  lev- 


114  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

eled  hoof  is  set  flat  to  the  ground,  the  grounding  wear  of  a  shoe 
should  be  uniform  at  every  point,  though  the  toe  will  always  show 
wear  due  to  scouring  at  the  moment  of  breaking  over.  Everything 
which  tends  to  lengthen  the  stride  tends  also  to  make  the  grounding 
wear  more  pronounced  in  the  heels  of  the  shoe,  while  all  causes  which 
shorten  the  stride,  as  stiffening  of  the  limbs  through  age,  overwork, 
or  disease,  bring  the  grounding  wear  nearer  the  toe.  An  exception 
should  be  noted,  however,  in  founder,  in  which  the  grounding  wear 
is  most  pronounced  at  the  heels. 

If  one  branch  of  the  shoe  is  found  to  be  worn  much  thinner 
than  the  other,  the  thinner  branch  has  either  been  set  too  near  the 
middle  line  of  the  foot  (fitted  too  close),  where  it  has  been  bearing 
greater  weight  while  rubbing  against  the  ground,  or,  what  is  much 
more  often  the  case,  the  section  of  wall  above  the  thinner  branch  has 
been  too  long  (too  high) ,  or  the  opposite  section  of  wall  has  been  too 
short  (too  low).  One-sided  wear,  uneven  setting  down  of  the  feet, 
and  an  unnatural  course  of  the  wall  are  often  found  together.  How 
much  an  old  shoe  can  tell  us,  if  we  take  time  and  pains  to  decipher 
its  scars! 

The  horse  should  next  be  observed  at  a  walk  and  at  a  trot  or 
pace,  from  in  front,  from  behind,  and  from  the  side,  and  the  break- 
ing over,  the  carriage  of  the  feet,  and  the  manner  of  setting  them  to 
the  ground  carefully  noted  and  remembered.  A  horse  does  not  al- 
ways move  just  as  his  standing  position  would  seem  to  imply.  Often 
there  is  so  great  a  difference  in  the  form  and  slant  of  two  fore  hoofs  or 
two  hind  hoofs  that  we  are  in  doubt  as  to  their  normal  shape,  when 
a  few  steps  at  a  trot  wnll  usually  solve  the  problem  instantly  by 
showing  us  the  line  of  flight  of  the  hoofs  and  referring  them  to 
the  regular,  base-wide  or  base-narrow  form.  No  man  is  competent 
either  to  shoe  a  horse  or  to  direct  the  work  till  he  has  made  the  pre- 
cited  observations. 

Preparation  of  the  Hoof  for  the  Shoe.  —  After  raising  the 
clinches  of  the  nails  with  a  rather  dull  clinch-cutter  (buffer)  and 
drawing  the  nails  one  at  a  time,  the  old  shoe  is  critically  examined 
and  laid  aside.  Remaining  stubs  of  nails  are  then  drawn  or  punched 
out  and  the  hoof  freed  of  dirt  and  partially  detached  horn.  The 
farrier  has  now  to  dress  the  overgrown  hoof  to  receive  the  new  shoe ; 
in  other  words,  he  has  to  form  a  base  of  support  so  inclined  to  the 
direction  of  the  pasterns  that  in  motion  this  surface  shall  be  set  flat 
upon  the  ground.  He  must  not  rob  the  hoof  nor  leave  too  much 
horn ;  either  mistake  may  lead  to  injury.  If  he  has  made  a  careful 
preliminary  examination  he  knows  what  part  of  the  wall  requires  re- 
moval and  what  part  must  be  left,  for  he  already  knows  the  direc- 
tion of  the  foot-axis  and  the  wear  of  the  old  shoe,  and  has  made  up 
his  mind  just  where  and  how  much  horn  must  be  removed  to  leave 
the  hoof  of  proper  length  and  the  foot-axis  straight. 

A  greatly  overgrown  hoof  may  be  quickly  shortened  with  sharp 
nippers  and  the  sole  freed  of  semidetached  flakes  of  horn.  The  con- 
cave sole  of  a  thick-walled,  strong  hoof  may  be  pared  out  around 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  115 

the  point  of  the  frog,  but  not  so  much  as  to  remove  all  evidences  of 
exfoliation.  The  wall  should  be  leveled  with  the  rasp  till  its  full 
thickness,  the  white  line,  and  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  the  margin  of 
the  sole  are  in  one  horizontal  plane,  called  the  "bearing  surface  of 
the  hoof."  The  bars  if  long  may  be  shortened,  but  never  pared  on 
the  side.  The  branches  of  the  sole  in  the  angle  between  the  bars 
and  the  wall  of  the  quarters  should  be  left  a  little  lower  than  the 
wall,  so  as  not  to  be  pressed  upon  by  the  inner  web  of  the  shoe. 
Corns,  or  bruises  of  the  pododerm,  are  usually  a  result  of  leaving  a 
thick  mass  of  dry,  unyielding  horn  at  this  point.  The  frog  should 
not  be  touched  further  than  to  remove  tags  or  layei-s  that  are  so  loose 
as  to  form  no  protection.  A  soft  frog  will  shorten  itself  spontane- 
ously by  the  exfoliation  of  superficial  layers  of  horn,  while  if  the 
frog  is  dry,  hard,  and  too  prominent  it  is  better  to  soften  it  by  ap- 
plying moisture  in  some  form  and  allow  it  to  wear  away  naturally 
than  to  pare  it  down.  It  is  of  advantage  to  have  the  frog  project  be- 
low the  level  of  the  wall  an  amount  equal  to  the  thickness  of  a  plain 
shoe,  though  we  rarely  see  frogs  of  such  size  except  in  draft  horses. 
The  sharp  lower  border  of  the  wall  should  be  rounded  with  the  rasp 
to  prevent  its  being  bent  outward  and  broken  away.  Finally,  the 
foot  is  set  to  the  ground  and  again  observed  from  all  sides  to  make 
sure  that  the  lines  bounding  the  hoof  correspond  with  the  direction 
of  the  long  pastern. 

Characteristics  of  the  Shoe. — ^The  shoe  is  an  artificial  base  of 
support,  by  no  means  ideal,  because  it  interferes  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  with  the  physiologv  of  the  foot,  but  indispensable  except  for 
horses  at  slow  work  on  soft  ground.  Since  a  proper  surface  of  sup- 
port is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  preserving  the  health  of  the  feet 
and  legs,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  various  forms  of  shoes  best 
adapted  to  the  different  forms  of  hoofs.  Certain  properties  are  com- 
mon to  all  shoes  and  may  be  considered  first.  They  are  form,  width, 
thickness,  length,  surfaces,  borders,  fullering,  nail  holes,  and  clips. 

Form. — Everj'^  shoe  should  have  the  form  of  the  hoof  for  which 
it  is  intended,  pro\aded  the  hoof  retains  its  proper  shape;  but  for 
every  hoof  that  has  undergone  change  of  form  we  must  endeavor  to 
give  the  shoe  that  form  which  the  hoof  originally  possessed.  Front 
shoes  and  hind  shoes,  rights  and  lefts,  should  be  distinctly  different 
and  ea.sily  distinguishable. 

Width. — All  shoes  should  be  wider  at  the  toe  than  at  the  ends 
of  the  branches.  The  average  w^idth  should  be  about  double  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  at  the  toe. 

Thickness. — The  thickness  should  be  sufRcient  to  make  the 
shoe  last  about  four  weeks  and  should  be  uniform  except  in  special 
cases. 

Length. — This  will  depend  upon  the  obliquity  of  the  hoof 
viewed  in  profile.  The  acute-angled  hoof  has  long  overhanging 
heels,  and  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  weight  borne  by  the  leg 
falls  in  the  posterior  half  of  the  hoof.  For  such  a  hoof  the  branches 
of  the  shoe  should  extend  back  of  the  buttresses  to  a  distance  nearly 


116  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

double  the  thickness  of  the  shoe.  For  a  hoof  of  the  regular  form  the 
branches  should  project  an  amount  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
shoe.  In  a  stumpy  hoof  the  shoe  need  not  project  more  than  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch.  In  all  cases  the  shoe  should  cover  the  entire 
bearing  surface  of  the  wall. 

Surfaces. — The  surface  that  is  turned  toward  the  hoof  is  known 
as  the  upper,  or  hoof  surface,  of  the  shoe.  That  part  of  the  hoof 
surface  which  is  in  actual  contact  with  the  horn  is  called  the  bear- 
ing surface  of  the  shoe.  The  bearing  surface  should  be  perfectly 
horizontal  from  side  to  side  and  wide  enough  to  support  the  full 
thickness  of  the  wall,  the  white  line,  and  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
of  the  margin  of  the  sole.  The  bearing  surface  should  also  be  per- 
fectly flat,  except  that  it  may  be  turned  up  at  the  toe  (rolling-mo- 
tion shoe).  The  surface  between  the  bearing  surface  and  the  inner 
edge  of  the  shoe  is  often  beaten  down  or  concaved  to  prevent  pressure 
too  far  inward  upon  the  sole.  This  concaving,  or  seating,  should  be 
deeper  or  shallower  as  the  horny  sole  is  less  or  more  concave.  As  a 
rule  strongly  cupped  soles  require  no  concaving  (hind  hoofs,  nar- 
row fore  hoofs). 

Borders. — The  entire  outer  border  should  be  beveled  under  the 
foot.  Such  a  shoe  is  not  so  readily  loosened,  nor  is  it  so  apt  to  lead 
to  interfering. 

Fullering. — This  is  a  groove  in  the  ground  surface  of  the  shoe. 
It  should  pass  through  two-thirds  of  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  be 
clean,  and  of  uniform  width.  It  is  of  advantage  in  that  it  makes 
the  shoe  lighter  in  proportion  to  its  width,  and,  by  making  the 
ground  surface  somewhat  rough,  tends  to  prevent  slipping. 

Nail  Holes. — The  shoe  must  be  so  punched  that  the  nail  holes 
will  fall  directly  on  the  white  line.  They  should  be  confined  to  the 
fore  half  of  front  shoes,  but  may  occupy  the  anterior  two-thirds  of 
hind  shoes.  For  a  medium-weight  shoe  three  nail  holes  in  each 
branch  are  sufficient,  but  for  heavier  shoes,  especially  those  provided 
with  long  calks,  eight  holes  are  about  right,. though  three  on  the  in- 
side and  four  on  the  outside  may  do. 

Clips. — These  are  half-circular  ears  drawn  up  from  the  outer 
edge  of  the  shoe  either  at  the  toe  or  opposite  the  side  wall.  The 
height  of  a  clip  should  equal  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  though  they 
should  be  even  higher  on  hind  shoes  and  when  a  leather  sole  is  inter- 
posed between  shoe  and  hoof.  Clips  secure  the  shoe  against  shifting. 
A  side  clip  should  always  be  drawn  up  on  that  branch  of  the  shoe 
that  first  meets  the  ground  in  locomotion. 

A  Shoe  for  a  Regular  Hoof. — This  fits  when  its  outer  border 
followsthe  wall  closely  in  the  region  of  the  nail  holes  and  from  the 
last  nail  to  the  end  of  the  branch  gradually  projects  beyond  the  sur- 
face of  the  wall  to  an  eighth  of  an  inch  and  extends  back  of  the 
buttresses  an  amount  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  shoe.  The  shoe 
must  be  straight,  firm,  airtight,  its  nail  holes  directly  over  the  white 
line,  and  its  branches  far  enough  from  the  branches  of  the  frog  to 


BREEDS  OF  HORSES  117 

permit  the  passage  of  a  foot  pick.  Branches  of  the  shoe  must  be  of 
equal  length. 

In  fitting  a  shoe  to  a  hoof  of  regular  form  we  follow  the  form 
of  the  hoof,  but  in  base-wide  and  base-narrow  hoofs,  which  are  of 
irregular  form,  we  must  pay  attention  not  only  to  the  form  of  the 
hoof,  but  also  to  the  direction  of  the  pasterns  and  the  consequent 
distribution  of  weight  in  the  hoof,  because  where  the  most  weight 
falls  the  surface  of  support  of  the  foot  must  be  widened,  and  where 
the  least  weight  falls  (opposite  side  of  the  hoof)  the  surface  of  sup- 
port should  be  narrowed.  In  this  way  the  improper  distribution  of 
weight  within  the  hoof  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  surface  of 
support. 

A  Shoe  for  a  Base-Wide  Hoof. — This  shoe  should  be  fitted  full  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  foot  and  fitted  close  on  the  outer  side,  because 
the  inner  side  bears  the  most  weight.  The  nails  in  the  outer  branch 
are  placed  well  back,  but  in  the  inner  branch  are  crowded  forward 
toward  the  toe. 

A  Shoe  for  a  Base-Narrow  Hoof. — This  shoe  should  be  just  the 
reverse  of  the  preceding.  The  outer  branch  should  be  somewhat 
longer  than  the  inner. 

A  Shoe  for  an  Acute-Angled  Hoof. — This  shoe  should  be  long 
in  the  branches,  because  most  of  the  weight  falls  in  the  posterior 
half  of  the  foot.  The  support  in  front  should  be  diminished  either 
by  turning  the  shoe  up  at  the  toe  or  by  beveling  it  under  the  toe. 

A  Shoe  for  a  Stumpy  Hoof. — This  shoe  should  be  short  in  the 
branches,  and  for  pronounced  cases  should  increase  the  support  of 
the  toe,  where  the  most  of  the  weight  falls,  by  being  beveled  down- 
ward and  forward. 

In  many  cases,  especially  in  the  hoofs  of  draft  horses  that  stand 
very  close  together,  the  coronet  of  the  outer  quarter  is  found  to  stand 
out  beyond  the  lower  border  of  the  quarter.  In  such  cases  the  outer 
branch  of  the  shoe  from  the  last  nail  back  must  be  fitted  so  full 
that  an  imaginary  perpendicular  dropped  from  the  coronet  will  just 
meet  the  outer  border  of  the  shoe.  The  inner  branch,  on  the  other 
hand,  must  be  fitted  as  close  as  possible.  The  principal  thought 
should  be  to  set  the  new  shoe  farther  toward  the  more  strongly  worn 
side.  Such  a  practice  will  render  unnecessary  the  widespread  and 
popular  fad  of  giving  the  outer  quarter  and  heel  calk  of  hind  shoes 
an  extreme  outward  bend.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  that  in 
fitting  the  shoe  full  at  the  quarter  the  bearing  surface  of  the  hoof  at 
the  quarter  be  not  left  unsupported  or  incompletely  covered,  to  be 
pinched  and  squeezed  inward  against  the  frog.  This  will  be  obviated, 
by  making  tlie  outer  branch  of  the  shoe  sufficiently  wide  and  punch- 
ing it  so  coarse  that  the  nails  will  fall  upon  the  white  line. 

Hot  Fitting. — Few  farriers  have  either  the  time  or  the  skill 
necessary  to  so  adjust  a  cold  shoe  to  the  hoof  that  it  will  fit,  as  we 
say,  air-tight.  Though  the  opponents  of  hot  fitting  draw  a  lurid  pic- 
ture of  the  direful  consequences  of  applying  a  hot  shoe  to  the  hoof, 
it  is  only  the  abuse  of  the  practice  that  is  to  be  condemned.    If  a 


118  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

heavy  shoe  at  a  yellow  heat  be  held  tightly  pressed  against  a  hoof 
which  has  heen  pared  too  thin,  till  it  embeds  itself,  serious  damage 
may  be  done.  But  a  shoe  at  a  dark  heat  may  be  pressed  against  a 
properly  dressed  hoof  long  enough  to  scorch  and  thus  indicate  to  the 
farrier  the  portions  of  horn  that  should  be  lowered,  without  appre- 
ciable injury  to  the  hoof,  and  to  the  ultimate  benefit  of  the  animal. 

The  horse  owner  should  insist  on  the  nails  being  driven  low. 
They  should  pierce  the  wall  not  above  an  inch  and  five-eighths  above 
the  shoe.  A  nail  penetrating  the  white  line  and  emerging  low  on 
the  wall  destroys  the  least  possible  amount  of  horn,  has  a  wide  and 
strong  clinch,  rather  than  a  narrow  one  which  would  be  formed 
near  the  point  of  the  nail,  and  furthermore  has  the  strongest  possi- 
ble hold  on  the  wall,  because  its  clinch  is  pulling  more  nearly  at  a 
right  angle  to  the  grain  (horn  tubes)  of  the  wall  than  if  driven  high. 
Finally,  do  not  allow  the  rasp  to  touch  the  wall  above  the  clinches. 

The  Bar  Shoe. — The  bar  shoe  has  a  variety  of  uses.  It  enables 
us  to  give  the  frog  pressure,  to  restore  it  to  its  original  state  of  activ- 
ity and  development  when  by  reason  of  disuse  it  has  become  atro- 
phied. It  gives  the  hoof  an  increased  surface  of  support  and  en- 
ables us  to  relieve  one  or  both  quarters  of  undue  pressure  that  may 
have  induced  infiammation  and  soreness.  The  bar  of  the  shoe  should 
equal  the  average  width  of  the  remainder  of  the  shoe  and  should 
press  but  lightly  on  the  branches  of  the  frog.  The  addition  of  a 
leather  sole  with  tar  and  oakum  sole-packing  allows  us  to  distributo 
the  weight  of  the  body  over  the  entire  ground  surface  of  the  hoof. 

The  Rubber  Pad. — ^Various  forms  of  rubber  pads,  rubber  shoes, 
rope  shoes,  fiber  shoes,  and  other  contrivances  to  diminish  shock  and 
prevent  slipping  on  the  hard  and  slippery  pavements  of  our  large 
cities  are  in  use  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  In  Germany  tiro 
rope  shoe  (a  malleable-iron  shoe  with  a  groove  in  its  ground  sur- 
face in  which  lies  a  piece  of  tarred  rope)  is  extensively  used  with 
most  gratifying  results.  It  is  cheap,  durable,  easily  applied,  and 
effective. 

In  the  large  cities  of  England  and  the  United  States  rubber 
pads  are  extensively  used.  They  are  rather  expensive,  but  are  quite 
efficient  in  preventing  slipping  on  polished  and  gummy  pavements, 
though  not  so  effective  on  ice.  The  rubber  is  stitched  and  cemented 
to  a  leather  sole  and  is  secured  by  the  nails  of  a  three-quarter  shoe. 
Such  a  pad  will  usually  last  as  long  as  two  shoes.  They  may  be 
used  continuously,  not  only  -v^dthout  injury  to  the  hoof  but  to  its 
great  benefit.  The  belief,  unsupported  by  evidence,  that  rubber  pads 
draw  the  feet  keeps  many  from  using  them.  A  human  foot  encased 
in  a  rubber  boot  may  eventually  be  blistered  by  the  sweat  poured 
upon  the  surface  of  the  skin  and  held  there  by  the  impervious  rub- 
ber till  decomposition  takes  place  with  the  formation  of  irritating 
fatty  acids;  but  there  is  no  basis  for  an  analogy  in  the  hoof  of  a 
horse.— (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  179.) 


PART  II 

BREEDS   OF  DAIRY  CATTLE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

THE  domestic  cattle  of  the  world  are  probably  descended  from 
one  parent  stock,  but  variation  began  at  a  very  early  period. 
Through  ancient  sculptures  and  other  records  cattle  can  be 
traced  back  at  least  four  thousand  years,  and  the  earliest  evi- 
dence shows  that  animals  of  different  types  were  then  known.  In 
various  parts  of  the  world  there  are  now  cattle  so  distinct  in  their 
characteristics  as  to  justify  their  claim  to  be  regarded  as  breeds,  and 
these  breeds  exceed  100  in  number.  A  subdivision  of  a  family  in  the 
animal  kingdom  may  be  recognized  as  a  breed  when  it  has  been  sub- 
jected to  and  reproduced  under  the  same  conditions  until  it  has  ac- 
quired a  distinctive  character  common  to  all  the  members  and  natu- 
rally reproduced  with  very  slight  variations.  This  definition,  and  the 
term  breed,  applies  especially  to  domestic  animals,  and  the  differences 
which  chiefly  distinguish  the  breeds  of  the  present  day  are  the  result 
of  artificial  treatment  by  man — the  work  of  skillful  breeders  having 
definite  objects  in  view. 

Origin  of  Breeds. — The  different  breeds  of  cattle  to  be  found  in 
the  United  States  nearly  all  came  from  Great  Britain  and  the  western 
portions  of  Europe,  and  it  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  they  have  a  com- 
mon origin  in  the  wild  cattle  which  existed  in  the  ancient  forests  of 
Europe.  These  were  described  by  Julius  Caesar,  Pliny,  and  other 
Latin  writers  almost  two  thousand  years  ago,  and  by  others  who  wrote 
of  them  a  century  or  two  later  as  abounding  in  the  great  forests 
around  London.  They  were  also  mentioned  frequently  in  chronicles 
of  the  middle  ages. 

In  the  early  history  of  these  c-attle  natural  causes  tended  to 
divide  them  into  two  general  classes ;  first,  those  adapted  to  the  more 
mountainous  and  less  fertile  sections  of  country,  and,  second,  those  of 
the  plains  and  richer  regions.  The  former,  owing  to  greater  scarcity 
of  food  and  more  difficulty  in  obtaining  it,  were  smaller,  more  rug- 
ged, and  rougher  in  type  than  the  better-fed  animals  of  the  latter 
class.  Later,  breeding  and  artificial  conditions,  together  with  natural 
causes,  resulted  in  additional  variations  among  cattle,  and  led  to  the 
distinctions  which  became  fixed  in  different  breeds.  The  chief  char- 
acteristics resulting  from  man's  interference  and  control  were  to  be 
first  seen,  on  the  one  hand,  in  a  tendency  of  the  animals  to  mature  at 
an  early  age  and  easily  to  lay  on  flesh  and  fat;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  prolonging  the  natural  period  of  milk  flow  and  increasing 
the  milk  product  much  beyond  the  needs  of  the  calf. 

119 


120  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

At  the  present  time  each  of  the  various  recognized  breeds  of 
domestic  cattle  may  be  satisfactorily  placed  in  one  of  three  great  clas- 
ses designated,  respectively,  as  beef  cattle,  dairy  cattle  and  dvM.1  pur- 
pose cattle.  The  characteristics  of  those  breeds  which  are  valued  es- 
pecially for  their  dairy  qualities  and  of  a  few  which  belong  primarily 
to  the  beef  breeds,  but  also  possess  dairy  merit.  Some  of  the  dairy 
breeds  of  Europe  are  not  included ;  it  seems  enough  to  present  those 
which  are  best  known  in  the  United  States — which  have  already 
made  an  impress  upon  the  neat  stock  of  this  country,  and  which 
promise  to  be  of  value  in  promoting  dairy  interests. 

AYRSHIRES. 

The  county  of  Ayrshire,  in  the  southwest  part  of  Scotland, 
stretches  for  80  miles  along  the  lower  portion  of  the  river  Clyde  and 
the  Irish  Sea.  The  surface  is  undulatmg  in  large  part,  with  moory 
hills,  much  woodland,  and  a  climate  moist  and  rather  windy, 
although  not  severe.  It  is  a  region  of  moderate  fertility,  with  natural 
pasturage  so  distributed  that  grazing  animals  must  travel  long  dis- 
tances in  a  day  to  satisfy  their  hunger. 

The  Ayrshire  breed  has  been  built  up  within  the  nineteenth 
century  by  the  liberal  use  of  blood  from  the  cattle  of  England,  Hol- 
land, and  the  Channel  Islands.  The  exact  facts  and  methods  are 
unknown,  but  the  result  testifies  to  the  good  judgment  in  selection 
and  breeding  of  those  who  carried  on  the  work.  The  Ayrshire  of  the 
present  day — which  is  found  best  developed  in  Cunningham,  the 
upper  and  most  fertile  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  country — ^bears 
strong  resemblance  to  the  Jersey  in  certain  features;  and  in  form, 
color,  and  horn  it  resembles  the  wild  white  cattle  of  Chillingham 
Park.  Many  people  believe  the  cattle  to  be  direct  and  but  slightly 
varied  descendants  of  thft  original  wild  cattle  of  Great  Britain. 
There  is  a  well-defined  tendency  in  the  improved  Ayrshire  to  become 
lighter  in  color,  many  being  almost  white.  This  is  additional  evi- 
dence of  a  strong  infusion  of  the  blood  last  mentioned  at  some  period 
in  the  history  of  the  breed. 

The  first  Ayrshires  in  America  were  brought  to  New  York  in 
1822.  They  were  imported  into  New  England  in  1830  and  into  Can- 
ada in  1837.  In  1837  there  was  quite  a  large  herd  in  Massachusetts, 
and  several  importations  were  made  prior  to  1845.  This  breed  has 
been  a  special  favorite  for  dairy  purposes  in  Canada  and  highly  es- 
teemed in  the  New  England  States  and  parts  of  New  York.  Else- 
where in  this  country  these  cattle  do  not  seem  to  be  so  well  known  as 
their  established  merits  deserve. 

Characteristics. — ^Unless  it  be  the  little  Irish  Kerry,  there  is  no 
cow  which  excels  the  Ayrshire  in  obtaining  subsistence  and  doing 
well  on  a  wide  range  of  scanty  pasture  or  in  thriving  and  giving  a 
dairy  profit  upon  the  coarsest  forage.  The  natural  hardihood  of 
constitution  renders  these  cattle  admirably  adapted  to  grazing  on 
broken  and  rugged  pastures  and  in  sterner  weather  than  would  be 
conducive  to  the  well-being  of  cows  of  some  other  breeds.  The  end 
sought  in  perfecting  the  breed  has  been  a  large  yield  of  milk  without 
extravagance  of  food.  It  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Ayrshire  that  she 
carries  ner  weight  only,  and  lives  only,  to  serve  dairy  interests  with 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  121 

the  utmost  economy  in  the  utilization  of  food.  Yet,  like  all  other 
good  dairy  cattle,  the  Ayrshire  re^pond^  promptly  and  profitably  to 
liberal  feeding.  The  Scotch  have  a  saying,  taught  by  experience, 
that  "the  cow  gives  her  milk  by  the  mou'." 

Ayrshires  are  of  medium  size  among  dairy  cattle.  The  bulls 
attain  a  weight  of  1,400  to  1,800  pounds  at  maturity,  sometimes  being 
larger. 

The  cows  weigh  900  to  1,100  pounds,  averaging  probably  1,000 
pounds  in  a  well-maintained  herd.  They  are  short-legged,  fine- 
boned,  and  very  active.  The  general  form  is  of  the  wedge  shape,  re- 
garded as  typical  of  cows  of  dairy  excellence ;  and  this  shape  is  not 
from  any  weakness  forward,  but  rather  because  of  uncommon  devel- 
opment and  strength  of  body  and  hind  quarters.  Good  specimens  of 
the  breed,  when  in  milk,  do  not  carry  a  pound  of  extra  flesh.  The 
prevailing  color  of  the  body  is  red  and  white,  variously  proportioned ; 
in  spots,  not  mixed.  Probably  three-fourths  of  all  the  breed  can  be 
thus  described  as  to  color.  A  generation  ago  the  d-ark  markings  pre- 
dominated ;  but  there  is  now  a  drift  toward  more  white.  The  red  is 
sometimes  bright,  but  often  of  a  rich,  shiny  brown,  like  the  shell  of 
a  hoi^  chestnut,  and  the  coat  of  a  thrifty  Ayrshire  is  equally  bright 
and  shining.  Nearly  all  good  animals  of  this  breed  have  broad,  flat, 
well-arched  ribs,  giving  room  for  capacious  digestive  apparatus. 

Doctor  Sturtevant  thus  describes  the  milking  parts  of  the  Ayr- 
shire cow:  "The  udder  has  been  the  point  toward  which  the  search 
after  quality  has  been  directed  by  the  careful  Scotchman  for  a  long 
period  of  time.  It  is  well  held  up  to  the  body,  and  in  the  types  of  the 
breed  extend  far  forward  and  back,  with  a  broad  and  level  sole.  The 
teats  are  small  and  of  a  cylindrical  shape  rather  than  cone-shaped,  as 
seen  in  other  cows."  The  teats  are,  however,  often  too  small  for  com- 
fortable milking ;  but  careful  breeders  have  remedied  this  defect,  and 
whole  herds  can  be  found  with  superb  udders  and  teats  of  good  size, 
though  rarely  large. 

The  Ayrshire  is  of  a  highly  nervous  temperament.  The  cow 
has  a  superabundance  of  nerves  and  is  willing  to  employ  them,  upon 
instant  demand,  in  self-defense  or  self-support.  The  bulls,  if  prop- 
erly handled,  are  not  fractious,  but  the  cows  are  rather  inclined  to  be 
quarrelsome.  The  Ayrshire  cow  is  a  large  and  persistent  milker.  A 
yield  of  5,500  pounds  a  year,  as  an  average  for  a  working  herd  in 
good  hands. 

The  milk  of  the  Ayrshire  is  not  exceptionally  rich,  but  some- 
what above  the  average.  Herd  records  show  S^^  to  4  per  cent  of 
butter  fat  in  the  mixed  milk  throughout  the  year.  The  milk  of  this 
breed  is  very  uniform  in  its  physical  character,  the  fat  globules  being 
small,  even  in  size,  and  not  free  to  separate  from  the  milk.  Cream 
rises  slowly  and  has  comparatively  little  color.  The  Ayrshire  is  there- 
fore not  a  first-class  butter  cow,  but  its  milk  is  admirably  suited  for 
town  and  city  supply,  being  safely  above  legal  standards,  uniform, 
and  capable  of  long  journeys  and  rough  handling  without  injury. 
The  breeders  of  Ayrshire  cattle  in  America  organized  in  the  year 
1863  and  began  the  publication  of  a  herdbook.    The  interests  of  the 


122  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

breed  are  now  represented  by  tbe  American  Ayrshire  Breeders'  As- 
sociation.—(F.  B.  106.) 

GUERNSEYS. 

Origin  and  History. — The  island  of  Guernsey  is  the  second  in 
size  of  the  Channel  Islands,  and  lies  farthest  to  the  west  in  this  group. 
It  is  triangular  in  shape,  being  9  miles  long  and  about  4  in  greatest 
width,  with  rough,  rocky  coasts,  containing  16,000  acres,  and  has  a 
population  of  35,000,  half  of  whom  live  in  the  principal  town,  St. 
Peters.  Market  gardening  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  country  peo- 
ple and  dairy  cattle  form  a  secondary  interest.  There  are  only  about 
5,000  cattle  owned  upon  the  island.  Bj^  a  long-continued  policy  of 
excluding  all  live  cattle  from  without  its  limits,  the  stock  of  this 
island  has  been  built  up  into  a  distinct  breed. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  when  Guernsey  cattle  began  to  come  to  the 
United  States,  but  a  few  are  known  to  have  been  owned  near  Phila- 
delphia prior  to  1850.  In  America,  as  in  England,  all  Channel 
Island  cattle  imported  were  long  called  "Alderneys,"  irrespective  of 
the  island  from  which  they  came.  Pure  as  they  were  at  home,  each 
within  its  own  limits,  the  distinction  was  not  properly  preserved  after 
they  reached  this  country.  But  between  1870  and  1875  the  Guern- 
sey became  recognized  here  as  a  breed,  and  for  forty  years  importa- 
tions have  been  made  nearly  every  year.  The  breed  has  steadily  in- 
creased in  numbers  and  as  steadily  has  gained  in  favor  wherever 
introduced. 

Characteristics. — Guernseys  are  larger  than  Jerseys,  stronger- 
boned,  and  a  little  coarser  in  appearance.  They  are  claimed  to  be 
hardier  and  larger  milkers.  They  are  generally  very  handsome  and 
attractive  cows. 

The  head  of  the  Guernsey  is  rather  long,  the  neck  slender,  the 
body  large,  deep,  and  rangy,  the  rump  prominent,  the  flanks  thin, 
thighs  incurved,  and  twist  open  and  roomy.  Altogether  the  animal 
•is  at  once  recognized  as  businesslike  and  belonging  to  the  pronounced 
dairy  type.  They  are  light  in  color,  yellow  and  orange  predominat- 
ing, with  considerable  white,  usually  in  large  patches  on  the  body 
and  on  the  legs.  Darker  shades,  approaching  brown,  are  found  upon 
some  cows  and  are  quite  common  on  bulls.  The  muzzles  are  almost 
invariably  buff  or  flesh-colored,  surrounded  by  a  fillet  of  light  hair. 
A  characteristic  of  this  breed  is  a  very  generous  secretion  of  yellow 
coloring  matter,  which  pertains  to  the  whole  skin,  but  is  seen  especi- 
ally where  the  hair  is  white,  in  the  ears,  around  the  eyes,  and  about 
the  udder.  This  gives  a  richness  to  the  animal  which  is  very  notice- 
able and  causes  the  butter  produced  to  be  of  a  higher  color  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  than  that  of  any  other  breed.  The  udder  and  teats 
are  large  and  admirably  shaped. 

The  Guernsey  possesses  a  nervous  temperament,  and  yet  the 
cows  are  extremely  quiet  and  gentle  when  properly  handled,  and  less 
trouble  is  reported  in  the  management  of  aged  bulls  than  with  Jer- 
seys of  like  age. 

Milk  and  Butter. — The  cows  of  this  breed  produce  liberal  quan- 
tities of  milk,  and  it  is  of  uncommon  richness  in  butter  fat  and  in 
natural  color.    They  are  to  be  especially  recommended  for  butter 


Champion  Hereford  Bull.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


Black  and  White  Jutland  Breed,  Denmark.    Y.  B.  1902. 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  126 

cows,  as  well  as  for  market  milk  where  quality  secures  a  relatively 
high  price,  and  they  are  noted  for  rich  production  combined  with  es- 
pecial economy  in  feeding.  They  posesss  great  power  of  assimilating 
food  and  converting  it  into  milk,  yet  are  delicate  feeders  rather  than 
gross,  and  wdll  not  generally  bear  much  forcing.  The  grades,  off- 
spring of  a  Guernsey  bull  and  well-selected  cows  of  no  particular 
breeding,  usually  make  very  satisfactory  dairy  stock.  Guernsey 
cows  average  1,000  pounds  in  weight,  or  a  little  more,  and  thus,  being 
heavier  than  Jerseys,  they  are  expected  to  give  more  milk.  In 
Guernsey,  the  average  cow  is  expected  to  produce  5,000  pounds  of 
milk  and  300  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year  without  high  feeding.  In 
this  country  these  cows  are  fed  higher  and  produce  accordingly. 
Large  herds  have  made  records  above  the  island  standard  just  stated. 
The  fat  globules  in  the  milk  are  relatively  large  and  the  cream  sepa- 
rates easily. 

On  the  island  of  Guernsey  the  beef  of  the  native  cattle  is  highly 
prized,  and  young  animals  are  said  to  fatten  easily  at  a  profit.  In 
the  United  States  the  friends  of  the  Guernsey  have  laid  no  claim  to 
its  being  a  beef  producer,  and  yet  when  an  animal  of  this  breed,  if 
not  too  old,  ceases  for  any  reason  to  be  profitable  for  the  dairy,  it  is 
converted  into  beef  without  loss  to  the  feeder.  The  American  Guern- 
sey Cattle  Club  was  organized  in  1878. 

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS. 

Origin  and  Development. — The  strongly  marked  black-and- 
white  cattle  of  North  Holland  and  Friesland  constitute  one  of  the 
very  oldest  and  most  notable  of  the  dairy  breeds.  Historians  claim 
that  it  can  be  traced  hack  for  two  thousand  years,  continuously  occu- 
pying the  territory  named  and  always  famous  for  dairy  purposes. 

These  cattle  have  been  known  by  several  different  names,  in 
both  Europe  and  America.  Holland  cattle.  North  Hollanders,  Dutch 
cattle,  Holsteins,  Dutch-Friesians,  Netherland  cattle,  and  Holstein- 
Friesians  are  all  the  same.  There  was  sharp  contention  in  this  coun- 
try before  the  last  name  was  agreed  uj^on  and  generally  accepted. 

The  large  frame,  strong  bone,  abundance  of  flesh,  silken  coat, 
extreme  docility,  and  enormous  milk  yield  of  the  Holstein-Friesians 
result  from  the  rich  and  luxuriant  herbage  of  the  very  fertile  and 
moist  reclaimed  lands  upon  which  the  breed  has  been  perfected,  the 
uncommonly  good  care  received  from  their  owners  and  the  close 
association  of  people  and  cattle.  "The  preservation  of  the  Friesian 
people  and  their  continued  adhesion  to  cattle  breeding  for  more  than 
two  thousand  years  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  histor5^" 

The  early  Dutch  settlers  in  America  undoubtedly  brought  their 
favorite  cattle  with  them  during  the  seventeenth  century,  and  there 
are  definite  records  of  three  or  four  importations  prior  to  1850;  but 
the  credit  of  first  introducing  this  breed  to  America  and  maintaining 
its  purity  here  is  due  to  Winthrop  W.  Chenery,  of  Massachusetts.  He 
made  three  importations  between  1857  and  1862.  The  Massrs.  Gerrit 
S.  and  Dudley  Miller,  of  New  York,  followed  in  1867,  and  soon  there- 
after numerous  others  brought  animals  of  this  breed  in  considerable 
numbers  to  the  United  States.    They  have  increased  rapidly  by  im- 


126  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

portations  and  by  breeding,  and  are  now  to  be  found  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  this  country. 

Characteristics. — The  striking  features  in  the  appearance  of  this 
breed  are  the  color  markings  of  black  and  white  and  the  large  size  of 
the  animals  of  both  sexes.  The  shining  jet  black  contrasts  vividly 
with  the  pure  white,  the  fine,  silky  hair  being  upon  a  soft  and  mellow 
skin  of  medium  thickness.  In  some  animals  the  black  predominates, 
and  the  white  in  others.  The  average  animal  carries  rather  more 
black  than  white,  and  the  distribution  and  outlines  of  the  markings 
are  extremely  irregular.  The  black  and  white  are  never  mixed,  the 
lines  of  demarcation  being  usually  sharply  drawn.  In  Europe  there 
are  still  some  red  and  white  cattle  in  this  breed,  and  occasionally  a 
purely  bred  calf  is  dropped  in  this  country  with  bright  red  instead  of 
black,  showing  the  influence  of  some  remote  ancestor;  but  none  are 
admitted  to  the  American  Herd  Book  except  thosethat  are  black  and 
white.  In  size  the  Holsteins  are  the  largest  of  all  the  dairy  breeds. 
The  big,  bony  frames  are  usually  well  filled  out,  and  the  chest,  abdo- 
men, and  pelvic  region  are  fully  developed.  It  is  difficult  to  prevent 
the  males  from  becoming  too  fleshy  for  breed  animals,  and  the  fe- 
males, when  not  in  milk,  iake  on  flesh  rapidly  and  soon  become  full 
in  form.  The  cows  range  in  weight  from  1,000  to  1,500  pounds,  most 
of  them  being  between  1,100  and  1,400,  with  an  average  of  about 
1,250  pounds.  The  bulls  at  maturity  are  very  large  and  heavy,  often 
above  2,500  pounds  in  weight.  The  udder  is  often  of  extraordinary 
size,  filling  the  space  between  legs  set  well  apart,  extending  high  be- 
hind and  fairly  well  forward,  with  teats  of  large  size  and  well  placed. 
The  milk  veins  are  usually  prominent  and  sometimes  remarkably 
developed.  There  is  a  more  marked  inclination  toward  the  beef  form 
among  the  bulls  than  among  the  cows ;  the  latter  are  generally  of  the 
true  dairy  type. 

In  temperament  these  animals  are  quiet  and  docile,  bulls  as  well 
as  cows.  They  have  great  constitutional  vigor.  The  calves  are  large 
at  birth,  almost  always  strong  and  thrifty,  and  they  ^ow  fast  and 
fatten  easily.  They  mature  early,  heifei^  reaching  their  full  height 
at  two  and  a  half  years  and  showing  no  growth  after  four  or  five  years 
except  the  addition  of  flesh  and  fat.  Animals  of  both  sexes  can  be 
readily  turned  into  very  good  beasts  for  slaughter  at  almost  any  age, 
but  they  lack  depth  in  the  loin  and  ribs  and  have  not  the  finisn  and 

?[uality  of  the  noted  beef  breeds.  These  animals  are  very  large 
eeders  and  at  the  same  time  dainty  about  their  eating.  To  do  their 
best  they  must  have  an  abundance  of  rich  food  without  the  necessity 
of  great  exertion  to  get  it. 

Milk  and  Butter  Records. — These  great  black-and-white  cows 
yield  milk  in  proportion  to  their  size.  The  breed  is  famous  for  enor- 
mous milk  producers.  Records  are  abundant  of  cows  giving  an  aver- 
age above  their  own  live  weight  in  milk  monthly  for  ten  or  twelve 
consecutive  months,  and  there  are  numerous  authentic  instances  of 
daily  yields  of  100  pounds  or  more  for  several  days  in  succession  and 
20,000  to  35,000  pounds  of  milk  in  one  year.  Cows  giving  40  to  60 
pounds  (or  5  to  7  gallons)  per  day  are  regarded  as  average  animals; 
7,500  to  8,000  pounds  per  year  is  depended  upon  as  a  herd  average. 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  127 

The  cows  have  been  favorite  for  dairymen  doing  a  milk-supply  busi- 
ness, but  in  some  cases  their  product  has  been  below  the  standards 
fixed  by  State  and  municipal  laws.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
some  families  of  Holsteins,  and  single  animals  are  numerous,  which 
give  milk  of  more  than  average  richness  and  show  themselves  to  be 
profitable  butter  producers.  Cows  have  frequently  made  from  15 
to  30  pounds  of  butter  a  week.  Entire  herds  of  good  size  have  aver- 
aged over  17  pounds  a  week ;  a  few  cows  have  records  of  90  jwunds, 
and  even  100  pounds,  in  a  month.  One  of  the  herds  already  referred 
to  averaged  308  pounds  of  butter  per  cow  annually  for  four  years, 
and  there  are  several  yearly  herd  records  of  over  400  pounds  per 
head ;  also  single  records  of  500  and  600  pounds,  and  one  is  claimed 
of  1,153  pounds  of  butter  in  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  consecutive 
days. 

The  breeders  of  thoroughbred  Holstein  cattle  in  America  organ- 
ized in  1872  and  compiled  the  first  herdbook.  This  was  three  years 
before  any  such  published  pedigrees  appeared  in  the  Netherlands, 
the  home  of  the  breed.  In  1877  another  association  of  breeders 
formed  and  started  the  Dutch-Friesian  herdbook.  After  a  long  and 
bitter  cont.est  these  two  organizations  happily  compromised  and 
united  their  names  and  records  as  the  Holstein-Friesian  Association 
of  America.  The  secretary  of  the  association  is  editor  of  its  register 
(a  monthly  journal)  and  of  its  herdbook.  It  is  believed  that  in  re- 
spect to  size  and  dairy  quality  the  best  animals  of  this  breed  in  the 
United  States  are  superior  to  those  of  their  native  country. 

JERSEYS. 

Origin  and  History. — Lying  in  the  English  Channel,  30  to  50 
miles  from  the  southern  extremity  of  Great  Britain,  is  an  interesting 
group  of  islands,  the  largest  of  which,  but  13  miles  from  the  coast  of 
France,  is  the  Island  of  Jersey.  It  is  11  miles  long  and  less  than  6 
miles  wide,  being  an  irregular  rectangle  in  shape,  about  the  size  of 
Staten  Island,  in  New  York  Harbor.  High  rocky  cliffs  bound  its 
coast  on  the  north  and  west;  thence  the  surface  slopes  gradually  to 
the  south,  with  valleys  and  plains  of  some  extent.  This  is  the  home 
of  one  of  the  most  important  and  widely  distributed  of  the  dairy 
breeds  of  cattle.  The  foundation  of  the  breed  of  cattle  developed 
here  was  probably  the  stock  of  Normandy  and  Brittany.  But  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century  steps  were  taken  to  prevent  outside  cattle 
coming  to  Jersey,  and  in  1779  a  law  was  made,  which  has  since  been 
rigidly  enforced,  prohibiting  under  heavy  penalties  the  landing  upon 
the  island  of  any  live  animal  of  the  bovine  race.  Jerseys  have  there- 
fore been  purely  bred  for  a  longer  time  than  any  other  breed  of 
British  origin. 

The  arable  land  of  the  island  is  in  the  hands  of  about  2,000 
owners.  The  holdings  vary  from  3  to  30  acres,  and  herds  exceeding 
a  dozen  cows  are  very  rare.  The  soil  is  extremely  fertile  and  its  pro- 
ductiveness is  enhanced  by  mildness  of  climate;  the  mean  tempera- 
ture of  the  year  is  51°F.  and  the  average  rainfall  is  30  inches.  From 
time  immemorial  the  custom  has  been  to  tether  all  animals,  and  they 
are  moved  several  times  a  day.  They  are  always  led  instead  of  being 
driven,  and  the  handling  is  largely  done  by  women.    The  cows  re- 


128  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

main  out  of  doors  the  greater  part  of  the  year  and  are  often  milked 
in  the  fields.  Very  little  grain  is  fed,  but  in  addition  to  grass  and 
hay  the  cattle  are  liberally  supplied  with  roots  chiefly  parsnips,  which 
are  abundantly  grown  for  this  purpose.  Under  these  conditions  a 
breed  of  highly  organized,  delicate,  and  gentle  cattle  has  been  devel- 
oped. 

A  few  Jersey  cattle,  then  generally  known  as  Alderneys,  were 
brought  to  the  United  States  prior  to  1840,  but  importations  did  not 
become  active  until  after  the  middle  of  the  century.  Connecticut, 
Massachusetts,  and  New  Jersey  led  in  introducing  this  breed  to  Amer- 
ica, and  from  1860  to  1890  importations  were  very  numerous.  Year 
after  year  the  little  home  island  exported  2,000  animals  or  more, 
nearly  all  coming  to  this  country.  Jerseys  have  been  so  numerously 
imported,  have  increased  so  rapidly  in  America,  have  been  so  largely 
used  for  grading^  and  have  proved  so  remarkably  weU  adapted  to  a 
wide  range  of  climate,  that  the  characteristic  markings  of  no  other 
breed  can  be  so  frequently  seen  wherever  dairy  cows  are  kept,  from 
the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Gulf,  and  from  ocean  to  ocean. 

Characteristics. — Jerseys  are  the  smallest  in  average  size  of  the 
noted  dairy  breeds,  cows  ranging  from  700  to  1,000  pounds  and  the 
bulls  from  1,200  to  1,800  pounds.  The  average  weight  of  Jerseys  in 
America  is  considerably  more  than  the  average  on  their  native  island. 
In  color  this  breed  varies  more  than  any  other.  For  a  time  there  was 
a  craze  for  solid-colored  animals  in  this  country,  and  many  persons 
have  the  idea  that  no  pure  Jersey  has  white  upon  it.  This  is  entirely 
erroneous.  At  one  time  a  careful  examination  of  the  foundation 
stock  on  the  Island  of  Jersey  showed  that  but  one  cow  in  ten  was  solid 
colored.  The  proportion  is  greater  in  the  United  States,  but  there  are 
pure  registered  Jerseys  of  all  shades  of  brown  to  deep  black,^  and  of 
various  shades  of  yellow,  fawn,  and  tan  colors  to  a  creamy  white ;  also 
mouse  color  or  squirrel  gray,  some  light  red  and  a  few  brindle. 

This  breed  is  second  only  to  the  Guernseys  in  the  abundant 
secretion  of  coloring  matter,  which  shows  itself  on  the  skin  on  various 
parts  of  the  body,  makes  the  fat  of  the  body  a  deep  orange,  gives  a 
rich  tint  to  milk  and  cream,  and  a  strong  golden  hue  to  the  butter. 
Jerseys  are  irregular  and  sharp  in  outline,  being  picturesque  rather 
than  symmetrical,  with  the  spare  habit  of  flesh  which  is  deemed  fa- 
vorable to  dairy  quality  and  enough  muscular  developrnent  for 
healthy  activity  and  full  digestive  force.  They  are  liglit,  quick,  and 
graceful  in  movement.  Those  of  certain  coloring  are  spoken  of  as 
deer-like  in  appearance  and  action. 

Jersey  cattle  are  of  the  nervous  order  of  temperament,  highly 
developed.  They  are  excitable  for  cause,  but  the  females,  when  prop- 
erly treated,  are  exceedingly  placid  and  docile.  The  bulls  have  the 
reputation  of  being  fractious  and  difficult  to  handle  after  attaining 
maturity.  As  dairy  animals  they  are  decidedly  superior  to  their 
Island  progenitors. 

Milk  and  Butter  Records. — ^For  scores  of  years  Jerseys  have  been, 
bred  especially  and  almost  exclusively  for  butter.  There  was  no  de- 
mand for  milk  on  the  home  island,  and  the  whole  effort  was  to  in- 
crease richness  and  add  to  the  product  of  butter.  In  America  breeders 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  129 

have  striven  with  success  to  increase  the  milk  yield.  Two,  three,  and 
four  gallons  per  day  are  common  yields,  and  these  cows  are  noted  for 
persistence  in  milking,  making  a  long  season  of  profit,  with  great 
evenness  of  product  until  near  its  close. 

Individual  cases  are  recorded  by  the  hundred  of  cows  making  15 
to  20  pounds  of  butter  in  a  week,  and  there  are  numerous  weekly 
records  of  25  to  30  pounds  or  more.  Several  tests  with  single  animals 
have  resulted  in  600,  700,  800,  and  even  1,000  pounds  of  butter  with- 
in twelve  months.  The  butter  fat  in  Jersey  milk  is  in  globules  of 
uneven  size,  but  mostly  large — larger  than  witli  other  breeds — and 
hence  easily  separated.  The  natural  milk  of  cows  of  this  breed  is 
often  too  rich  for  their  own  calves,  and  it  generally  needs  to  be  di- 
luted when  used  for  infants. 

Jerseys  are  heavy  feeders  and  have  great  capacity  for  assimilat- 
ing and  turning  to  profit  all  kinds  of  cattle  forage.  As  a  rule,  they 
will  bear  rich  feeding  and  forcing  for  long  periods  uncommonly  well. 
In  the  good  animals  all  the  extra  food  is  converted  into  milk.  They 
do  not  fatten  readily.  The  Jersey  cow  is  essentially  a  machine  for 
producing  milk — butter-making  milk — and  may  be  considered 
worthless  when  she  ceases  to  give  milk.  The  owner  should  depend 
for  profit  solely  upon  the  produce  of  the  cow  while  she  is  alive.  Yet 
Jersey  steers  and  an  occasional  nonbreeding  female  have  been  found 
to  take  on  flesh  at  a  profit  and  make  small  butchers'  beasts,  with  fine- 
grained, high-flavored  flesh,  very  rich  in  color. 

Breeders  on  the  island  of  Jersey  commenced  the  compilation  of 
a  herdbook  in  1866,  and  a  like  association  began  similar  work  in  this 
country  the  sarrfe  year.  The  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club  was  organ- 
ized in  1868  and  published  the  first  volume  of  its  Herd  Register  two 
years  later.  This  is  a  strong  organization,  maintaining  a  business 
office  in  New  York  City.  The  blood  of  this  breed  is  more  generally 
diffused  and  more  highly  prized  than  any  other  in  the  active  butter- 
producing  districts  of  the  United  States  and  among  family  cows  in 
the  country  at  large. 

DUTCH  BELTED. 

Origin. — The  domestic  cattle  of  Holland  appear  to  have  had  a 
common  origin,  and  tlie  prevailing  markings  of  all  are  black  and 
white.  The  distribution  of  color  differs,  however,  and  one  branch 
of  this  general  stock  has  been  so  peculiarly  niiarked  for  a  century  or 
two — some  claim  three — as  to  fix  its  name  and  secure  recognition  as 
a  breed.  AVhat  are  known  in  Holland  as  Lakenfeld  cattle  are  called 
Dutch  Belted  in  this  country.  ^ 

Characteristics. — The  animals  of  this  breed  are  all  jet-black, 
•with  a  broad  band  or  belt  of  pure  white  encircling  the  'body.  This 
belt  or  blanket  differs  in  widtn,  but  rarely  reaches  so  far  forward  as 
the  shoulder  blade  or  back  to  the  hips.  On  cows  the  fore  part  of  the 
udder  is  usually  included.  No  white  is  admissible  elsewhere  on  the 
body  and  no  black  within  the  white  zone.  In  general  conformation 
the  cattle  are  of  the  dairy  type,  although  not  to  such  a  degree  as 
some  others. 

They  are  docile  beasts  and  fairly  hardy  and  vigorous  in  growth 
and  action.    In  size  they  rank  with  the  Ayrshire,  although  perhaps 


130  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

somewhat  less  blocky  and  with  longer  legs.  Individuals  are  larger  in 
frame,  but  not  often  heavier.  This  breed  is  not  numerous  either  in 
Europe  or  America.  A  few  specimens  were  brought  to  the  United 
States  in  1838,  and  for  a  long  time  there  were  more  to  be  found  in  the 
famous  dairying  county  of  Orange,  N.  Y.,  than  in  all  other  parts  of 
the  country  combined.  They  have  become  more  scattered  during 
recent  years,  and  the  interests  of  the  breed  are  represented  by  the 
Dutch  Belted  Cattle  Association  of  America.  As  milk  producers 
these  belted  cows  seem  to  give  good  satisfaction,  although  the  milk  is 
not  above  the  average  in  quality.  The  claim  of  a  leading  breeder  is 
that  these  cattle  are  deep  milkers,  practical,  profitable,  tnrifty,  and 
picturesque  in  the  extreme  when  seen  as  a  herd  at  pasture. 

BROWN   SWISS. 

Origin  and  History. — Switzerland  has  been  famous  as  a  dairy- 
ing country  for  some  centuries.  It  is  especially  noted  for  cheese,  and 
it  is  said  that  seventeen  different  kinds  are  regiilarly  exported  to  other 
countries.  Two  distinct  races  of  cattle  contribute  to  these  products, 
,and  both  are  excellent  dairy  animals.  In  many  respects  they  are 
unequaled  by  any  of  the  other  breeds  of  continental  Europe. 

The  Brown  Swiss  is  the  breed  better  known  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  called  also  Brown  Switzer,  but  more  properly  Brown  Schwyzer, 
from  the  Canton  Schwyz,  where  the  breed  originated,  or,  at  least,  has 
been  bred  longest  and  is  still  found  of  truest  type.  It  is  now  common 
to  the  other  cantons  of  eastern  and  central  Switzerland  and  has  a  fine 
reputation  throughout  Europe.  These  cattle  have  been  especially 
successful  as  prize  winners  at  Paris,  Hamburg,  and  other  large  exhi- 
bitions of  live  stock. 

The  first  pure-bred  animals  of  this  breed  brought  to  the  United 
States  comprised  one  bull  and  seven  heifers,  imported  from  the  Can- 
ton Schwyz  to  Massachusetts  in  the  autumn  of  1869.  It  was  not  till 
1881  or  1882  that  other  importations  were  made,  but  meanwhile  this 
first  little  herd  had  been  kept  pure  and  had  increased  to  nearly  two 
hundred  in  number.  During  the  years  1882  and  1883  several  impor- 
tations were  made  and  there  have  been  a  number  since.  Where  they 
have  become  known  these  cattle  have  made  a  favorable  impression 
among  the  dairymen,  and  herds  of  different  sizes  can  now  be  found 
in  States  of  all  parts  of  the  Union. 

Characteristics. — The  Brown  Swiss  may  be  placed  in  the  second 
class  as  to  size  when  placed  among  the  distinctly  dairy  breeds.  They 
are  substantial,  fleshy,  and  well  proportioned,  with  very  straight, 
broad  back,  heavy  legs  and  neck,  giving  a  general  appearance  of 
coarseness.  But  when  examined  they  are  found  to  be  small-boned 
for  their  size  and  to  possess  a  fine,  silky  coat,  and  rich,  elastic  skin, 
with  other  attractive  dairy  points.  Although  generally  described  as 
being  brown  in  color,  the  brown  runs  through  various  shades  and 
often  into  a  mouse  color  and  sometimes  a  brownish  dun. 

The  cows  are  so  plump  and  compact  as  to  appear  smaller  than 
they  really  are.  Mature  animals  weigh  from  1,200  to  1,400  pounds, 
and  often  more ;  bulls  run  up  to  1,800  pounds  and  over,  yet  are  not 
SO  much  heavier  than  the  females  as  in  inost  breeds.    These  cattle  ar© 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  131 

extremely  hardy  and  very  active  for  their  size,  being  necessarily  good 
mountain  climbers  in  their  native  country. 

3Iilk  and  Butter. — Developed  as  a  dairy  breed  primarily,  Brown 
Swiss  cows  yield  a  generous  flow  of  milk  and  hold  out  well.  The 
quality  of  milk  is  above  the  European  average,  Sy^  to  4  per  cent  of 
fat  being  usual.  Ordinarily  22  pounds  of  the  milk  of  this  breed  will 
make  1  pound  of  butter. 

The  description  given  indicates  that  these  cattle  are  good  for  beef 
as  well  as  for  the  dairy.  They  are  almost  always  full-fleshed,  easily 
kept  so,  and  readily  fattened  when  not  in  milk.  The  flesh  is  said  to 
be  fine-grained,  tender,  and  sweet.  A  barren  heifer  in  Minnesota 
weighed  1,680  pounds;  a  mature  cow  in  New  York,  fattened  for 
butcher,  weighed  1,925  pounds,  and  made  1,515  pounds  of  beef.  A 
pair  of  Swiss  steers  at  13  months  old  weighed  2,200  pounds.  The 
calves  are  large,  often  100  pounds  at  birth,  and  make  a  vigorous 
growth.  Weights  of  400  to  600  pounds  at  4  to  6  months  of  age  are 
not  uncommon.  Altogether,  the  Brown  Swiss  is  able  to  present  about 
as  strong  a  claim  as  any  breed  to  being  a  profitable  general  purpose 
cow. 

In  their  native  country  these  cattle  are  ordinarily  fed  nothing 
but  hay,  grass,  or  other  green  forage  throughout  the  year,  but  they 
respond  promptly  to  more  various  and  generous  feedmg. 

The  Brown  Swiss  Breeders'  Association  in  this  country  was  or- 
ganized in  the  year  1880  and  has  published  several  volumes  of  the 
Swiss  Record.  The  Brown  Swiss  of  this  country  are  owned  mostly 
in  the  States  of  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  York,  Illinois,  Wis- 
consin, Iowa,  Minnesota  and  Colorado. 

DEVONS. 

Origin  and  History. — The  peninsula  which  forms  the  south- 
western portion  of  England  is  the  home  of  a  thrifty  and  attractive 
race  of  deep-red  cattle,  which  take  their  name  from  the  elevated  re- 
gion in  the  north  of  Devonshire,  where  they  have  been  brought  to  the 
greatest  evenness  and  fixity  of  type. 

If  solid  color  throughout  and  resistance  to  variation  in  all  parti- 
culars be  accepted  as  evidence  of  antiquity  in  a  breed,  the  Devon  must 
be  regarded  as  among  the  oldest  and  purest.  It  certainly  is  one  of 
the  best  defined  of  British  breeds  of  cattle,  although  little  is  known  of 
its  origin.    It  was  undoubtedly  very  gradually  developed. 

It  is  believed  that  Devons  were  among  the  very  first  cattle 
brought  across  the  Atlantic,  reaching  New  England  on  the  ship 
Charity  in  the  year  1623.  Importations  of  some  consequence  were 
made  in  1800,  and  to  New  York  soon  afterwards,  but  the  first  herd 
to  be  brought  to  this  country  and  maintained  pure,  so  that  breeders 
can  still  trace  to  it,  was  a  present  of  a  bull  and  six  heifers  from  Holk- 
ham,  sent  directly  to  Mr.  Robert  Patterson,  of  Maryland,  and  arriv- 
ing at  Baltimore  June  10,  1817.  This  Patterson  herd  has  been  kept 
up  during  the  greater  part  of  the  centurv.  Other  importations  occur- 
red in  1818,  1820,  1835,  1855,  and  frequently  in  later  years. 

Characteristics. — The  characteristics  of  the  Devon  are  compact^ 
ness  and  general  beauty,  hardiness,  activity,  intelligence,  docility, 
aptitude  to  fatten,  and  quality  of  milk.    The  prevailing  red  varies 


132  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

from  a  dark,  rich  color  to  pale  chestnut,  but  no  hlack  or  white  is  ad- 
missible excepting  a  little  white  patch  on  and  in  front  of  the  udder, 
which  sometimes  extends  forward  on  the  belly,  and  white  hair  in  the 
switch  of  the  tail.  The  skin  is  yellow  and  unctuous,  its  richness 
being  shown  in  an  orange  ring  around  the  eyes  and  more  or  less  of 
the  same  encircling  the  muzzle.  The  hair  is  soft,  fine,  and  often  curls 
closely  on  the  necks,  shoulders,  and  faces.  The  head  is  adorned,  in 
the  case  of  the  female,  with  particularly  elegant,  creamy-white,  sharp- 
pointed,  black-tipped  horns  of  medium  length,  having  a  good  eleva- 
tion at  the  junction  with  the  head  and  curving  upward.  In  the  bull 
the  horns  are  shorter  in  proportion  to  thickness,  straighter,  and  less 
raised.  Straight,  broad,  level  backs,  roundness  of  form,  fineness  of 
bone,  uncommon  symmetry  of  outline,  make  up  an  animal  of  great 
attractiveness. 

These  cattle  thrive  on  meagre  pasturage  and  have  shown  re- 
markable adaptability  to  varied  conditions  of  topography  and  cli- 
mate. They  do  well  in  the  most  hilly  and  rigorous  parts  of  New 
England  and  have  proved  well  suited  to  the  old  field  and  pine  lands 
of  the  Gulf  States. 

As  Milk  and  Beef  Producers. — As  a  rule,  Devon  cows  do  not 
yield  large  quantities  of  milk  and  are  not  persistent  milkers ;  yet  some 
families,  bred  and  selected  for  dairy  purposes,  have  made  fair  milk 
records,  single  animals  producing  40  and  even  50  pounds  per  day. 
The  milk  of  this  breed  is  rich  in  quality,  ranking  next  to  that  of  the 
Channel  Island  cattle  in  percentage  of  butter,  fat,  total  solids,  and 
high  color,  being  in  these  respects  well  above  the  average  milk  of  the 
dairy  cows  of  the  country. 

While  it  is  believed  that  the  Devon  is  not  commonly  held  in  as 
high  esteem  in  the  United  States  either  as  a  dairy  cow  or  a  general- 
purpose  animal  as  is  really  justified  by  its  merits,  the  best  friends  of 
this  breed  regard  it  as  more  particularly  a  beef  producer.  The  calves 
are  always  fat  and  lusty,  showing  a  vigorous  growth,  while  cows  and 
steers  are  easily  kept  in  good  order  and  fatten  readily  on  demand. 
At  the  famous  Smithfield  Fat  Stock  Show  of  London  the  Devons  have 
year  after  year  won  highest  honors  for  butchers'  meat.  The  beef 
IS  fine-grained,  usually  tender,  and  well  marbled,  and  the  fat  of  a 
deep  yellow  color,  like  the  milk  fat. 

Capt.  J.  T.  Davy  began  the  publication  of  the  Devon  Herd  Book 
in  1851,  and  animals  bred  and  owned  in  America  were  for  some  yeare 
entered  in  that  book.  Indeed,  American  pedigrees  recorded  run 
back  ten  years  further  than  the  oldest  published  for  English  herds. 
In  1859  herdbooks  were  published  simultaneously  in  England  and 
America,  and  in  March,  1863,  the  American  Devon  Plerd  Book,  the 
first  volume  of  a  new  series,  appeared.  This  publication  has  been 
continued  by  the  American  Devon  Cattle  Club. 

The  preceding  description  relates  to  what  may  be  regarded  as  the 
true  Devon  breed,  although  by  some  called  the  North  Devon.  This 
is  to  distinguish  them  from  South  Devons — a  variation  from  the 
breed  in  its  best  form,  giving  a  larger,  coarser  animal,  not  so  well 
{idapted  to  dairy  uses. 


^^fi^J^fii-^J^S^^n. 


I.  Brown  Swiss  Cow.    2.  Dutch  Belted  Bull.    3.  Red  Polled  Cow.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  133 

POLLED   DURHAMS. 

Origin  and  History. — This  is  a  breed  of  cattle,  if  it  may  yet  be 
called  a  breed,  which  has  originated  in  America ;  but  its  foundation 
lies  away  back  in  the  dawn  of  history  regarding  domestic  cattle  in 
England.  At  the  time  the  earliest  definite  knowledge  of  improve- 
ment in  the  cattle  of  Great  Britain  begins  the  middle  counties  formed 
the  scene  of  activity,  and  the  district  of  Craven,  a  fertile  corner  of 
the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  bordering  on  Lancashire,  seems  to 
have  been  the  place  where  the  first  decisive  work  was  done  which  laid 
the  foundation  for  a  great  race  of  cattle.  The  farmers  of  Yorkshire 
were  well  ahead  of  the  rest  of  the  country  two  or  three  centuries  ago 
in  their  ideas  of  cattle  improvement.  The  first  group,  or  perhaps 
breed,  to  receive  distinction  and  a  name  were  the  Longhorns.  Their 
horns  were  as  long  as  those  of  the  typical  Texan  steer,  but  were 
drooping  instead  of  erect.  The  result  of  the  next  marked  epoch  in 
English  cattle  breeding  was  the  Durham  breed,  which,  by  contrast 
with  preceding  favorites,  were  named  Shorthorns.  Another  century- 
has  passed,  and  between  sports  selection,  and  artificial  means,  Ameri- 
can breeders  have  been  able  to  separate  from  the  general  Shorthorn 
stock  a  family  retaining  all  the  other  features  of  that  race,  but  with 
no  horns  at  all.  These  are  called  Polled  Durhams,  and  have  become 
so  fixed  in  type  and  in  the  potency  of  the  hornless  feature  that  they 
have  been  allowed  a  name  and  place  as  a  distinct  breed.  It  has  taken 
shape  ■^'ithin  two  or  three  decades,  and  one  chary  of  new  breeds  is 
somewhat  startled  to  find  that  animals  registered  as  Polled  Durhams 
are  also  admitted  to  the  iVmerican  Shorthorn  Herd  Book.  Although 
thus  largely  of  Shorthorn  blood,  the  old  familiar  muley  cow  of  the 
native  stock  of  the  country,  often  a  brindle  in  color,  was  used  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  the  early  work  of  building  this  breed  and 
breeding  out  the  horns.  But,  having  served  its  purpose,  this  common 
blood  is  now  rather  despised,  and  one  of  the  requirements  for  entry 
of  animals  in  the  American  Polled  Durham  Herd  Book  was  that  after 
the  year  1899  females  shall  carry  at  least  96"%  per  cent  of  Shorthorn 
blood,  unless  their  parents  are  already  registered.  Besides  this,  they 
must  have  the  "color  and  markings  characteristic  of  the  Shorthorn," 
but  must  be  hornless.  This  branch  or  family  of  the  Shorthorn 
breed — for  that  is  what  it  is — was  developed  mainly  in  Ohio,  and  is 
best  known  in  the  valleys  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  and  in  States 
to  the  westward. 

Characteristics. — As  to  size,  color,  and  general  appearance,  the 
Polled  Durhams  answer  perfectly  to  the  description  of  the  typical 
Shorthorn  of  the  beef  form,  without  the  horns.  Red  is  the  color  pre- 
ferred and  prevailing.  They  should  be,  and  usually  are,  classed  as 
belonging  to  the  beef  breeds ;  yet  so  many  animals  of  dairy  excellence 
appear  among  them  that  they  deserve  this  mention.  One  of  their  most 
careful  breeders  and  earnest  champions  says  of  them :  They  have 
the  contour  and  general  make-up  of  the  grand  old  breed  from  which 
they  have  been  mainly  builded;  besides,  in  their  development  the 
milking  qualities  have  not  been  lost  sight  of,  and  among  them  are 
some  excellent  milkers. 


134  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

In  their  dairy  capacity  they  may  also  be  said  to  practically  dupli- 
cate the  milking  Shorthorns,  so  that  a  separate  description  is  unneces- 
sary. The  breed  is  not  yet  sufficiently  strong  in  numbers  and  has  not 
been  handled  enough  for  dairy  purposes  to  furnish  milk  records  of 
value  for  herds  or  single  animals.  In  short,  they  have  been  from  the 
first,  and  continue  to  be,  bred  primarily  for  the  development  of  feed- 
ing quality  for  beef  production  as  their  dominant  characteristic,  and 
liieir  service  as  milk  producers  must  be  regarded  as  a  secondary  con- 
sideration. It  remains  still  to  be  determined  to  what  extent  this  breed 
will  affect  the  interests  of  dairymen.  At  the  Columbian  Exposition 
(1893)  the  Polled  Durhams  were  entered  as  general^purpose  cattle, 
and  in  the  sweepstakes  rings  for  that  class  they  received  the  highest 
honor  in  competition  with  representatives  of  several  other  breeds  of 
similar  character.  Breeders  of  these  animals  organized  in  the  year 
1889  as  the  American  Polled  Durham  Breeders'  Association  and  at 
once  began  the  compilation  of  a  herdbook. 

RED   POLLS. 

Origin  and  History. — This  is  another  of  the  comparatively  new 
breeds,  as  its  independence  has  only  been  recognized  within  the  last 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  it  is  another  without  horns.  Red 
Polled  cattle  resemble  the  Devons  almost  as  closely  as  the  Polled  Dur- 
hams resemble  the  Shorthorns.  Yet  the  two  red  races  are  probably 
not  closely  related ;  the  Devons  are  natives  of  the  Dartmoor  region  in 
the  southwestern  portion  of  England,  and  the  Red  Polls  had  their 
origin  on  the  eastern  plain,  north  of  the  river  Thames,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk.  The  progenitors  of  this 
breed  were  the  little,  old,  red,  horned  cattle  of  Norfolk  and  the  dun, 
or  mouse,  coloretjl  polled  animals  of  Suffolk.  According  to  very  early 
records  the  latter  were  superior  milch  cattle.  Arthur  Young,  in  his 
Survey  of  Suffolk,  published  in  1794,  mentions  the  hornless  cattle  of 
that  country  and  says :  There  is  hardly  a  dairy  of  any  consideration 
in  the  district  that  does  not  contain  cows  which  give,  in  the  height  of 
the  season,  8  gallons  of  milk  a  day,  and  6  are  common  among  many 
for  a  large  part  of  the  season.  For  two  or  three  months  a  whole  dairy 
will  give  5  gallons  a  day  on  the  average.  And  he  adds:  Many  of 
these  beasts  fatten  remarkably  well  and  have  flesh  of  fine  quality. 
Low,  writing  in  1845,  after  giving  the  breed,  under  the  name  of 
Polled  Suffolks,  a  poor  character  in  respect  to  almost  everything  ex- 
cept milking  powers,  suggested  the  probability  of  its  immediate  ex- 
tinction. But  since  that  time  much  enterprise  has  been  shown  among 
the  cattlemen  of  that  part  of  England.  The  early  stock  of  Norfolk 
and  Suffolk  has  been  merged  (from  about  1846),  handled  with  skill, 
the  horns  eliminated  on  the  one  side  and  all  color  but  red  upon  the 
other.  The  traces  of  an  infusion  of  Scotch  Galloway  and  West  High- 
land blood,  doubtless  once  made,  have  been  well  covered,  and  the  Red 
Polled  cattle  have  now  recognition  as  a  breed  and  come  well  to  the 
front.  They  have  not  made  much  headway  in  Great  Britain,  how- 
ever, outside  of  the  two  counties  named. 

Some  of  these  hornless  cattle,  red  and  of  other  colors,  were  among 
those  brought  to  the  early  English  colonies  in  America,  and  the  so- 
called  muley  cows  among  our  natives  are  probably  descendants,  more 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  135 

or  less  mixed  vdih  other  strains,  including  the  Scotch  Galloways,  of 
these  early  arrivails  from  Norfolk  and  Suffolk.  But  the  first  notable 
importation  of  the  breed  in  its  modem  form  was  made  in  the  year 
1873  by  Gilbert  F.  Taber,  and  this  herd,  to  which  he  added  in  1875 
and  1882,  was  maintained  for  some  years  in  Putnam  County,  N.  Y. 
A  number  of  importations  to  the  United  States  have  since  been  made, 
and  the  State  of  Ohio  has  lately  been  the  center  of  active  interest  in 
making  these  cattle  known  in  this  country. 

Characteristics. — The  animals  of  this  breed  are  about  the  same 
size  as  Devons,  and,  being  of  the  same  color  and  of  the  beef  form, 
the  resemblance  is  still  greater.  The  absence  of  horns  and  the  change 
thus  caused  in  the  shape  of  the  head,  which  assumes  a  comparatively 
high  and  sharp  crown,  or  jk)11,  with  a  tuft  of  hair  upon  it,  is  the  only 
noticeable  distinction.  The  development  of  the  milking  parts  haa 
been  better  maintained  in  the  Red  Polls,  so  that  at  present  their 
udders,  teats,  and  milk  veins  show  the  better.  In  the  matter  of  teata 
this  may  have  been  overdone,  as  with  the  Polls  these  are  often  unduly 
large,  puffy,  and  conical.  While  red  is  the  required  color,  it  is  per- 
missible to  have  a  white  tip)  to  the  switch  and  some  white  upon  the 
udder,  although  the  latter  is  deemed  undesirable.  The  Red  Polled 
cattle  are  strong  in  constitution,  hardy,  good  grazers,  active  in  move- 
ment, and  quiet  in  disposition. 

In  general  appearance  the  animals  of  this  breed  are  of  the  beef 
type — ^blocky,  round,  full,  smooth,  and  fine-boned.  Their  aptitude 
for  making  meat  seems  to  be  greater  than  for  making  milk.  Their 
special  friends  claim  them  to  be  good  at  both,  and  press  their  merits 
strongly  as  the  general  farm  cow.  It  is  needless  to  present  here  the 
proofs  of  their  excellence  as  butchers'  beasts. 

Milk  Records. — As  dairy  animals  the  Red  Polls  must  be  placed 
in  the  second  class  with  the  other  breeds  which  aim  to  serve  the  dual 
purpose.  They  appear  to  give  rather  more  milk  than  Devons  on  the 
average,  but  not  quite  so  rich  in  quality.  Being  comparatively  few 
in  number  in  this  country,  dairv  records  of  entire  herds  in  the  United 
States  are  lacking,  and  the  available  figures  mainly  pertain  to  records 
in  Great  Britain.  Good  herds  there  average  5,000  to  5,500  pounds  of 
milk  annually  per  cow,  and,  when  small  and  selected,  occasionally 
rising  to  7,000  pounds.  One  record  is  claimed  of  7,744  pounds  eaon 
for  22  cows.  The  first  herdbook  for  this  breed  was  pubhshed  in 
England  in  1874,  and  in  1883  the  Red  Polled  Cattle  Club  of  America 
was  organized,  and  issued  its  first  volume  in  1887.  A  few  years  later 
the  English  and  American  associations  united  their  herdbooks,  which 
have  since  been  a  joint  issue,  all  animals  of  the  breed  in  both  coun- 
tries being  registered  together.  This  is  the  only  instance  of  its  kind 
among  the  purebred  cattle  organizations  of  this  country. 

SHORTHORNS. 

Origin  and  History. — The  cattle  which  have  been  most  famous 
as  a  breed  in  England  and  America,  which  have  received  the  longest 
and  closest  attention  of  breeders  and  improvers,  which  have  com- 
manded prices  singly  and  in  herds  far  above  all  others,  and  which 
have  made  the  most  general  impression  upon  the  live  stock  of  both 
countries  during  the  nineteenth  century,  are  the  Shorthorns,  or  Dur- 


136  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

hams.  Wallace  says  they  are  descended  from  the  old  Northeast  of 
England  breed,  variously  designated  as  Durham,  Teeswater,  York- 
shire, and  Holderness,  and  adds :  The  breed  was  probably  originally- 
formed,  though  perhaps  several  centuries  ago,  by  crossing  the  aborigi- 
nal British  cows  with  large-frame  bulls  imported  from  the  Continent. 
Early  Shorthorns  were  good  milkers,  and  it  may  be  presumed  they  in 
part  inherited  that  quality  along  with  the  shortness  of  horn  from 
their  Continental  ancestors.  Little  is  known  of  the  breed  except  from 
the  uncertain  authority  of  tradition  down  to  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  though  it  is  only  right  to  infer  that  long  before 
this  time  great  care  and  even  skill  had  been  bestowed  upon  it.  The 
earliest  records  show  that  purity  of  breed  was  fully  appreciated,  and 
this  important  fact  could  not  have  been  universal  without  previous 
experience  and  attention. 

The  great  county  of  York,  extending  along  the  east  coast  of  Eng- 
land from  the  river  Humber  to  the  Tees,  and  westward  almost  to  the 
Irish  Sea,  has  the  honor  of  being  the  seat  of  the  most  noted  examples 
of  improvement  in  British  cattle.  It  was  this  country  which  fur- 
nished the  foundation  stock  upon  which  Gresley,  in  Staffordshire, 
Webster  in  Warwickshire,  and  that  greatest  of  all  breeders,  Robert 
Bakewell,  in  Leicestershire,  labored  to  create  the  breed  of  Longhorns, 
which  filled  all  the  middle  counties  of  England  during  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  was  then  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  in  the  Kingdom. 
And  it  was  Yorkshire,  helped  somewhat  by  the  smaller  county  of 
Durham,  adjoining  on  the  north,  which  brought  the  famous  Short- 
horns to  the  front,  following  closely  upon  the  best  days  of  the  Long- 
horns.  The  former  replaced  and  practically  absorbed  the  latter, 
spreading  over  all  middle  England  and  northward  across  the  island 
and  well  into  the  lowlands  of  Scotland. 

Inseparably  connected  with  the  development  of  the  Shorthorn 
breed  are  the  names  of  Robert  and  Charles  Colling,  who  brought 
their  favorites  into  a  new  era  of  fame  and  popularity  during  the  last 
decades  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  first  of  the  nineteenth. 
The  Collings  were  shrewd  advertisers  as  well  as  good  breeders.  In 
those  days  of  slow  communication  and  absence  of  fairs  and  shows 
they  adopted  the  clever  plan  of  sending  specimen  animals  of  their 
breeding  on  long  tours  about  their  own  and  adjoining  counties. 
Two  of  these  animals  became  especially  famous.  The  Durham  Ox, 
which  had  a  live  weight  of  II/2  tons,  and  The  White  Heifer  that 
Traveled,  weighing  considerably  over  a  ton,  were  driven  about  the 
country  for  several  years  and  extensively  exhibited.  Almost  equally 
valuable  to  this  breed  have  been  the  later  services  of  Bates  and  Booth 
and  Cruickshank.  Under  these  leaders,  and  in  the  hands  of  a  host  of 
able  lieutenants  and  followers,  this  superb  race  of  cattle  has  been 
raised  to  the  highest  rank  in  the  United  Kingdom,  carried  to  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  introduced  into  all  British  colonies.  It 
was  the  first  pure  breed  to  make  an  impress  upon  the  cattle  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Shorthorns  in  Aimerica.  —  The  Revolutionary  war  was 
scarcely  over  before  attention  began  to  be  given  to  improving  the 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  137 

cattle  in  America.  Virginia  led  in  the  work  with  several  small  im- 
portations between  1783  and  1800,  and  from  these  pioneer  animals 
the  first  pure-bred  Durhams  were  taken  to  Kentucky.  In  1817  there 
w^as  a  special  importation  for  Kentucky  use,  from  which  the  descend- 
ants can  be  fully  traced  to  the  present  time.  This  stock  was  popu- 
larly called  the  "milk  breed,"  but  they  were  improved  Shorthorns, 
some  of  them  from  the  Collings  herd.  Also  in  1817  some  of  like 
breeding  reached  New"  York  and  Massachusetts.  A  few  years  later 
they  obtained  a  foothold  in  Pennsylvania.  Several  importations 
followed  prior  to  1835,  but  up  to  this  time  the  breed  did  not  seem  to 
do  well  east  of  the  Alleghenies.  In  Kentucky  and  Ohio,  on  the  con- 
trary, great  progress  was  made.  Twenty  years  of  special  activity 
then  followed  in  the  development  of  American  Shorthorns.  During 
this  time  the  famous  herd  Thorndale,  New  York,  was  built  up, 
and  the  Alexander  herd  at  Woodburn,  Kentucky.  A  quiet  period 
of  fifteen  years  was  followed  by  another  Shorthorn  boom,  beginning 
after  the  civil  war,  and  the  climax  came  in  September,  1873,  when 
the  celebrated  New  York  Mills  sale  occurred.  One  hundred  and 
nine  head  of  Shorthorns  were  then  sold  at  auction  in  three  hours 
for  $380,000.  Eight  cows  averaged  $14,000  each,  and  six  others 
averaged  $24,000;  one  sold  for  $35,000  and  another  for  $40,600. 
British  breedere  acknowledged  that  the  United  States  possessed  bet- 
ter Shorthorns  than  could  be  found  in  England,  and  sent  over  agents 
to  take  back  some  of  them  at  any  price.  During  the  last  hundred 
years  the  Shorthorn  blood  has  been  more  generally  distributed 
through  the  United  States  than  that  of  any  other  cattle,  and  it  has 
proved  most  acceptable  as  the  basis  of  improvement  for  the  com- 
mon, or  native,  stock,  both  for  beef  production  and  dairy  purposes. 

The  aim  of  nearly  all  the  improvers  of  Shorthorns  has  been  to 
secure  early  maturity,  size,  form,  and  beef-producing  qualities.  All 
is  useless  that  is  not  beef  was  the  motto  of  an  eminent  breeder,  and 
he  has  had  many  followers.  Thomas  Bates  is  the  most  noted  of  tho 
few  who  have  seemed  anxious  to  retain  good  milking  capacity.  Tlio 
Shorthorns  are  a  beef  breed  and  have  been  so  for  generations.  They 
are  classed  among  the  beef  breeds  at  all  the  great  exhibitions,  and, 
as  a  breed,  do  not  even  pretend  to  be  general-purpose  animals.  But 
there  have  always  been  good  dairy  cows  among  them,  and  in  Eng- 
land, especialh'^,  strains  and  families  have  been  kept  somewhat  dis- 
tinct and  known  as  milking  Shorthorns.  A  few  breeders  in  the 
United  States  have  followed  this  example,  and  enough  were  found 
in  1893  to  make  up  a  herd  which  entered  the  famous  dairy-cow  test 
at  the  Columbian  Exposition  and  there  made  a  most  creditable 
record.  This  alone  entitles  the  Shorthorns  to  a  place  in  these  pages, 
although  their  best  friends  would  hardly  claim  them  to  belong  to 
the  class  of  special  dairj^  breeds. 

Characferisfics. — In  point  of  size  the  Shorthorns  are  probably 
the  largest  amoni;  pure  breeds  of  rattle.  In  their  modern  fonn  they 
are  not  so  tall  and  have  not  so  large  a  frame  as  some  of  their  English 
ancestors,  but  the  lower,  blockier,  fuller  form  maintains  the  maxi- 


138  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

mum  weight.  Bulls  ordinarily  weigh  a  ton  and  more,  sometimes 
running  up  to  3,000  pounds;  mature  cows  range  from  1,200  to 
1,600  pounds,  sometimes  falling  a  little  below  and  sometimes  ex- 
ceeding these  limits.  The  colors  of  the  breed  have  always  been 
red  and  white,  with  various  blendings  of  these  two.  Many  of  the 
best  among  the  early  Shorthorns  were  pure  white,  but  that  color  has 
lost  caste,  and  red  is  especially  fancied  in  this  country.  In  England, 
however,  the  roan  color  is  much  more  common  than  any  other,  and 
this  peculiar  blending  of  the  red  and  whit^,  popularly  called  roan, 
is  rarely,  if  ever,  seen  in  any  animal  of  the  bovine  race  which  does 
not  possess  some  portion  of  the  Shorthorn  blood. — (Sanders.) 

The  lines  of  the  body  are  straight,  the  rectangular  form,  with 
well-filled  points,  broad,  level  back,  full  loin,  heavy,  thick  buttocks, 
wide  apart,  brisket  wide  and  full,  legs  rather  short,  close,  fine-boned 
and  well  proportioned  to  size  of  body.  In  the  best  milking  strains 
the  cows  are  rather  more  rangy  and  angular  in  outline,  with  large, 
hairy  udder  and  good-sized  straight  teats,  well  placed.  The  skin 
over  the  whole  body  is  flesh  colored,  soft,  oily  to  the  touch,  and  cov- 
ered with  fine  short  hair.  The  animals  are  quiet  and  kind  in  dispo- 
sition. Nearly  all  show  evidences  of  long-continued  high  breeding, 
and  this  has  been  carried  to  such  an  extent  in  many  cases  as  to  cause 
more  or  less  delicacy  of  constitution  and  sometimes  shyness  in 
breeding. 

Milk  and  Butter. — It  has  been  already  noted  that  among  the 
early  Durham  and  Teeswater  cattle  there  was  much  dairy  excellence, 
and  that  Shorthorns  when  first  brought  to  America  earned  the  name 
of  the  milk  breed.  Among  old  records  are  those  of  cows  giving 
6,  8,  and  even  9  gallons  of  milk  a  day  on  grass  alone.  Although  now 
latent  in  most  lines,  there  seems  to  be  a  dairy  quality  inherent  in  the 
breed  which  some  careful  managers  are  able  successfully  to  develop 
and  propagate.  Records  of  several  dairy  herds  in  the  United  States 
within  a  quarter  century  show  a  milking  season  of  about  two  hundred 
and  seventy-five  days  and  an  average  produce  of  6,500  pounds  of 
milk.  One  herd  of  10  cows,  from  3  to  12  years  old,  averaged  7,750 
pounds  in  a  year.  Single  cows  have  averaged  much  more,  several 
instances  being  known  of  10,000  to  12,000  pounds  in  a  season.  Thef 
Shorthorn  milk  is  of  good  quality,  rather  above  the  average ;  the  fat 
globules  are  of  medium  and  fairly  uniform  size,  so  that  cream  sepa- 
rates easily ;  it  is  rather  pale  in  color.      > 

The  first  Shorthorn  herdbook  was  published  in  England  in  the 
year  1822,  but  for  nearly  a  century  before  pedigrees  of  some  fine 
bulls  had  been  kept  with  reasonable  accuracy.  The  American  Short- 
horn Breeders'  Association  was  organized  in  1842  and  publication  of 
the  herdbook  of  this  country  began  in  1845,  connecting  with  the 
Coates  series  in  England. — (F.  B.  106.) 

THE  DAIRY  HERD;  ITS  FORMATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT. 

Introduction. — The  pursuit  of  dairy  farming  depends  for  \\a 
success  upon  certain  fundamental  conditions.  First,  the  owner  of 
the  business  himself,  or  otherwise  the  agent  or  manager  who  has  the 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  139 

immediate  control  and  personal  direction  of  the  work,  must  have  a 
natural  fondness  for  animals,  prompting  to  generous  and  kind  treat- 
ment, as  well  as  good  judgment  in  selection,  breeding,  and  care.  It  is 
not  sufficient  that  he  should  be  a  horseman,  or  fond  of  cattle  in  gen- 
eral; for  best  results  he  should  have  a  special  liking  for  the  dairy 
cow,  over  and  above  all  other  animals.  Second,  the  cattle  must  be 
good  of  their  kind  and  of  a  variety  suited  to  the  work.  They  must 
be  truly  dairy  cattle.  Third,  the  farm  should  be  specially  adapted  to 
the  branch  of  husbandry  in  view.  A  good  dairy  farm  is  pretty  cer- 
tain to  be  good  for  general  farming,  but  many  good  farms  in  general 
are  not  suited  to  dairying.  The  dairy  farm  should  be  carefully 
selected,  all  the  requirements  of  the  business  being  well  considered. 
Yet  many  disadvantages  so  far  as  the  farm  is  concerned  may  be 
successfully  overcome  by  the  skillful  dairyman,  and  dairying  in 
some  form  is  profitably  conducted  without  any  farm,  so  that  this 
condition,  important  as  it  is,  can  not  be  regarded  as  essential.  Fourth, 
it  is  well  to  study  the  character  of  the  accessible  markets  and  the 
means  of  communication;  location  and  the  line  of  dairjdng  to  be 
followed  may  be  largely  controlled  by  the  markets.  The  first  and 
second  of  the  above  qualifications  remain  as  the  essential  factors — 
the  owner  and  the  cow. 

Like  almost  all  other  occupations  at  the  present  day,  dairying 
has  become  divided  into  several  distinct  and  special  lines.  These 
differ  mainly  as  to  the  form  of  product  and  the  manner  of  disposing 
of  it.  Milk  or  cream  may  be  produced  for  delivery  to  consumers, 
and  this  delivery  may  be  direct  or  indirect.  The  same  products  may 
be  delivered  to  a  factory  for  manufacture  into  butter  or  cheese,  or 
the  milk  product  of  the  herd  may  be  worked  up  at  home  and  there 
converted  into  butter  or  cheese.  The  prudent  dairyman  should  first 
consider  which  line  of  business  he  will  pursue.  In  so  doing  he  must 
have  regard  for  all  his  circumstances — the  location,  markets,  farm, 
buildings,  water  and  ice  supply,  the  labor  at  his  command — and  his 
own  preference,  and  prospects  for  profit.  Upon  his  decision  as  to 
the  particular  kind  of  dair\'ing  to  be  followed  should  depend  the 
character  and  composition  of  his  herd  of  cattle. 

Cattle  for  the  Dairy. — Dairymen  are  divided  in  opinion  as  to 
the  kind  of  cow  which  is  most  profitable.  Some  prefer  a  "general- 
purpose  cow,"  which  is  a  member  of  a  specially  developed  milk-pro- 
ducing family  from  one  of  the  beef  breeds,  or  grades  of  such  stock. 
An  animal  is  thus  secured  which  has  a  large  frame,  is  easily  kept  in 
good  flesh,  and  fattens  soon  when  not  milking  heavily;  such  an  one 
also  has  large  calves,  profitable  for  veal  or  for  growing  as  steers. 
Even  if  such  animals  are  not  so  productive  while  in  the  dairy,  their 
meat-making  proclivities  may  make  up  for  it.  There  are  two  or 
three  of  the  established  breeds  of  cattle  which  claim  to  possess  com- 
bined qualities  for  meat  and  milk.  On  the  other  hand,  many  dairy- 
men prefer  cattle  of  the  distinct  class  or  type  especially  adapted  to 
dairy  purposes  alone.  This  class  includes  various  families  and  breeds, 
all  having  the  marked  characteristics  which  distinguish  the  milk 
producer.    Owners  of  such  cows  expect  them  to  be  so  profitable  aa 


140  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

milkers  that  their  beef-producing  quality  and  the  final  disposition 
of  their  carcasses  may  be  largely  ignored;  and  the  calves,  except  so 
far  as  wanted  to  raise  for  the  dairy,  are  given  little  consideration. 
Which  of  these  lines  of  policy  should  be  pursued  every  dairyman 
must  determine  for  himself.  To  succeed  in  his  business  he  should 
select  his  herd  or  its  foundation  with  a  view  to  profit.  Whether  he 
should  buy,  breed,  and  feed  his  cows,  having  in  view  only  their  dairy 
products  and  capacity  for  reproduction,  or  whether  he  will  find  it 
more  profitable  to  include  the  items  of  beef  and  veal,  must  be  largely 
determined  by  home  conditions. 

Special  Adaptation. — Within  the  general  class  of  dairy  cattle 
one  can  find  great  variety  and  can  therefore  select  breeds  or  families 
well  adapted  to  the  special  needs  in  view.  Some  dairy  cattle  are 
noted  for  the  quantity  of  milk  they  produce;  others  for  the  high 
quality  or  richness  of  their  milk.  Some  combine  quantity  and  qual- 
ity in  a  specially  economical  way,  under  some  circumstances.  There 
are  cows  of  active  habits,  which  forage  well  on  a  wnde  range  of 
scanty  pasture,  and  will  profitably  work  up  the  coarser  kinds  of  food 
in  winter.  There  are  others  which  have  proved  their  capacity  for 
making  good  returns  when  more  closely  confined  and  subjected  to 
high  feeding.  Some  cows  give  a  great  flow  of  milk  for  a  compara- 
tively short  season,  and  others  are  noted  for  an  even,  steady  yield 
of  milk  the  year  through.  The  dairyman  can  easily  find  cattle, 
therefore,  adapted  to  his  particular  wants.  As  a  rule,  the  different 
dairy  characteristics  named  pertain  to  different  breeds,  so  that  every 
dairyman  is  likely  to  find  some  one  breed  of  dairy  cattle  better  suited 
to  his  wants  than  any  other. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  revive  the  never-ended  "battle  of  the 
breeds."  No  matter  how  strong  one's  convictions,  discretion  must  be 
exercised.  Pronounced  opinions  and  direct  advice  as  to  the  several 
recognized  dairy  breeds  are  here  unnecessary.  Evidence  abounds 
on  every  side,  and  every  dairyman,  or  prospective  dairyman,  can 
satisfy  himself  as  to  the  cattle  he  should  adopt,  if  he  will  but  make 
a  proper  study  of  the  subject.  He  need  not  go  far  in  this  country  to 
find  the  kind  or  breed  of  cows  for  milk  supply,  one  for  butter  mak- 
ing, or  one  for  the  cream  trade.  There  is  no  special  cheese-making 
cow ;  the  best  butter  cow  is  also  the  best  for  cheese ;  this  fact  has  been 
demonstrated  beyond  dispute. 

Formation  of  the  Dairy  Herd. — There  are  two  very  different 
ways  of  forming  a  dairy  herd  and  of  maintaining  its  size  and  quality. 
It  may  be  done  by  buying  or  breeding  or  these  two  methods  may  be 
combined. 

By  Purchase. — The  purchasing  plan  is  practiced  to  a  consider- 
able extent  by  those  who  produce  milk  for  town  and  city  supply.  In 
a  few  cases  it  has  been  known  to  be  successful  where  the  work  of  the 
herd  was  to  make  butter.  Applied  in  its  extreme  form,  cows  are 
bought  when  mature  and  at  their  prime,  judged  almost  exclusively 
by  their  milk  yield,  are  highly  fed  so  as  to  keep  steadily  gaining  in 
flesh,  and  are  sold,  usually  to  the  butcher,  as  soon  as  they  cease  to  be 
profitable  as  milkers.    The  bull  may  be  of  any  kind  so  long  as  he 


Shorthorn  Bull.     Dept.  of  Age. 


eii/v.uiMvj.x     Oiioa^illUK:-.     LuV.  .        iJi.ii.    ui-     Av.r 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  143 

gets  the  cows  in  calf,  as  the  calves  are  of  value  only  as  causing  fresh 
cows  and  are  disposed  of  as  soon  as  possible.  The  first  modification 
of  this  system  is  to  keep  extra  good  cows  for  several  seasons  and  the 
next  to  raise  heifers  from  some  of  the  best  milkers  to  replenish  the 
herd.  This  way  of  making  up  a  herd  and  keeping  good  its  numbers 
requires  abundant  capital  and  rare  judgment  in  buying  and  in  sell- 
ing. ,  It  can  not  be  recommended  to  one  lacking  experience,  and  even 
the  shrewdest  buyer  runs  great  risk  of  bringing  tuberculous  animals 
into  his  herd. 

By  Breeding. — The  other  extreme  is  to  begin  with  a  few  well- 
selected  animals  as  a  foundation,  and  gradually  build  up  the  herd 
to  the  size  desired,  by  judicious  breeding  and  natural  increase.  This 
method  takes  time,  and  time  which  may  be  money,  but  it  is  by  far 
the  safer  and  more  satisfactory  in  its  results,  and  it  must  be  recog- 
nized as  a  higher  grade  of  dairy  farming. 

Foundation  of  the  Herd. — A  desirable  combination  in  starting 
is  to  buy  the  number  of  cows  desired  and  good  animals  of  the  sort 
determined  in  advance.  If  one's  means  will  permit,  include  a  few 
superior  cows  and  a  first-class  bull  at  any  rate.  Let  the  cows  selected 
be  such  as  have  had  two  calves,  and  perhaps  three,  so  that  they  may 
be  judged  by  their  own  development  and  yet  be  young  enough  to 
improve  and  be  in  full  profit  for  some  years.  With  a  herd  thus 
formed,  begin  at  once  the  work  of  improvement  by  breeding  and 
selection.  Sell  promptly  any  cow  which  proves  unsatisfactory  and 
replace  her  by  the  best  increase  of  the  herd,  or  purchase  occasionally 
an  animal  which  will  raise  the  average  quality. 

Purebred  Dairy  Cattle  and  Grades. — A  dairyman  can  hardly 
be  advised  to  buy  at  once  a  full  stock  of  purebred  cattle  of  any  breed, 
if  his  sole  object  and  dependence  for  profit  is  to  be  the  dairy  product 
of  the  herd.  Such  a  venture  will  necessitate  large  investment,  and 
should  include  the  breeding  of  registered  animals,  for  sale  at  re- 
munerative prices,  as  a  part  of  the  business.  Well-bred  and  well- 
selected  grade  cows  of  the  line  of  blood  desired  seem  to  be  the  most 
profitable  animals  for  the  practical  dairyman,  or  at  least  the  best  to 
begin  with.  If  enterprising  and  progressive,  the  owner  will  hardly 
be  content  with  grades  only.  He  may  begin  with  only  his  bull  pure 
bred ;  presently  he  will  want  a  registered  cow  to  match,  then  one  or 
two  more.  Thus  he  will  be  steadily  and  properly  working  toward 
a  purely-bred  herd.  If  the  breed  chosen  is  the  right  one  for  the 
object  sought,  it  will  soon  be  found  that  the  more  of  this  blood  the 
herd  contains  the  better.  Starting  with  half-bred  cows  (the  off- 
spring of  pure-bred  bulls  and  dams  of  mixed  or  uncertain  blood), 
the  next  grade,  three-fourths  pure,  will  prove  better  dairj'^  stock,  if 
the  bull  is  what  he  should  be  and  the  increase  has  been  culled.  An- 
other step  higher  is  better  still,  better  for  the  dairy,  and  so  the  grad- 
ing goes  up  and  improvement  goes  on  until  the  blood  of  the  herd  is 
practically  pure,  hut  for  production  only.  The  best  dairy  results 
may  thus  be  reached,  but  the  herd  has  a  taint.  It  lacks  pedigree. 
Its  increase,  however  excellent  in  dairy  performance,  must  pass  and 
sell  as  grades.    The  owner  feels  this,  and  is  pretty  sure  to  gradually 


144  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

replace  his  grade  cows,  almost  pure  bred,  with  fully  pedigreed  and 
registered  animals.  This  end  is  reached  sooner  and  easier  by  start- 
ing with  one  or  two  registered  females,  and,  of  course,  a  registered 
buU.  Moderate  investment  and  the  lessened  risk  of  loss  in  the  hands 
of  one  unaccustomed  to  handling  registered  stock,  and  finding  a  mar- 
ket for  the  surplus,  doubtless  favor  grades  for  the  dairy  herd.  The 
argument  and  the  probabilities  of  success,  based  upon  the  fixed  prin- 
ciples of  breeding,  are  on  the  side  of  purebred  registered  stock.  In 
the  hands  of  experienced  men  the  latter  prove  the  more  profitable 
in  actual  practice. 

Buying  Registered  Cattle. — In  these  days  any  dairyman  who 
wants  registered  animals  of  any  of  the  approved  breeds  can  get  them 
if  he  will  but  make  the  effort.  The  beginner  in  registered  dairy  stock 
can  not  be  too  strongly  urged  to  buy  and  breed  on  the  basis  of  indi- 
vidual and  family  merit  and  dairy  record,  and  not  upon  lineage 
alone.  Pedigree  that  includes  both  lineage  and  performance  is  of 
value  an'd  should  be  well  studied;  it  is  the  best  guaranty  that  the 
calves  to  come  will  make  good  cows.  It  is  also  economy,  having  chosen 
the  right  breed,  to  purchase  good  representatives  of  that  breed,  rather 
than  be  content  with  only  average  or  even  ordinary  animals.  Suc- 
cessful dairying  has  proved  that  the  greater  profit  comes  from  the 
best  cows,  whatever  their  kind.  This  is  as  true  of  purebred  or  regis- 
tered stock  as  of  common  cows.  It  is  better  to  pay  $300  for  three  ex- 
cellent cows  than  to  pay  the  same  sum  for  four  good  cows  or  five 
which  are  only  fair.  A  really  superior  dairy  cow  of  a  superior  family, 
with  pedigree  which  gives  assurance  of  calves  equal  to  the  dam,  if 
not  better,  is  always  worth  a  large  price.  Such  an  animal  adds  much 
to  the  average  value  of  any  dairy  herd.  In  buying  registered  cattle 
deal  only  with  men  of  reputation  as  breeders  and  of  strict  integrity. 

THE  BULL  AND   HIS  TREATMENT. 

Selection  of  the  Bull. — ^With  any  dairyman  who  depends  upon 
breeding  and  rearing  calves  for  the  maintenance  of  his  herd  and  its 
improvement,  the  choice  of  a  bull  is  a  matter  of  prime  importance. 
The  bull  is  constantly  referred  to  as  the  head  of  the  herd,  and  that 
trite  saying,  The  bull  is  half  the  herd,  should  never  be  forgotten. 
Every  calf  added  to  the  herd  takes  half  its  blood  from  the  bull. 
Often  this  is  the  more  important  half.  The  bull  is  always  the  main 
dependence  for  raising  the  average  quality  of  the  herd,  and  should  be 
chosen  with  this  object  in  view.  This  is  especially  true  if  the  cows 
are  grades  and  grading  up  is  in  progress.  The  grade  dam  may  be 
selected  and  largely  relied  upon  to  give  size,  form,  and  constitution  to 
her  heifer  calf ;  its  dairy  qualities  may  be  largely  derived  from  the 
purebred  sire.  One  cow  may  prove  a  poor  dam,  or  fail  to  breed,  and 
still  give  a  profit  in  milk.  Such  a  loss  is  comparatively  trivial  and 
the  fault  easily  corrected.  But  if  the  bull  fails,  or  proves  a  poor 
sire,  the  entire  increase  of  a  year  may  be  lost.  In  getting  a  bull,  get 
a  good  one ;  or  at  least  approach  the  ideal  as  nearly  as  possible.  Make 
a  study  of  the  animal's  pedigree  and  the  dairy  history  of  his  an- 
cestors, and  especially  of  the  females  among  his  nearest  of  kin.  Then 
see  that  the  good  qualities  of  his  progenitors  appear  to  be  reproduced 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  145 

in  the  animal  in  question.  A  common  error  among  dairymen  is  to 
use  immature  bulls  and  to  dispose  of  good  ones  before  their  merit  as 
sires  has  been  fairly  proven.  Bull  calves  are  cheap,  and  young  bulls 
are  considered  much  easier  to  handle.  But  it  is  good  advice  to  the 
buyer  to  purchase  a  bull  of  some  age,  whose  progeny  prove  his  value 
as  a  breeder;  and  having  a  sire  of  proved  excellence,  to  keep  him  and 
use  him  for  years,  or  as  long  as  he  shows  himself  potent  and  pre- 
potent. 

Temperament. — The  chief  objection  made  to  bulls  of  some  age 
is  that  they  are  likely  to  be  vicious  and  dangerous.  Everyone  recog- 
nizes the  difference  in  temperament  between  the  fleshy,  beefy  bull 
and  the  one  of  pronounced  dairy  character ;  but  experience  and  obser- 
vation have  taught  that  the  bulls  of  marked  dairy  type  are  much 
alike  in  disposition,  regardless  of  breed.  In  all  the  breeds  some  bulls 
will  be  found  of  naturally  bad  temper,  but  it  is  believed  that  the  great 
majority  of  bulls  of  all  the  dairy  breeds  can  be  safely  kept  until  too 
old  for  service  and  handled  without  serious  trouble,  if  only  properly 
reared  and  judiciously  managed. 

Control  and  Exercise. — In  rearing  a  bull,  accustom  it  to  being 
handled  from  calfhood,  but  without  fondling  or  encouraging  frolic. 
Give  it  kind,  quiet,  firm,  and  unvarying  treatment,  and  keep  .it 
always  under  subjection,  that  it  may  never  know  its  strength  and 
power.  Insert  the  nose  ring  before  it  is  a  year  old,  keep  this  renewed 
so  as  to  be  always  strong,  and  always  lead  and  handle  the  animal  with 
staff  in  the  hands  of  a  discreet  and  trusty  man.  The  bull  should 
never  run  loose  in  yard  or  pasture,  but  should  be  provided  with  abun- 
dant and  regular  exercise,  always  under  restraint  and  full  control. 
Incidentally,  he  may  be  made  to  run  a  fodder  cutter  or  a  cream  separ 
rator  and  perform  valuable  service.  As  age  and  strength  increase, 
let  the  staff  be  supplemented  by  strap,  chain,  or  rope  attached  to  a 
second  ring.  To  this  may  well  be  added  some  hitching  or  leading 
chain  with  a  strong  strap  around  horns  or  neck.  Let  there  be  always 
a  double  hitching  device,  so  that  the  bull  may  never  by  accident 
find  himself  loose  when  he  should  be  tied.  If  restiveness  and  temper 
are  shown,  add  to  the  exercise,  in  duration  or  quantity,  without  vio- 
lence ;  a  bull  physically  tired  may  be  depended  upon  to  be  quiet  and 
easily  managed.  It  is  much  better  to  keep  the  bull  as  much  as  pos- 
sible in  the  presence  or  in  full  sight  of  the  herd  than  stabled  by  him- 
self in  a  lonely  place. 

Culling  the  Herd. — As  soon  as  the  herd  is  established  and  in 
•working  order,  the  study  of  every  individual  animal  should  begin. 
To  guide  rational  treatment  and  insure  greatest  profit,  the  owner 
must  become  familiar  with  the  characteristics  of  every  cow.  The 
system  of  record  should  conform  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case 
and  extent  of  the  business.  The  record  should  include  a  concise  his- 
tory and  description  of  every  member  of  the  herd,  with  a  summary  of 
the  dairy  performance.  The  latter  requires  a  daily  record  of  the  milk 
yield  of  every  cow,  with  notes  explaining  irregularities  or  occurrences 
of  interest.  If  the  quality  of  the  milk  is  a  matter  of  any  importance, 
as  it  is  in  most  cases,  and  ought  to  be,  however  the  milk  is  disposed 


146  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

of,  a  fat  test  should  be  made  of  the  milk  of  every  cow,  for  several 
consecutive  milkings,  as  often  as  practicable.  Some  form  of  the 
Babcock  tester  is  the  simplest,  and  now  within  the  reach  of  every 
dairyman.  (See  Babcock  Test.)  According  to  the  size  of  the  ap- 
paratus, a  certain  number  of  milk  samples  can  be  tested  at  one  time, 
and  thus  the  record  of  a  large  herd  can  be  completed  in  a  few  days. 
It  is  well  to  make  this  test  and  record  of  the  quality  of  every  cow's 
milk  at  least  once  a  month.  The  most  satisfactory  practical  record 
is  the  average  percentage  of  fat  found  in  the  milk  of  several  suc- 
cessive milkings,  samples  from  which  may  be  mixed  and  this  com- 
posite sample  tested,  thus  obtaining  the  average ;  the  method  is  easily 
learned  and  practiced.  This  record  of  quality,  taken  periodically, 
joined  with  a  summary  of  the  daily  quantity  of  milk,  gives  a  full 
dairy  record  of  the  cow,  upon  which  her  value  can  be  readily  com- 
puted. To  give  the  owner  a  more  complete  knowledge  of  his  opera- 
tions,-there  should  also  be  a  record,  of  at  least  approximate  accuracy, 
of  the  food  of  every  cow,  with  monthly  summaries  of  quantities  or 
value,  so  that  the  economy  of  production  may  be  shown. 

Value  of  Records. — Such  records  are  far  more  easily  made  than 
the  description  may  indicate,  and  are  well  worth  all  they  cost.  They 
form  the  only  accurate  and  safe  basis  for  judging  the  individual 
merits  of  the  different  animals.  The  improvement  of  every  herd, 
which  should  be  the  constant  aim  of  its  owner,  depends  upon  period- 
ical culling  and  getting  rid  of  unworthy  members.  No  one  can 
afford  to  do  this  upon  guesswork  alone. 

Raising  the  Standard. — Good  judges  believe  that  in  the  entire 
country  one-fourth  of  the  cows  kept  for  their  milk  do  not  pay  for 
their  cost  of  keeping,  and  nearly  a  fourth  more  fail  to  yield  annual 
profit.  As  a  matter  of  ordinary  business  prudence  and  a  condition 
essential  to  best  results,  every  dairyman  should  study  the  individ- 
uality of  his  cows,  keep  a  sufficient  record  of  quantity  and  quality  of 
milk  product,  know  approximately  the  cost  of  production,  and  sys- 
tematically weed  out  his  herd.  After  proper  consideration  and  prac- 
tical tests  as  to  possibilities,  set  a  standard  for  a  satisfactory  cow  and 
maintain  this  standard  by  promptly  disposing  of  the  animals  which 
fail  to  attain  it,  unless  reasonable  excuse  appears,  with  the  prospect 
of  better  conduct  in  future,  and  gradually  but  persistently  raise  the 
standard. 

Fewer  Cows — More  Money. — 'Tis  quality  of  cows  rather  than 
quantity  that  counts.  It  never  pays  to  keep  a  really  poor  producer. 
Reduce  the  herd  half  if  necessary ;  it's  profits  you  want.  Apply  the 
scales  and  test  to  the  whole  herd  and  an  ax  to  the  robber  cow.  A 
certain  dairyman  had  ten  cows  that  gave  him  a  total  profit  for  the 
year  on  the  whole  herd  of  only  $81.20.  The  six  best  cows  sepa- 
rately would  have  profited  him  $82.62,  Four  cows  were  kept  at  a 
great  loss. 

Good  Cows  are  Money  Makers. — The  increasing  demand  for 
milk  indicates  that  there  is  money  ahead  for  the  wdse  dairyman. 
Good  cows  require  the  attention  of  a  good  man  in  order  to  be  profit- 
able..    Abundant  food,  congenial  stables  and  kind  treatment  are 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  147 

essential.  "When  these  can  be  assured,  fill  up  the  stables  with  high- 
grade  cows  and  success  is  yours.  Remember  that  the  low  producer 
is  a  bad  investment  at  any  price,  but  that  the  cow  liberally  endowed 
with  dairy  capacity  is  always  a  powerful  factor  for  good  upon  the 
farm.  The  sire  is  often  much  more  than  half  the  herd  and  through 
his  purity  of  breeding  the  profitable  cow  must  always  be  sought. 

Necessity  for  Testing  Each  Cow. — Common  observation  teaches 
us  that  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  profit  derived  from  the  dif- 
ferent cows  of  every  herd.  To  the  milk  producer  this  difference  is 
obvious  in  the  widely  different  amounts  of  milk  yielded  and  in  the 
persistency  with  which  they  maintain  the  production  as  the  lactation 
period  progresses.  When  scales  are  not  used  the  amount  is  gener- 
ally estimated  by  the  fullness  of  the  pail,  but  the  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  foam  may  greatly  influence  the  judgment.  Until  one  has 
employed  the  scale  in  weighing  the  milk  from  his  cows  he  cannot 
realize  how  far  from  correct  has  been  his  estimate  of  their  annual 
production.  Guessing  at  the  amount  of  milk  given  is  unsafe  and 
unbusinesslike.  It  is  surprising,  though  nevertheless  true,  that  the 
regular  milker  of  any  cow  in  a  herd,  where  the  milk  is  not  weighed 
regularly,  can  seldom  guess  within  1,500  or  2,000  pounds  of  her 
actual  yearly  milk  production. 

If  the  amount  of  milk  yielded  were  the  only  consideration,  it 
could  be  readily  met  by  the  use  of  scales.  However,  in  order  to  ap- 
proach the  true  value  of  a  cow,  we  must  know  her  butter  making 
capacity,  and  as  this  is  not  necessarily  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  milk  given,  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk  for  both  butter 
making  and  direct  consumption  must  be  taken  into  consideration. 
For  this  reason  the  Babcock  test  should  be  used  in  every  herd  to  de- 
termine each  cow's  capacity  for  producing  butter  fat.  Testing  the 
milk  at  regular  inten'als  will  give  fairly  accurate  results.  After  test- 
ing numerous  herds  it  has  often  been  obsen^ed  that  cows  previously 
considered  of  good  dairy  ability  have  made  poor  annual  records, 
while  some  of  which  little  was  expected  have  done  very  well. 

The  necessity  of  testing  is  all  the  more  apparent  when  we  re- 
flect that  the  nature  of  milk  makes  it  impossible  to  judge  by  its  ap- 
pearance as  to  its  richness  in  butter  fat.  The  coloring  matter  of 
milk  is  not  necessarily  associated  with  the  butter  fat,  so  that  the 
richness  of  color  does  not  always  indicate  the  proportion  of  butter 
fat.  Without  some  accurate  means,  such  as  the  Babcock  test,  for  de- 
termining the  quality  of  the  milk  from  each  cow,  a  dairyman  can 
never  be  sure  as  to  which  are  his  best  and  which  hi^  poorest  cows. 
Until  a  cow's  ability  to  produce  milk  and  butter  fat  is  approximately 
known,  she  has  her  owner  at  a  disadvantage. — (111.  Circ.  76.) 

How  to  Make  the  Test. — The  simplest  method  is  to  use  a  spring 
scale  on  which  to  weigh  the  milk  from  each  cow,  and  the  Babcock 
test  in  order  to  determine  its  butter  fat  content.  The  other  ap- 
paratus necessary  to  conduct  this  work  consists  of  a  small  sample 
dipper  for  taking  the  samples,  tin-top  pint  milk  jars  for  holding  the 
composite  samples,  corrosive  sublimate  tablets  for  preserving  th^ 


148  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

samples,  labels  for  numbering  the  composite  milk  jars,  and  milk 
record  sheets  for  recording  the  weights  of  milk. 

The  milk  pails  should  be  of  the  same  weight,  if  not,  one  should 
be  selected  as  a  weighing  pail,  and  the  adjustable  hand  on  the  scales 
set  back  so  that  the  weight  of  the  empty  pail  causes  the  hand  to  stand 
at  zero.  In  this  way  no  deduction  for  the  weight  of  the  pail  need  be 
made.  As  soon  as  the  milk  is  drawn  the  pail  is  hung  on  the  scales, 
and  the  exact  weight  recorded  immediately  in  the  proper  place 
under  the  cow's  number  on  the  record  sheet. 

Every  ninth  week  the  milkers  should  weigh  and  sample  each 
cow's  milk  separately,  for  fourteen  consecutive  milkings.  Sampling 
the  milk  consists  in  taking  a  small  quantity  from  each  milking, 
using  a  dipper  provided  for  the  purpose,  and  putting'the  same  into 
the  composite  sample  jar  bearing  the  cow's  number.  It  is  understood 
that  each  cow  should  have  a  number,  and  a  milk  jar  numbered  to 
correspond  into  which  is  placed  the  sample  dipper  full  from  each 
of  the  fourteen  consecutive  milkings  as  just  indicated.  This  com- 
posite test  sample,  as  it  is  called,  is  kept  from  souring  by  placing  a 
corrosive  sublimate  tablet  in  the  jar  before  taking  the  samples,  one 
tablet  being  sufficient  to  keep  the  composite  sample  sweet  for  two 
weeks.  The  sample  should  be  carefully  agitated  each  day  by  a  gentle 
rotary  motion  of  the  sample  jar,  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
throw  the  cream  upon  the  sides  of  the  vessel  and  allow  it  to  adhere, 
as  this  makes  it  difficult  to  get  an  accurate  test.  After  the  sample 
from  the  fourteenth  milking  has  been  taken,  the  composite  sample 
is  ready  for  testing,  and  the  percentage  of  fat  which  it  is  found  to 
contain  is  the  average  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk  for  the  week. — 
(111.  Circ.  76.) 

Health  of  the  Herd. — There  is  no  point  of  greater  importance 
in  selecting  animals  for  the  foundation  of  a  herd,  or  in  making  pur- 
chases of  additions,  than  to  get  perfectly  healthy  stock.  Animals 
chosen  should  be  critically  examined  and  should  afford  evidence  of 
being  strong  in  constitution  and  of  healthful  vigor.  It  is  advised 
that  all  be  tuberculin-tested  and  this,  of  course,  should  be  done  by  a 
competent  veterinarian. 

Environment. — Close  confinement,  with  impure  air  and  lack  of 
exercise,  is  as  prejudicial  to  the  health  of  milch  cows  as  to  that  of 
human  beings.  Some  recently  promulgated  theories  of  dark,  warm 
stables  and  no  exercise  for  profitable  milk  production  are  without 
rational  basis  and  certain  to  lead  to  disastrous  results  sooner  or  later. 
Exposure  to  storms  and  cold  is  equally  injurious  to  the  health  and 
profit  of  cows.  A  judicious  mean  is  the  provision  for  moderate  exer- 
cise in  the  open  air  and  sunshine,  and  the  application  of  the  same 
common-sense  care  for  the  comfort  of  cows  which  one  would  approve 
for  members  of  his  own  household. 

Watchfulness. — Every  member  of  the  herd,  young  or  old, 
should  pass  under  the  critical  eye  of  the  owner  or  his  trusty  assist- 
ant daily,  and  preferably  twice  a  day.  The  least  symptoms  of  dis- 
order, like  dullness,  loss  of  appetite,  rough  coat,  and  irregularity  of 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  .      149 

milk,  manure,  or  urine,  should  be  noted  and  promptly  receive  the 
attention  which  it  deserves.  Experience  is  needed  on  the  part  of  the 
caretaker  to  detect  and  correct  the  beginnings  of  trouble,  and  thus 
maintain  the  general  health  of  the  herd. 

Regularity  and  Cleanliness. — A  herd  of  good  dairy  cows  de- 
serve to  have  good  care,  and  this  can  only  be  insured  by  having  the 
right  kind  of  attendants.  If  the  owner  is  unable  to  either  attend 
the  cows  himself  or  give  the  matter  personal  supervision  twice  a  day 
or  more,  it  is  to  his  interest  and  profit  to  be  certain  that  his  em- 
ployees are  trustworthy  and  fit  to  be  cow  keepers.  Everyone  should 
be  quiet,  even-tempered,  gentle,  and  regular  and  cleanly  in  his 
habits.  A  cow  abominates  an  unclean  man.  Tobacco  in  all  its 
forms  is  obnoxious  to  every  department  of  dairying.  All  the  work 
about  the  herd  should  be  done  with  the  utmost  system  and  regular- 
ity— stable  cleaning,  grooming,  exercise,  watering,  feeding,  milk- 
ing; a  fixed  time  for  everything  and  everything  at  its  time — on  the 
dot.— (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  55.) 

Methods  of  Milking. — Milking  the  dairy  cow  is  such  a  simple 
operation,  and  one  that  occupies  in  the  aggregate,  so  much  of  the 
dairyman's  time,  that  it  is  easy  to  become  carelCvSs  about  it  and  to 
look  upon  the  operation  as  one  not  requiring  skill  nor  demanding 
scientific  investigation.  The  feeding  of  the  herd  has  received  cai-eful 
attention,  both  by  investigators  and  farmers,  until  it  is  now  probably 
correct  to  say  that  the  dairy  cow  in  the  hands  of  the  progressive 
dairyman  is  more  scientifically  fed  and  nourished  than  most  chil- 
dren. The  ventilation  and  sanitation  of  stables  has  also  been  the 
subject  of  much  discussion,  but  it  is  certainly  a  fact  that  the  art  of 
milking  has  not  received  the  attention  it  deserves,  at  least  not  until 
very  recently. — (Cornell  B.  213.) 

It  matters  not  how  high  the  grade  of  the  individuals  comprising 
the  dairy  herd,  or  with  what  care  they  are  housed  and  fed,  careless 
or  ignorant  milking  is  sure  to  reduce  the  quantity  and  lower  the 
quality  of  the  milk  and  eventually  ruin  the  milking  qualities  perma- 
nently, especially  in  the  case  of  the  heaviest  milkers.  It  is  even 
claimed  by  high  authorities  that  the  progeny  of  a  fine  milking  strain 
may  be  seriously  affected  in  their  milking  qualities  for  generations 
afterwards,  no  amount  of  after  care  being  capable  of  repairing  the 
damage  done.  This  indicates  strikingly  one  phase  of  the  possible 
far-reaching  effect  of  carelessness  or  ignorance  in  one  branch  of  the 
manifold  operations  of  .the  dairy. 

On  the  other  hand,  careful,  observant  dairj'-men  have  profited 
by  the  knowlego  that  thorough  stripping  tends  to  stimulate  and  de- 
velop milk  secretion,  and  therefore  insist  that  their  milkers  strip 
clean.  The  strippings  are  much  richer  in  fat  than  is  the  first  milk 
drawn  from  the  udder. 

With  this  knowledge  so  general  among  dairj-men,  it  seems  a 
little  strange  that  the  facts  have  only  recently  been  worked  over  into 
a  definite  practical  system,  applicable  in  every  well-regulated  dairy. 


150  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

The  Hegelund  Method  of  Milking. — The  milking  is  done  with 
dry  hands  and  with  the  whole  hand.  Aft^r  the  milk  flows  readily 
the  milking  is  proceeded  with  as  rapidly  as  possible  and  without  in- 
terruption until  full  streams  of  milk  are  no  longer  obtained.  vVt  this 
point  the  milker  begins  with  the  manipulations  of  the  udder,  which 
are  three  in  number,  and  may  be  described  as  follows : 

First  Manipulation. — The  right  quarters  of  the  udder  are 
pressed  against  each  other  (if  the  udder  is  very  large,  only  one  quar- 
ter at  a  time  is  taken),  with  the  left  hand  on  the  hind  quarter  and 
the  right  hand  in  front  of  the  fore  quarter,  the  thumbs  being  placed 
on  the  outside  of  the  udder  and  the  four  fingers  in  the  division  be- 
tween the  two  halves  of  the  udder.  The  hands  are  now  pressed  toward 
each  other  and  at  the  same  time  lifted  toward  the  body  of  the  cow. 
This  pressing  and  lifting  is  repeated  three  times.  The  milk  collected 
in  the  milk  cistern  is  then  milked  out,  and  the  manipulation  is  re- 
peated until  no  more  milk  is  obtained  in  this  way;  then  the  left 
quarters  are  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

Second  Manipulation. — The  glands  are  pressed  together  from 
the  side.  The  fore  quarters  are  milked  each  by  itself  by  placing  on€ 
hand,  with  fingers  spread,  on  the  outside  of  the  quarter  and  the  other 
hand  in  the  division  between  the  right  and  left  fore  quarters;  the 
hands  are  pressed  against  each  other  and  the  teat  then  milked.  When 
no  more  milk  is  obtained  by  this  manipulation,  the  hind  quarters 
are  milked  by  placing  a  hand  on  the  outside  of  each  quarter,  likewise 
with  fingers  spread  and  turned  upward,  but  with  the  thumb  just  in 
front  of  the  hind  quarter.  The  hands  are  lifted  and  gi'asp  into  the 
gland  from  behind  and  from  the  side,  after  which  they  are  lowered 
to  draw  the  milk.  The  manipulation  is  repeated  until  no  more  milk 
is  obtained.— (Wis.  B.  96.) 

Third  Manipulation. — The  fore  teats  are  grasped  wath  partly 
closed  hands  and  lifted  with  a  push  toward  the  body  of  the  cow, 
both  at  the  same  time,  by  which  method  the  glands  are  pressed  be- 
tween the  hands  and  the  body;  the  milk  is  drawn  after  each  three 
pushes.  When  the  fore  teats  are  emptied,  the  hind  teats  are  milked 
in  the  same  manner. — (Hawaii  B.  8.) 

Hand  Milking. — Nothing  has  been  produced  which  begins  to 
compare  with  the  human  hand  as  a  milking  machine.  Cleanliness 
and  regularity  are  the  first  requisites  in  good  milking.  Next,  quiet 
and  gentleness  should  be  accompanied  by  quickness.  Two  milkers, 
one  rapid  and  the  other  slow  (the  cow  being  accustomed  to  both), 
-will  get  about  the  same  quantity  of  milk  in  any  given  number  of 
days,  but  the  former  will  get  the  more  fat.  The  quicker  the  milking 
the  richer  the  milk,  if  the  work  is  done  well  and  completely ;  the  dif- 
ference may  not  he  great,  but  it  is  measurable  in  butter  or  money. 
Again,  two  men  milking  like  quantities  in  like  time,  froni  the  same 
cows  or  animals,  giving  milk  usually  just  alike,  will  get  different  re- 
sults as  to  richness,  and  if  they  change  places  the  richer  milk  is  se- 
cured by  the  same  man.  The  milk  fat  or  butter  fat  comes  from  the 
cow,  but  it  is  the  expert  milker  that  gets  the  most  of  it.  There  seems 
to  ibe  an  undefined  apd  jret  conclusively  proved  relation  between 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  151 

some  milkers  and  the  cows  thejr  handle  which  produces  this  result. 
It  is  certain  that  change  of  milkers,  manner  or  time  of  milking, 
irregularity,  or  any  disturbance  at  milking  time,  may  be  expected 
to  cause  loss  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk.  In  short,  it  pays,  and  pays 
well,  to  have  milking  done  in  the  very  best  way,  by  the  very  best 
milkers  that  can  be  found.  A  superior  milker  should  be  appreciated 
and  retained  as  persistently  as  a  superior  cow;  the  former  is  the 
more  difficult  to  replace. —  (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  55.) 

Results  Obtained  by  Machine-Milking. — Two  milking  machines 
were  installed  more  than  a  year  ago  and  they  have  been  used  con- 
stantly since.  No  special  experiment  was  attempted  with  the  ma- 
chines except  that  of  using  them  under  practical  conditions  and  ob- 
serving the  results.  The  same  class  of  men  were  employed  to  oper- 
ate the  machines  that  had  been  employed  for  hand-milking.  The 
class  of  farm  labor  in  Tennessee  has  had  practically  no  experience 
with  machinery. 

During  the  first  six  months  four  different  men  operated  the 
machines,  and  none  of  these  men  handled  them  long  enough  to  be- 
come well  acquainted  with  the  method  of  operation.  During  the  year 
and  a  half  that  the  machines  have  been  in  use,  seven  different  men 
have  been  employed  to  operate  them,  and  three  successive  months  is 
the  longest  period  any  one  man  has  remained  in  charge.  The 
machines  have  consequently  not  been  given  the  advantage  of  an  ex- 
perienced operator.  The  only  stripping  done  after  the  machine  has 
been  to  try  each  teat  as  soon  as  the  machine  was  removed  to  see  if 
the  cow  was  milked  dry. 

These  records  for  machine-milking  are  with  cows  of  all  ages. 
There  seems  to  be  little  relation  between  age  and  the  way  the  cows 
respond  to  the  machines.  Heifers  had  extremely  small  teats,  however, 
and  considerable  trouble  was  found  in  fitting  them  with  cups.  The 
No.  00  cup  that  is  being  sold  now  will  no  doubt  give  better  yields 
with  this  class  of  heifers.  There  were  three  heifers  on  the  machine 
this  year  that  have  never  been  milked  by  hand.  They  have  held 
up  well  in  milk  up  to  the  present  time.  One  lost  131  pounds  in  five 
months  and  another  59  pounds  in  seven  months,  and  the  other  was 
30  pounds  higher  during  her  fourth  month,  67  pounds  higher  dur- 
ing her  fifth  month,  and  16  pounds  higher  during  her  sixth  month 
than  during  her  first  month  of  lactation. 

No  udder  troubles  occurred  that  could  be  ascribed  to  the  use  of 
the  machine.  We  had  a  few  cases  of  slight  inflammation  during  the 
last  six  months,  but  in  each  case  the  cow  had  a  skin  trouble  which 
appeared  before  the  inflammation.  In  each  case  there  were  skin 
eruptions  on  the  udder.  "When  the  machines  were  properly  handled 
they  were  not  painful  to  the  cow  and  did  not  injure  the  teats  or  the 
udder. 

Conclusions. — 1.  Under  the  conditions  existing  during  the  test, 
machine-milking  has  been  at  least  equal,  if  not  slightly  superior,  to 
hand-milking.  2.  Under  average  conditions  a  cow  is  milked  as 
clean  with  the  machine  as  by  hand.  An  expert  operator  can  milk 
cleaner  with  the  machine  than  the  average  man  will  by  hand.    3.  If 


152  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

the  teat-cups  and  mouthpieces  are  properly  adjusted  the  machine  is 
not  injurious  to  the  teats  and  udder  or  objectionable  to  the  cows, 
some  even  preferring  it.  4.  The  machines  are  not  difficult  to  keep 
clean  and  a  high  grade  of  milk  is  secured  when  machines  are  used. 
If  neglected,  however,  they  soon  become  filthy  and  are  a  serious 
source  of  contamination.  5.  One  man  running  two  machines  is 
nearly  equal  to  two  hand-milkers.  There  is  a  great  difference  between 
the  number  of  cows  different  men  will  milk  per  hour.  To  secure  thor- 
ough milking  and  rapid  work,  the  operator  should  follow  the  ma- 
chines closely  to  see  that  each  cow  is  milking  properly.  6.  Success- 
ful milking  with  machines  depends  upon  the  proper  fitting  of  cups 
and  mouthpieces,  the  operator  being  sure  that  each  teat  is  milking 
before  going  to  the  next  cow,  and  thorough  manipulation  of  the 
udder  before  removal  of  the  machine.  In  many  cases  it  is  necessary 
to  use  a  smaller-sized  teat-cup  during  advanced  stages  of  lactation 
than  when  the  cow  is  fresh.  7.  The  operator  should  be  above  the 
average  farm  laborer  in  intelligence  and  mechanical  skill.  8.  Trou- 
bles that  occur  in  operating  are  due  more  to  misuse  than  to  any  fault 
of  the  machine. — (Tenn.  B.) 

Milking  Machine  Experiments. — Of  the  41  farmers  reporting, 
31  submitted  favorable  reports  either  the  first  or  the  second  time, 
while  27  submitted  only  favorable  reports.  We  may  consider,  there- 
fore, that  we  are  justified  in  concluding  that  27  out  of  41  farmers  at 
the  time  they  reported  their  experiences,  had  made  a  success  of  ma- 
chine-milking, while  six  out  of  this  number  had  failed.  It  is  evi- 
dent from  the  comments  made  by  the  farmers  that  the  success  of  ma- 
chine-milking will  depend  largely  on  the  man  operating  the  machine 
and  on  his  attitude  toward  machine-milking.  If  he  is  willing  to  give 
the  machine  a  fair  trial  and  to  follow  the  directions  of  the  manufac- 
turers he  will,  as  a  general  rule,  be  able  to  make  a  success  of  this 
method  of  milking,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  approximating  the  results 
obtained  by  good  hand-milkers,  and  perhaps  even  improving  on 
those  secured  by  general  farm  help  who  are  often  prejudiced  against 
the  work  of  milking. 

The  experiences  of  practical  dairy  farmers  and  the  results  of 
careful  exhaustive  trials  agree  in  showing  that  so  far  as  the  machine 
itself  is  concerned,  the  problem  of  mechanical  milking  may  now  be 
considered  solved,  although  minor  improvements  in  the  present  ma- 
chine are  needed  and  will  doubtless  be  made  before  long.  Properly 
cared  for  and  handled  the  milking-machine  will  prove  a  valuable 
aid  in  the  solution  of  the  hired-help  problem  on  many  dairy  farms 
and  will  become  an  important  factor  in  the  further  development  of 
our  dairying  industry. —  (Wis.  B.  173.) 

First  and  Last  Milk  Drawn. — A  number  of  tests  were  made  of 
the  same  and  of  different  cows  in  order  to  discover  the  difference,  if 
any,  between  the  first  pint  of  milk  drawn  from  the  udder  and  the 
pint  last  drawn.  The  average  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk  of  each 
cow  for  a  number  of  days  before  and  after  the  trial  is  shown  herein 
for  the  sake  of  close  comparison.  The  udders  were  washed  before 
milking,  excepting  in  a  few  instances.    It  was  omitted  in  these 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  153 

cases  under  the  impression  that  the  manipulation  incident  to  the 
washing  might  affect  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  first  milk  drawn.  The 
results  do  not  indicate,  however,  that  such  was  the  case.  The  cows 
were  milked  in  the  usual  manner,  through  a  funnel  into  a  pint  bot- 
tle until  the  first  pint  was  secured,  after  which  they  were  milked  into 
a  pail  until  nearly  finished.  Toward  the  close  they  were  again  milked 
into  bottles  contaming  one-fourth  of  a  pint  each,  and  when  the  milk- 
ing was  finished,  the  last  four  quarter  pints  were  taken  as  represent- 
ing the  last  pint  drawn. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  every  case  the  per  cent  of  solids  not  fat 
is  higher  for  the  milk  fii-st  drawn,  and  the  per  cent  of  fat  lower;  but 
the  difference  between  the  fat  of  the  first  and  last  drawn  is  much 
greater  than  the  inverse  difference  between  the  solids  not  fat,  and  its 
fluctuations  are  wider  from  day  to  day,  and  between  different  cows. 

Pasture  Season  and  Soiling. — iVs  soon  as  the  spring  grass  gets 
high  enough  for  the  cows  to  get  a  bite,  let  them  have  it.  At  first  the 
time  daily  on  pasture  should  be  very  short,  for  the  good  of  both  pas- 
ture and  cow.  The  latter  should  be  gradually  changed  from  stable 
feeding  to  pasturage,  especially  if  the  feeding  has  been  of  dry  ma- 
terial or  mostly  so.  And  the  stable  feeding  should  continue  un- 
changed, undiminished,  until  the  cow  herself  indicates  that  she  is 
getting  enough  grass  to  replace  a  part  of  the  stable  ration.  Then,  as 
the  pasturage  improves,  indoor  feeding  may  be  lessened  and  finally 
discontinued.  If  a  pasture  furnishes  an  abundance  of  variety  of 
grasses,  there  can  be  no  better  food  found  for  the  milch  cow.  The 
nutritive  ratio  for  mixed  pasturage  is  about  1  to  5,  which  can  not  be 
improved  for  succulent  food.  But  the  best  of  pasture  grasses  contain 
from  65  to  75  per  cent  of  water,  sometimes  more,  and  the  cow  must 
procure  a  large  quantity  of  this  material,  100  pounds  or  so  in  the 
course  of  a  day,  to  secure  the  food  material  required.  Shade  and 
water  should  be  carefully  looked  after  in  connection  with  pasturage, 
as  well  as  the  grass.  In  very  large  pastures  there  should  be  watering 
places  in  different  parts  of  the  inclosure,  as  well  as  shade,  that  the 
cows  may  not  be  compelled  to  travel  far  to  find  either. 

Until  flies  become  troublesome,  cows  had  better  stay  in  pasture 
by  day  and  in  stable  by  night,  or  be  left  out  all  the  time.  But  in  the 
worst  fly  time,  and  perhaps  when  the  sun's  heat  is  greatest,  it  is  good 
practice  to  stable  the  herd  during' the  day  in  an  airy  but  shaded 
cowhouse,  and  turn  it  on  pasture  at  night.  If  the  pasture  has  not 
abundant  shade  and  water  this  course  should  certainly  be  followed. 
Heat  and  flies  reduce  both  quality  and  quantity  of  milk  product. 
The  trouble  from  flies  can  be  largely  remedied  by  spraying  the  cows. 
—(See  "Fighting  Flies,"  p.  165.) 

Summer  Feeding. — Every  owner  of  a  cow  welcomes  the  time 
when  the  animal  can  be  turned  out  to  pasture.  Not  only  is  the  labor 
and  expenses  connected  with  winter  feeding  done  away  with,  but 
each  cow  is  expected  to  give  the  best  results  of  the  year  on  grass.  In 
changing  from  dry  feed  to  grass,  it  is  best  to  go  somewhat  slovdy, 
especially  with  heavy  milking  cows.^  The  young,  immature  gra.ss, 
such  as  we  have  in  early  spring,  contains  a  large  amount  of  water  and 


154  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

a  small  amount  of  dry  matter,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  for  a  heavy 
milking  cow  to  eat  enough  of  such  feed  to  supply  the  necessary 
amount  of  nutrients.  Wheat  and  rye  pastures  are  of  the  same  na- 
ture. Another  reason  for  putting  cattle  on  pasture  gi'adually  rather 
than  suddenly,  is  the  effect  on  the  taste  of  milk.  When  a  cow  is 
changed  at  once  from  a  grain  ration  to  grass  a  very  marked  taste  is 
developed  in  the  milk,  while  if  this  change  in  feed  is  made  gradually 
and  not  suddenly  the  change  in  the  taste  of  the  milk  is  scarcely 
noticed. 

Summer  Conditions  to  be  Maintained. — Soon  after  the  cows  are 
on  pasture,  usually  the  latter  part  of  Ma;^  or  the  first  part  of  June, 
they  reach  the  maximum  production  of  milk  for  the  year.  This  sug- 
gests that  what  the  dairyman  must  do  in  order  that  the  production  of 
milk  may  be  the  largest,  is  to  imitate  these  summer  conditions  as  far 
as  possible  throughout  the  remainder  of  the  year.  This  is  what  the 
careful  dairyman  and  skilled  feeder  does,  and  the  results  correspond 
closely  to  the  success  with  which  these  summer  conditions  are  main- 
tained. The  summer  conditions  which  bring  about  the  maximum 
production  and  which  are  to  be  maintained  as  far  as  possible  through 
the  year,  are  described  as  follows :  1,  an  abundance  of  palatable  food ; 
2,  a  balanced  ration ;  3,  succulent  feed ;  4,  moderate  temperature ;  5, 
comfortable  surroundings. 

Grain  Feeding  While  on  Pasture. — There  is  some  difference  of 
opinion  on  this  question  from  the  standpoint  of  economy.  There  is 
no  question  but  that  a  cow  will  produce  more  milk  if  fed  grain  while 
on  pasture,  and  if  a  large  yield  is  of  more  importance  than  economy 
of  production,  grain  should  certainly  be  fed.  The  cow  that  gives  a 
small  average  quantity  of  milk  will  produce  but  little  more,  if  fed 
grain  while  on  pasture.  However,  with  the  heavy  producing  cow  the 
case  is  quite  different  and  it  is  necessary  that  she  be  fed  grain  or  she 
will  not  continue  on  the  high  level  of  production  long.  The  neces- 
sity of  feeding  grain  to  the  high  producing  cow  arises  from  the  fact 
that  she  cannot  secure  a  sufficient  amount  of  nutrients  from  the  grass 
alone,  and  must  have  some  concentrated  feed  in  the  form  of  grain  in 
order  to  continue  to  produce  large  quantities  of  milk. 

Experiments  made  by  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station,  covering 
four  years,  showed  that  while  an  increase  of  milk  yield  was  secured 
from  grain  feeding,  it  was  not  economical  to  produce  it  in  this  way. 
They  secured  only  about  an  additional  pound  of  milk  for  each 
pound  of  grain  fed.  In  these  experiments  the  pastures  produced  an 
abundance  of  nutritious  grasses.  They  observ'^ed,  however,  that  the 
cows  fed  grain  during  the  summer  gave  better  results  after  the  graz- 
ing period  was  over,  than  those  not  having  received  grain.  This  is  also 
a  matter  of  common  observation,  and  should  be  taken  into  account 
in  considering  the  advisability  of  feeding  grain.  The  point  is  that 
the  cows  fed  grain  stored  a  considerable  quantity  of  surplus  nutri- 
ents on  their  body  which  were  afterwards  available  for  the  production 
of  milk.  A  Jersey  cow  that  is  giving  as  much  as  20  pounds  or  10 
quarts  per  day,  or  a  Holstein  or  Shorthorn  giving  25  pounds  or  more 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  155 

daily  should  be  given  some  grain.     It  has  been  recommended  that 
cows  feeding  on  pasture  be  fed  as  follows  : 

Jersey  cow  producing  20  lbs.  milk  daily,  3  lbs.  grain;  25  lbs. 
milk  daily,  4  lbs.  grain ;  30  lbs.  milk  daily,  6  lbs.  grain ;  35  lbs.  milk 
daily,  8  lbs.  grain ;  40  lbs.  milk  daily,  10  lbs.  grain.  Hostein,  Short- 
horn, or  Ayrshire  producing  25  lbs.  milk  daily,  3  lbs.  grain ;  30  lbs. 
milk  daily,  5  lbs.  grain ;  35  lbs.  milk  daily,  7  lbs.  grain ;  40  lbs.  milk 
daily,  9  lbs.  grain;  50  lbs.  milk  daily,  10  lbs.  grain. — (Mo.  Circ  44.) 

SOILING  CROPS  FOR  DAIRY  COWS. 

During  the  dry,  hot  weather  average  summer  pastures  stop 
growing  and  the  grass  becomes  dry  and  woody,  proving  unpalatable 
and  innutritions  to  animals.  A  large  part  of  the  energy  derived  from 
the  feed  of  the  cows  is  expended  under  these  conditions  in  wander- 
ing about  the  fields  endeavoring  to  get  shelter  from  the  scorching 
rays  of  the  sun,  protection  from  the  swarms  of  flies  that  torment 
them,  and  sufficient  palatable  feed  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  system 
for  milk  production.  With  these  conditions  it  is  easy  to  understand 
why  shipments  of  dairy  products  show  a  marked  shrinkage  during 
the  late  summer  months. 

The  practice  of  partial  soiling  offers  the  opportunity  of  keeping 
cows  in  a  cool,  dark  barn,  and  giving  them  that  rest  and  quiet  which 
they  require  for  greatest  milk  production.  When  kept  in  the  stable 
for  at  least  a  part  of  each  day  they  may  be  fed  regularly  a  uniform 
quantity,  and  none  of  the  feed  need  be  wasted.  Since  pasturage  is  a 
cheap  and  easy  method  of  feeding,  however,  the  most  practical  sys- 
tem for  the  majority  of  farmers  and  dairymen  in  this  state  is  obvi- 
ously one  which  will  secure  for  them  the  benefits  of  pasturage  with- 
out its  disadvantages.  A  system  of  partial  soiling  and  partial  pas- 
turage, in  which  the  cows  are  turned  to  pasture  at  night  and  fed  in 
the  barn  during  at  least  a  part  of  each  day,  seems  to  supply  all  the 
conditions  necessary  for  most  profitable  production  of  dairy  cows. 

With  this  system  the  acreage  of  pasture  required  is  greatly  les- 
sened. It  has  been  found  that  each  cow  in  the  dairy  herd  requires 
about  two  acres  of  pasture  when  no  soiling  is  practiced.  This  acreage 
may  be  reduced  at  least  one-half  when  the  cows  are  fed  soiling  crops 
as  above  suggested.  The  chief  objection  to  the  system  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  requires  more  labor,  but  even  this  should  not  be  a  serious  ob- 
jection, providing  the  increased  returns  derived  from  the  cows,  and 
the  lessened  acreage  required  for  pasture,  taken  together,  are  greater 
than  the  increased  cost  of  labor. 

Some  improvement  is  greatly  needed  in  the  feeding  and  care  of 
the  dairy  cows  during  the  summer  months. 

A  Succession  of  Crops  Necessary. — In  order  that  it  may  not  be 
necessary  to  cut  the  soiling  crops  when  immature,  because  of  the 
lack  of  mature  feed,  or  to  continue  feeding  any  one  crop  after  it  has 
become  over-ripe  and  woody,  for  the  reason  that  another  crop  is  not 
ready,  a  close  succession  must  be  provided  for.  The  order  in  which 
the  seed  for  the  various  crops  should  be  sown,  and  the  time  of  sowing, 
is  dependent  upon  the  time  of  year  at  which  each  variety  will  make 
its  best  growth,  upon  the  length  of  time  between  seeding  and  cutting, 


156  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

upon  the  length  of  time  for  which  the  crop  from  one  seeding  may 
profitably  be  fed,  and  upon  the  number  and  value  of  the  crops  which 
may  be  substituted  one  for  the  other  at  any  one  period  of  the  soiling 
season. 

Growing  and  Harvesting  Different  Crops. — ^This  crop  should  be 
sown  in  the  latter  part  of  August  or  the  first  of  September,  so  that  it 
may  get  a  good  stand  and  cover  the  ground  well  before  winter.  In 
case  the  growth  is  too  luxuriant,  it  may  be  made  to  supply  an  excel- 
lent pasture  for  calves,  sheep,  or  even  cows  for  some  weeks  in  the 
autumn.  The  land  should  be  well  worked  up  and  a  good  seed-bed 
prepared  for  seeding.  In  the  several  trials  made  three  bushels  of 
seed  per  acre  has  been  used,  as  it  has  been  found  that  thick  seeding 
produces  a  much  finer  growth  of  the  stems  of  the  plants  which  ren- 
ders it  more  palatable  for  the  cows.  This  feed  is  not  greatly  relished 
by  the  cows  as  a  rule,  since  it  comes  at  a  season  of  the  year  when  they 
have  just  turned  to  pasture  in  the  spring.  If  pasturage  is  late  and 
scant,  however,  as  it  frequently  is,  this  crop  will  be  of  much  service 
in  keeping  up  the  milk  flow  after  the  silage  is  gone. 

Alfalfa. — This  plant  is  an  excellent  one  for  soiling  purposes  on 
account  of  the  rapidity  with  which  it  grows  and  the  number  of  cut- 
tings and  large  yields  that  may  be  obtained.  It  is  ready  for  soiling 
from  ten  to  fifteen  days  earlier  in  the  spring  than  any  other  crop 
that  may  be  grown  except  rye.  The  seeding  should  be  done  quite 
early  in  the  spring,  using  at  the  rate  of  twenty  pounds  of  seed  per 
acre  and  covering  it  well  wath  a  harrow.  It  is  only  fair  in  palatabil- 
ity  but  when  eaten  freely  it  is  considered  an  excellent  feed  for  milk 
production.  The  second  crop  is  usually  about  forty  days  after  the 
first  has  been  removed  and  this  appears  to  be  more  palatable  than 
the  first  cutting.  One-half  acre  was  seeded  with  this  crop  on  April 
20,  1903,  and  made  a  very  rapid  growth.  On  July  3rd  the  crop  wtis 
cut  just  as  it  was  beginning  to  bloom  and  1,260  pounds  of  hay  was 
secured.  A  second  cutting  of  about  the  same  amount  was  made 
August  15th. 

Red  Clover. — This  does  not  give  so  large  a  yield  as  some  of  the 
annuals,  but  entails  lass  labor  and  is  not  as  bulky  a  feed  as  some  of 
the  more  succulent  crops.  Its  culture  is  too  well  known  to  need  de- 
scription. Nearly  every  farmer  grows  it  and  by  referring  to  the  table 
of  yields  one  may  readily  appreciate  its  value  for  soiling. 

Peas  and  Oats. — ^This  crop  is  very  popular  in  many  sections  of 
the  East  for  soiling  purposes,  but  has  not  been  entirely  satisfactory 
with  us  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  getting  a  stand  of  peas.  The  ordi- 
nary Canada  field  pea  does  not  seem  to  be  relished  by  dairy  cows  and 
the  variety  known  as  the  Spanish  grass  pea  is  recommended  for  trial. 
The  ground  for  this  crop  is  best  prepared  by  thorough  discing  fall- 
plowed  land  as  early  as  it  can  be  done  in  the  spring  and  seeding  at 
the  rate  of  one  and  a  half  bushels  of  oats  and  a  bushel  of  peas  per 
acre,  which  may  be  sown  deeply  with  an  ordinary  grain  drill.  Better 
satisfaction,  however,  will  be  obtained  by  sowing  the  peas  broadcast 
and  discing  them  in  five  or  six  days  before  the  oats ;  the  latter  should 
be  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed  in  with  a  light  harrow.    Care  should 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  157 

be  taken  to  harvest  this  crop  early.  A  succession  of  this  feed,  cover- 
ing about  three  weeks,  can  be  secured  by  sowing  at  three  successive 
periods,  with  a  week  or  ten  days  between  each  sowing  period. 

Rape. — This  is  an  excellent  soiling  crop,  but  its  use  cannot  be 
generally  recommended  for  dairy  cows,  owing  to  the  peculiar  pun- 
gent odor  which  characterizes  it  and  which  seriously  affects  the  milk 
of  cows.  In  seeding  rape  for  either  purpose  it  should  be  sown  in 
May  on  well-prepared  ground,  at  the  rate  of  about  two  and  a  half 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  in  rows  thirty  inches  apart,  using  an  ordi- 
nary garden  drill.  This  plant  yields  an  immense  weight  of  very  pal- 
atable feed  per  acre.  It  should  be  cut  about  five  inches  from  the 
ground,  when  it  will  make  a  very  rapid  second  growth.  A  horse  hoe 
should  be  nm  between  the  rows  several  times  after  the  first  cutting 
to  stir  the  soil. 

Flint  Corn. — This  com  gives  a  slightly  larger  yield  than  the 
dent  variety  and  usually  matures  earlier  for  feeding  purposes.  It  is 
of  a  very  leafy  habit  of  growth  and  is  eaten  very  greedily  by  the  cows. 
It  can  be  planted  somewhat  earlier  than  the  dent  varieties,  seeming 
to  have  more  germinating  vitality.  It  is  best  planted  thickly  in  rows 
three  feet  eight  inches  apart  and  the  plants  four  to  five  inches  apart 
in  the  row.  Seeding  thus  thickly  insures  finer  stalks,  more  leaves, 
and  the  feed  is  eaten  with  less  refuse.  The  amount  of  feed  yielded 
from  a  small  area  is  very  surprising. 

Sorghum. — Sorghum  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  aU  soiling 
crops.  It  is  ahead  of  field  com  in  value,  though  Evergreen  Sweet 
com  comes  very  close  to  it.  In  1902  an  acre  was  sown  May  26th, 
and  harvested  Sept.  4th,  when  it  yielded  the  enormous  amount  of 
40.4  tons  per  acre.  This  is  considerably  above  the  average  yield,  but 
it  shows  the  possibilities  of  the  crop.  The  kind  recommended  to  sow 
is  northern  grown  seed  of  the  Early  Amber  variety.  Sorghum  is  a 
southern  plant  and  thrives  best  in  hot,  dry  summer  weather.  The 
soil  should  be  well  cultivated  at  several  successive  periods  previous  to 
sowing  in  order  to  germinate  and  destroy  all  weed  seeds.  The  sor- 
ghum grows  very  slowly  during  the  first  weeks  of  its  life,  and  much 
benefit  can  be  derived  by  harrowing  it  thoroughly  with  a  light  slant 
toothed  harrow  when  a  few  inches  high.  In  1901  an  experiment 
was  conducted  to  find  whether  light  or  heavy  seeding  would  give  the 
better  yield.  Three  plots  side  by  side  were  sown  on  the  same  day 
with  an  ordinary  grain  drill.  The  results  are  as  follows:  Sorghum 
from  one  seeding  cannot  be  fed  for  a  longer  period  than  about  fifteen 
days,  because  the  stalks  become  very  hard  when  mature  and  much 
waste  results  from  the  animals  refusing  to  eat  this  portion  of  the 
plants. 

Siveet  Com. — The  Evergreen  has  been  the  variety  used  and  it 
gives  very  large  yields.  The  growth  being  shorter  than  that  of  field 
corn  and  the  stalks  smaller,  there  is  not  so  much  waste  in  feeding. 
The  yield  of  total  dry  matter  per  acre  is  far  in  excess  of  either  dent 
or  flint  com,  and  the  fodder  is  more  palatable.  If  drilled  thickly  in 
rows  the  crop  is  not  as  likely  to  lodge  under  the  influence  of  wind 
and  rain  as  if  sown  broadcast.    This  makes  an  excellent  crop  for  fall 


158  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

feeding  on  account  of  its  evergreen  nature,  retaining  its  succulence 
longer  than  any  of  the  other  corns  or  sorghums  and  making  an  ex- 
cellent fodder  when  cured. 

Other  Crops. — Several  other  crops  have  been  tried  but  have  not 
proven  satisfactory.  Barley  and  millet  are  unpalatable.  Vetches 
and  rye  or  vetches  and  oats  do  not  give  as  large  a  yield  as  peas  and 
oats.  Giant  fodder  corn  gives  a  larger  yield  than  flint  corn,  but  the 
stalks  are  so  large  and  coarse  that  it  is  unsatisfactory  as  a  feed. 

General  Injorraation. — In  the  case  of  a  majority  of  the  crops 
grown  it  was  found  that  they  were  most  palatable  and  satisfactory 
when  fed  at,  or  a  little  before,  full  bloom.  If  required  much  earlier 
than  this  they  were  very  watery  and  not  so  sweet  and  palatable  to  the 
taste,  besides  causing  the  cows  to  scour  seriously  when  heavily  fed. 

Thick  seeding  is  to  be  recommended  with  nearly  all  the  crops ; 
not  only  is  a  much  greater  yield  produced,  but  a  finer  quality  of 
more  edible  forage  is  secured.  It  is  advisable  to  grow  a  surplus  of 
soiling  crops  rather  than  just  a  sufficient  amount,  since  all  of  the 
varieties  of  crops  recommended,  except  rape,  make  excellent  fodder 
when  cured  and  stored  for  winter  feeding.  The  number  of  pounds 
of  the  various  soiling  crops  that  a  cow  will  eat,  when  given  in  addi- 
tion the  freedom  of  a  good  pasture  at  night,  has  not  been  definitely 
determined. 

When  fed  on  soiling  crops  alone,  without  pasturage,  as  some 
cows  were  in  a  few  instances  for  a  short  period,  they  consumed  from 
seventy-five  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  soiling  feeds  daily.  About 
one-half  this  amount,  or  forty-five  pounds  on  the  average,  will  be 
found  an  ample  allowance  for  each  cow  on  full  milk  when  access  is 
had  to  good  pasturage  during  the  night. —  (Wis.  B.  103.) 

The  Stabling  Season. — Up  to  a  certain  point  fall  pasturage  is  as 
good  as  in  any  other  part  of  the  year.  But  after  one  or  two  hard 
frosts  it  is  well  to  offer  the  cows  some  nice  hay  when  they  come  in  at 
night,  and  if  they  eat  it  with  relish,  one  may  be  pretty  certain  the 
season  has  arrived  to  gradually  change  the  herd  from  pasture  to 
stable  for  the  winter.  The  cows  should  not  be  left  out  at  night  after 
it  becomes  chilly,  or  be  exposed  to  cold  autumn  storms.  Tliey  may 
be  allowed  in  the  field  a  few  hours  on  all  pleasant  days  until  snow 
flies,  but  without  expecting  them  to  get  much  besides  water  and  ex- 
ercise. Before  keeping  them  steadily  at  the  stable  and  yards  the 
feeding  should  be,  by  gradual  steps,  completely  changed  to  the  full 
stable  diet. 

Preparation  of  the  Stable. — Meanwhile,  or  on  leisure  days 
earlier  in  the  year,  the  cow  house  should  be  prepared  for  its  occu- 
pancy by  the  herd  throughout  the  stabling  season.  Boxes,  stalls,  and 
feeding  troughs  or  floors  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disin- 
fected, so  that  no  animal  can  discover  or  be  subjected  to  any  un- 
pleasant traces  of  another  and  previous  occupant  of  the  place.  Then 
assign  every  cow  her  particular  place  for  the  winter,  and  gently  in- 
sist upon  every  one  being  always  in  the  right  place.  The  bedding, 
absorbents,  and  disinfectants  should  be  provided  in  abundance  and 
in  ample  time  for  all  to  be  quite  dry.    Use  no  damp  material  under 


Clean,  Sanitary,  Inexpensive  Milk  House.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


Insanitary  Cow  Stable;  Pure  Milk  Improbable.    Deft,  of  Agr. 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  161 

a  cow,  no  rotten  straw,  and  no  moist  earth  or  sawdust.  In  order  of 
efficiency,  the  best  absorbents  are  peat,  spent  tanbark,  sawdust,  wheat 
straw,  forest  leaves,  and  dry  earth.  If  earth  alone  is  used,  from  30 
to  40  pounds  per  cow  will  be  needed  daily — a  big  shovelful.  Cattle 
will  not  be  bothered  so  much  in  the  shade.  It  is  a  good  practice  to 
stable  the  herd  during  the  day  in  an  airy  but  shaded  cowhouse, 
and  turn  it  on  pasture  at  night.  If  the  pasture  has  not  abundant 
shade  and  water  this  course  should  certainly  be  followed.  Heat 
and  flies  reduce  both  quality  and  quantity  of  milk  product.  The 
trouble  from  flies  can  be  largely  remedied  by  spraying  the  cows  with 
a  very  weak  mixture  of  water  and  some  one  of  the  approved  sheep- 
dip  preparations.  Such  a  spraying  will  last  a  week  or  ten  days,  un- 
less there  are  hard  rains  meanwhile.  The  entire  interior  of  the  cow 
house  should  be  sprayed  with  a  solution  of  this  kind,  and  strong 
enough  for  an  insecticide,  weekly,  throughout  the  summer. — (Agr. 
Dep.  F.  B.  55.)- 

Feed  and  Care  of  Dairy  Cows. — ^The  greatest  yield  is  obtained 
from  cows  that  calve  in  the  fall,  if  proper  care,  feed  and  shelter  are 
provided  during  the  winter.  The  prices  of  butter  fat  and  butter  are 
higher  during  the  winter,  and  with  cows  fresh  in  the  fall  or  early 
winter  this  higher  price  comes  during  the  period  of  greatest  yield. 
A  cow  that  calves  in  the  early  fall  while  on  grass  is  in  the  best  con- 
dition to  make  a  high  yield  when  fresh.  Good  feed  and  care  through 
the  winter  will  maintain  a  good  yield,  and  when  the  cow  is  turned 
to  pasture  in  the  early  spring  a  fresh  flow  will  be  sta,rted  that  will 
considerably  increase  the  year's  yield. 

A  cow  that  calves  in  the  spring  has  the  best  milk-producing 
feed  at  a  time  when  she  will  do  well  with  any  good  ration.  As  the 
flow  begins  to  slacken  the  quality  of  the  feed  grows  poorer,  and  flies 
and  heat  help  to  cut  it  down  still  lower.  In  the  fall  when  the  milk 
begins  to  drop  rapidly  on  account  of  the  time  from  calving,  the  cow 
goes  from  green  pastures  to  dry  feed — a  change  that  tends  to  reauce 
the  yield  and  dry  up  the  flow  entirely.  Winter  dairying  avoids  in- 
jury to  flavor  of  butter  from  weeds  in  summer  and  fall  pastures. 

Cows,  with  fair  surroundings,  can  be  made  more  comfortable  in 
winter  than  in  summer-,  and  with  fall  calving  will  be  dry  when  heat, 
flics  and  drouth  are  severest  and  when  butter  prices  are  the  lowest. 
Winter  dairying  furnishes  profitable  employment  for  the  farmer  and 
his  men  at  a  season  of  the  year  when,  without  it,  farm  forces  are 
either  idle  or  work  for  low  wages. 

Another  advantage  of  fall  calving  is  that  the  calves  can  be 
raised  at  a  season  when  there  is  time  to  give  to  them  that  careful  at- 
tention which  is  so  great  a  factor  in  calf-raising  by  hand,  when 
losses  from  heat,  flies,  diarrhea,  and  sour  milk  can  be  avoided  and 
when,  at  weaning  time,  the  calves  can  go  from  milk  to  green  pasture 
without  a  check  in  growth. 

Treatment  Before  Calving. — With  most  cows  the  highest  yield 
for  the  year  can  be  obtained  by  having  them  go  dry  six  to  eight 
weeks  before  calving.  This  is  especially  true  of  those  cows  whose 
milk  is  rich  in  butter  fat,  and  continuous  milking  of  such  cows  with- 


162  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

out  rest  before  calving  usually  results  in  a  serious  lowering  of  the 
yield  for  the  entire  year  following  calving,  and  also  frequently  in 
a  weak,  puny  calf.  From  these  cows  the  most  milk  and  butter  fat 
can  be  obtained  in  a  series  of  years  by  milking  ten  months  in  the 
year  only.  It  is  frequently  the  case  with  this  class  of  cows  that  if 
milking  is  continued  to  the  time  of  calving  the  milk  of  the  last  eight 
or  ten  weeks  has  a  bad  flavor  and  odor,  is  hard  to  churn  and  will  in- 
jure the  butter  made  from  any  milk  with  which  it  is  mixed  and  it 
is  profitable  to  dry  up  the  cow  on  this  account  as  well  as  for  the  effect 
of  the  rest.  Rest  does  not  seem  so  essential  for  cows  giving  milk  low 
in  butter  fat,  and  it  is  impossible  to  dry  up  many  heavy  yielders  of 
thin  milk  without  injury  to  the  udder.  In  such  cases  the  only  rea- 
sonable plan  is  continuous  milking ;  but  if  too  much  difficulty  is  not 
experienced  in  drying  up  this  class  of  cows,  it  should  be  done,  as  bet- 
ter results  will  be  secured  by  the  rest.  Dairymen  handling  cows  of 
the  beef  type  have  hard  work  to  keep  their  cows  in  fair  flow  for  the 
ten  months,  but  with  dairy  cows,  the  rest  before  calving  should  be 
provided  for,  and  the  general  rule  to  follow  is  that  the  average  dairy 
cow  and  the  cow  giving  milk  with  a  high  per  cent  of  butter  fat 
should  go  dry  six  to  eight  weeks  before  calving ;  and  heavy  yielders 
of  milk  low  in  butter  fat  may  be  milked  continuously  if  there  is 
much  difficulty  in  drying  them  up. 

To  dry  up  a  cow,  reduce  the  feed,  take  away  the  grain,  and 
when  the  milk  yield  drops,  milk  first  once  a  day,  then  once  in  two 
days,  and  in  one  to  two  weeks  the  average  cow  will  be  dry  and  her 
udder  in  good  condition.  With  persistent  milkers  there  is  seldom 
diflficulty  if  hay  only  is  fed  for  a  time.  If  a  cow  continues  to  give 
milk  under  this  treatment  or  if  the  udder  is  hard  and  feverish,  thei 
work  of  drying  up  must  stop,  and  the  ration  be  changed  to  a  light 
milk  ration,  with  loosening  feeds,  and  the  cow  milked  regularly. 
Forced  drying  up  under  these  conditions  injures  the  cow.  If  by 
oversight  the  drying-up  process  has  been  neglected  until  within  three 
or  four  weeks  of  calving,  do  not  attempt  it,  as  there  is  risk  of  injury 
to  the  health  of  the  cow  and  her  udder. 

After  becoming  dry,  the  cow  will  need  little  attention  before 
calving  if  she  is  on  good  pasture,  except  to  see  that  she  has  plenty 
of  good  water  and  shade,  is  comfortable  and  not  annoyed  or  injured 
by  other  cattle,  particularly  steers.  If  the  cow  is  on  dry  feed,  more 
attention  is  necessary.  She  must  be  in  fair  condition  but  not  fat, 
and  should  have  bulky  feeds — both  roughness  and  grain — and  suc- 
culent feed  is  exceedingly  desirable,  either  ensilage  or  roots.  One  of 
the  best  grain  mixtures  for  cows  before  calving  is,  by  weight,  two- 
thirds  bran  and  one-third  linseed  meal.  This  grain  mixture  is  a 
good  one  for  the  first  two  weeks  after  calving.  Alfalfa  hay  is  excel- 
lent for  roughness.  The  bowels  should  be  kept  loose.  This  is  es- 
sential and  needs  more  attention  than  any  other  condition,  and  for 
this  purpose  roots  and  silage  are  very  helpful.  Corn  and  corn  meal 
should  not  be  fed. 

Treatment  at  Calving. — In  winter  l"he  calving  cow  will  do  best 
in  warm,  comfortable  quarters,  free  from  draft.    It  is  well  to  blanket 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  16S 

her  as  soon  as  the  calf  is  dropped,  and  to  keep  her  blanketed  until 
she  has  regained  her  normal  condition.  We  have  sewed  bran  bags 
together  for  a  blanket  when  nothing  better  was  at  hand.  Her  bowels 
must  be  kept  loose.  Give  her  light,  loosening  feeds  and  all  the  water 
she  will  drink,  removing  the  chill  from  it  until  the  afterbirth  has 
come  away.  When  cold  water  is  given  before  the  afterbirth  has  been 
removed,  the  chill  frequently  causes  a  contraction  of  the  mouth  of 
the  womb  and  the  retention  of  the  afterbirth.  If  the  afterbirth  does 
not  come  away  in  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours,  it  should  be 
removed  by  a  competent  man,  as  its  retention  causes  a  serious  loss  in 
the  milk  yield,  often  lowering  the  yield  through  the  entire  milking 
period. 

Where  a  box  stall  is  kept  for  calving  cows,  and  a  number  calve 
in  it,  all  bedding  should  be  removed  after  each  birth  and  the  floors 
and  sides  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected  with  quicklime  or 
solutions  of  carbolic  acid  or  corrosive  sublimate. 

Unless  the  cow's  milk  is  so  rich  that  it  scours  the  calf,  we  prefer 
to  have  the  calf  stay  with  the  cow  for  a  few  days.  The  colostrum, 
or  first  milk,  is  needed  as  the  first  food  for  the  calf.  If  the  cow's 
udder  is  caked  and  feverish,  the  rubbing  of  the  baby  calf  against 
it  in  attempting  to  suck  will  help  to  reduce  the  inflammation.  It  is 
not  difficult  to  teach  the  calf  to  drink,  even  when  it  has  been  with 
the  cow  for  a  week,  if  it  is  allowed  to  get  quite  hungry  before  the  first 
feed  is  offered. 

Caked  Udder. — ^The  udder  is  often  hot  and  caked.  When  this 
is  the  case,  the  cow  should  be  milked  frequently,  at  intervals  of  not 
longer  than  two  hours,  and  if  the  inflammation  is  serious  more  fre- 
quent milkings  are  better.  Never  milk  the  udder  dry  while  it  is  in 
this  condition,  as,  if  it  is  milked  out  clean,  a  fresh  flow  is  stimulated, 
which  frequently  increases  the  inflammation  and  sometimes  leads 
to  the  fatal  milk  fever.  If  the  udder  is  badlj'-  inflamed  the  cow 
should  have  a  physic,  and  for  this  we  use  1^/^  pounds  Epsom  salts  per 
1,000  pounds  live  weight  of  cow,  dissolving  the  salts  in  warm  water 
and  giving  it  as  a  drench  from  a  long-necked  bottle.  Besides  keep- 
ing the  bowels  loose  and  frequent  milkings,  hot  applications  and 
rubbing  are  the  best  means  of  reducing  the  inflammation.  Dip  a 
flannel  cloth  in  water  as  hot  as  the  hand  will  bear,  wring  it  out  lightly 
and  hold  around  the  udder.  Before  the  cloth  cools  dip  it  again  in 
the  hot  water  and  apply  as  before.    Keep  this  up  as  long  as  time  will 

Eermit.  Thirty  minutes  of  such  application  is  good,  two  hours  is 
etter,  and  after  a  rest  repeat  the  operation  until  the  swelling  is  re- 
duced and  the  fever  gone.  'SMienever  this  steaming  of  the  udder  is 
discontinued  for  a  rest,  the  udder  should  be  rubbed  dry  bv  using  the 
hands  gently,  and  we  often  used  camphorated  vaseline  while  rubbing, 
as  it  allays  the  soreness  on  the  surface  of  the  udder. 

When  the  udder  has  been  badly  inflamed,  we  have  sometimes 
made  a  sack,  covering  the  entire  udder,  and  suspended  it  by  straps 
from  the  hips ;  coarse  bran  is  packed  between  the  udder  and  the  sack 
and  kept  saturated  with  hot  water  by  pouring  from  cups.  Holes  are 
made  in  the  sack  for  the  teats,  so  that  the  cow  can  be  milked  fro- 


164  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

quently.  Twenty-four  to  seventy-two  hours  of  such  treatment  will 
sometimes  save  the  udder  of  the  most  valuable  cow  in  the  herd,  and 
the  increase  in  milk  for  the  first  month  will  more  than  pay  for  the 
extra  work. 

Milk  should  not  be  used  until  there  is  no  fever  in  the  udder  and 
not  until  the  udder  and  womb  have  regained  a  healthy  condition. 
Ordinarily  this  will  be  in  about  five  days ;  but  if  the  afterbirth  is 
retained,  or  there  is  a  flowing  from  the  vagina  or  severe  inflamma- 
tion of  the  udder  continues,  the  period  is  longer,  and  in  exceptional 
eases  the  milk  may  not  be  fit  for  use  for  a  month  after  calving. 

Treatment  of  the  Cow  After  Calving. — After  the  cow  has  re- 
covered from  calving,  the  feed  should  be  gradually  increased  until 
the  full  limit  of  profitable  feeding  is  reached,  and  the  cow  should 
be  pushed  to  her  utmost  possible  limits  for  the  first  three  months.  It 
will  often  pay  to  give  the  cow  for  the  first  three  months  after  calving 
more  feed  than  will  produce  butter  at  the  lowest  rate,  e.  g.,  if  a  cow 
on  a  certain  amount  of  feed  will  produce  a  pound  of  butter  for  7 
cents  for  the  feed,  it  may  pay  to  increase  the  feed  25  per  cent  to  50 
per  cent,  or  even  double  it,  though  this  increase  brings  the  cost  of 
butter  up  to  8  or  10  cents  per  pound  for  feed,  if  a  good  increase  in 
yield  is  obtained,  because  a  high  yield  during  the  first  months  after 
calving  brings  an  increase  through  all  the  months  of  the  milking 
period,  and  a  cow  that  is  pushed  at  the  beginning  of  her  year  will 
give  a  good  flow  longer  than  one  not  so  treated. 

When  other  work  is  pressing,  the  dairyman  is  sometimes 
tempted  to  let  the  fresh  cow  go  with  the  ordinary  care  and  feed  until 
the  rush  is  over,  expecting  to  make  up  for  this  neglect  by  good  treat- 
ment when  he  is  less  hurried.  He  cannot  afford  to  do  this,  for  if  a 
cow  starts  with  a  low  or  moderate  milk  yield,  no  amount  of  care 
or  feed  afterward  will  succeed  in  securing  her  best  yield. 

Cows  will  give,  and  do  give  milk  without  any  of  these  careful 
attentions.  A  cow  will  give  milk  if  little  attention  is  paid  to  drying 
her  up  and  no  cooling  and  loosening  feeds  are  given  before  calving. 
Cows  calve  every  winter  without  shelter  or  care,  with  ice  water  only 
to  drink,  and  with  no  care  given  to  their  udders,  and  yet  they  give 
milk.  But  the  best  yields  and  most  profitable  returns  can  he  ob- 
tained only  by  careful  attention  to  every  one  of  these  details,  and 
neglect  of  any  one  of  them  frequently  cuts  down  the  yield  25  per 
cent  for  the  year.  It  is  the  neglect  of  many  and  sometimes  all  of 
these  details  in  caring  for  the  cow  that  makes  the  average  cow  yield 
less  than  one-third  of  that  produced  by  the  good  dairy  cow  properly 
handled. 

After  the  cow  has  passed  the  point  of  greatest  flow  the  feed 
should  be  gradually  reduced,  feeding  to  produce  yield  at  most  profit. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  her  in  moderate  flesh,  and  the  ration 
slowly  changed  until,  during  the  last  month  of  milking,  it  is  similar 
to  that  recommended  to  be  fed  before  calving. — (Kan.  B.  81.) 

FEEDING  DAIRY  COWS. 

In  the  production  of  milk  there  are  four  factors  which  are  of 
prime  economic  importance.    1.    Cows  must  be  secured  which  are 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  165 

capable  of  producing  large  quantities  of  milk  and  butter  fat.  2. 
These  cows  must  be  properly  housed  and  cared  for.  3.  There  must 
be  a  feeder  who  has  good  judgment.  4.  Sufficient  food  of  the  proper 
quality  must  be  supplied.  The  last  is  equal  in  importance  to  the  first. 
The  best  way  to  obtain  good  cows  is  by  careful  selection  and  breed- 
ing of  animals  from  one  of  the  recognized  dairy  breeds  or  their 
grades.  Scrub  cows  have  no  place  in  profitable  milk  production. 
On  tlie  other  hand,  no  matter  how  carefully  cows  are  selected  nor 
how  well  bred,  if  poorly  fed,  they  will  give  little  better  returns 
than  scrubs.  To  become  a  good  feeder  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
needs  of  the  dairy  cow  and  of  the  nature  of  difiPerent  feeds.  This 
means  that  the  man,  who  is  to  become  a  successful  feeder,  must  be 
willing  to  spend  time  and  energy  in  studying  the  details  of  these 
subjects.  The  cow  is  a  business  partner  not  easily  defrauded.  If  she 
is  the  right  kind  of  cow,  supplied  with  the  proper  materials,  she  will 
return  a  just  amount  of  product,  and  if  proper  feed  and  care  are 
withheld,  she  will  withhold  the  desired  product.  Food  of  the  right 
kind  and  amount  is  absolutely  necessary  to  any  considerable  degree 
of  production. 

Things  to  Consider. — There  are  many  things  which  should  in- 
fluence the  feeder  in  selecting  feeds  and  w^orking  up  a  balanced  ra- 
tion for  his  herd.  Some  of  these  are  given  below :  1.  What  is  the 
composition  of  feeds  as  shown  by  chemical  analysis?  Do  they  con- 
tain the  materials  necessary  to  support  the  animal  and  make  milk? 
2.  What  feeds  can  be  grown  on  the  farm?  3. 'What  feeds  should  be 
purchased  and  what  is  their  relative  value?  4.  What  is  the  quality 
or  condition  of  the  feeds  to  be  used?  5.  What  is  their  physiological 
effect  on  the  animal?— (111.  Cir.  1520 

When  Will  It  Pay  to  Milk  a  Cow? — Having  cows  of  various 
ages  and  capacities  on  the  farm,  the  question  arises  as  to  when  it  will 
pay  a  man  to  milk  the  cow  and  raise  the  calf  on  skim-milk.  Since 
it  costs  about  $12.50  per  cow  to  pay  for  the  work  connected  with 
milking,  and  from  $7  to  $8  to  raise  the  calf  on  skim-milk,  a  cow 
must  produce,  in  order  to  be  profitable,  at  least  $20  worth  of  butter- 
fat  before  it  will  pay  to  milk  her,  assuming  that  the  skim-milk  pays 
for  the  hauling.  With  four-per-cent  milk  and  fifteen  cents  for  but- 
ter-fat, this  would  mean  3,333  pounds  of  milk  per  annum;  with 
eighteen-cent  butter-fat  it  would  bo  2,777  pounds  of  milk  per  annum, 
and  with  twenty-cent  butter-fat  it  would  be  2,500  pounds  of  milk. 
This  is  assuming  that  a  dairy  cow  would  eat  no  more  when  giving 
milk  than  she  would  when  not.  Doubtless  she  would  eat  some  more, 
and  this  would  have  to  be  added  to  the  above  cost. —  (Kan.  B.  125.) 

Fighting  Flies. — Flies  are  a  torment  to  the  dairy  cow.  Where 
possible,  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  cows  during  the  day  in  a  cool 
bam,  where  the  doors  and  windows  are  screened  to  keep  out  the  flies, 
and  allow  the  cows  to  run  on  pasture  at  night. 

Where  this  arrangement  is  not  possible,  we  have  found  by  test- 
ing several  fly  mixtures,  that  it  is  possible  to  produce  a  mixture  that 
■will  w^ork  reasonably  well  in  keepmg  flies  away.  The  best  mixture 
that  we  have  used,  all  things  considered,  is  as  follows :    Resin,  one 


166  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC.  ' 

and  one-half  pounds;  laundry  soap,  two  cakes;  fish-oil,  one-half 
pint;  enough  water  to  make  three  gallons.  Dissolve  the  resin  in  a 
solution  of  soap  and  water  by  heating ;  add  the  fish-oil  and  the  rest 
of  the  water.  Apply  with  a  brush.  If  to  be  used  as  a  spray,  add  one- 
half  pint  of  kerosene.  The  mixture  will  cost  from  seven  to  eight 
cents  per  gallon,  and  may  be  used  on  either  calves  or  cows.  One- 
half  pint  of  this  mixture  is  considered  enough  for  one  application 
for  a  cow ;  a  calf,  of  course,  would  require  considerably  less.  It  will 
be  more  economical  to  apply  this  only  to  parts  not  reached  by  the 
tail.  At  first  it  will  perhaps  be  necessary  to  give  two  or  three  ap- 
plications per  week,  until  the  outer  ends  of  the  hair  become  coated 
with  resin.  After  that  retouch  those  parts  where  the  resin  is  rubbed 
off. 

At  the  time  of  milking,  w©  find  that  it  materially  adds  to  the 
comfort  of  the  cow  and  the  milker  to  have  material  like  gunny-sacks 
that  will  reach  the  full  length  of  the  cow  and  come  down  low  enough 
to  hold  her  tail.  This  will  keep  the  cow  from  switching  her  tail  into 
the  milk-pail  and  into  the  milker's  face. —  (Kan.  B.  125.) 

Bulk  in  the  Ration. — Next  to  the  proper  nutritive  ratio  and 
amount  of  a  ration,  its  bulkiness  must  be  considered.  A  certain 
amount  of  bulk  in  the  ration  is  necessary  and  desirable,  and  is  made 
up  largely  by  the  water  and  fiber.  If  the  ration  is  too  bulky,  the 
animal  is  unable  to  eat  enough  of  it  to  secure  the  proper  amount 
of  digestible  nutrients,  and  if  it  is  not  bulky  enough  the  digestive 
organs  are  not  sufficiently  distended  to  permit  of  complete  digestion. 
When  the  bulk  is  largely  due  to  fiber,  the  ration  is  likely  to  be  too 
unpalatable  to  be  readily  eaten,  and  when  it  is  due  to  water  a  loos- 
ening and  depleting  effect  on  the  system  is  likely  to  result.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  for  cattle  the  ration  will  be  sufficiently  bulky 
when  two-thirds  of  the  dry  matter  given  is  in  the  form  of  hay,  fod- 
der or  silage  and  one-third  in  the  form  of  grain  or  concentrated  feed. 
For  working  horses  the  amount  of  grain  and  coarse  feed  should  be 
about  equally  divided.— (N.  H.  B.  127.) 

Substituting  Alfalfa  for  Concentrates. — Practically  speaking,  it 
seems  that  when  an  equal  amount  of  alfalfa  hay  is  substituted  for 
wheat  bran  about  one-third  more  cotton-seed  meal  will  be  eaten ;  and 
when  alfalfa  hay  is  substituted  for  cotton-seed  meal  about  three  times 
as  much  alfalfa  hay  will  be  required,  pound  for  pound,  to  replace  the 
cotton-seed  meal.  Actual  experiments  indicate  that  the  theoretical 
basis  of  substitution  is  practically  correct. 

The  limit  of  substitution  that  can  be  permitted  will  depend  on 
the  individual  capacity  of  the  animals  to  consume  alfalfa  hay.  When 
alfalfa  hay  is  cheap  and  abundant  it  can  be  fed  in  what  might  be 
termed  a  wasteful  manner.  It  should  be  placed  before  the  animals  in 
larger  quantities  than  might  seem  advisable  from  a  purely  economic 
standpoint,  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  them  to  eat  as  much  of  it  as 
possible,  because  it  provides  digestible  protein  in  the  cheapest  form 
in  which  it  can  be  obtained,  in  other  words,  than  it  can  be  supplied  in 
the  form  of  wheat  bran  and  cotton-seed  meal.  Ordinarily,  not  more 
than  from  XO  to  12  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  will  be  consumed  with  sil- 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  167 

age.  On  the  other  hand,  while  no  silage  is  fed  this  amount  may  be 
increased  to  from  15  to  20  pounds  per  day. — (Tenn.  B.  Vol.  17 
No.  4.) 

Mangolds,  Carrots,  Sugar  Beets  and  Rutabagas. — Where  silage 
is  not  used  the  dairyman  should  provide  succulence  for  the  winter 
ration  in  the  shape  of  some  kind  of  roots.  The  three  which  suggest 
themselves  as  probably  yielding  the  most  value  for  the  labor  and 
money  expended  in  growing  them  are  mangold,  sugar  beets  and  car- 
rots. Turnips  and  rutabagas  may  be  used  in  the  dairy  but  always 
with  extreme  caution,  because  of  their  liability  to  impart  an  unpleas- 
ant taint  to  the  milk  and  to  the  products  made  from  it.  It  is  true 
undoubtedly  that  rutabagas  can  be  fed  to  dairy  cows  in  such  a  way 
as  to  avoid  this  taint  in  the  milk.  They  must  be  fed  aft^r  milking. 
Precautions  as  to  manner  and  amount  have  to  be  taken  and  some- 
times these  precautions  are  apt  to  be  neglected.  The  result  is  a  sam- 
ple of  butter  injured  and  perhaps  a  customer  permanently  offended. 
The  reasonable  use  of  other  roots  is  attended  with  no  such  danger, 
and  for  this  reason  they  are  recommended.  The  area  devoted  to 
them  need  not  be  large,  but  roots  add  a  needed  variety  to  a  winter 
ration,  whether  a  silo  is  used  or  not.  They  repay  their  cost  in  the 
increased  healthfulness  of  the  cow  as  well  as  in  the  butter  produced. 
A  comparison  was  made  of  the  cost  of  growing  and  of  the  yields  of 
ox-heart  carrots,  yellow  tankard  mangolds,  long  red  mangolds  and 
rutabagas.    The  yield  per  acre  were  as  follows : 

YIELD  PER        DRY  MATTER 
CROPS.  ACRE.  PER  ACRE. 

Carrots    28,836  3,321.90 

Long  red  mangolds 25,616  3,881.30 

Tankard  mangolds    21,744  2,111.30 

Rutabagas  31,028  3,741.98 

Sugar  beets   28,320  5,346.80 

The  largest  yields,  both  in  gross  weight  and  dry  matter  are 
given  by  the  rutabagas,  the  long  red  mangolds  following  next.  The 
average  yield  per  acre  of  four  acres  of  sugar  beets  grown  on  land 
adjoining  the  root  field  was,  as  given  in  the  table,  over  fourteen 
tons  per  acre  containing  5,346.80  lbs.  of  dry  matter. — (Mich.  B. 
234.) 

Succulence. — The  June  pasture  which  forces  every  cow  to  her 
best  yield,  furnishes  a  succulent  ration,  and  for  best  results  from 
the  cows  through  the  winter,  succulent  feed  must  be  given.  On  June 
pasture  alone  a  cow  will  give  a  heavy  yield.  Cut  the  grass,  dry  it  care- 
fully, so  that  water  only  is  lost,  give  this  dried  grass  to  the  cow  as  her 
only  feed,  and  she  will  soon  go  dry.  The  grass  has  lost  its  succulence. 
We  know  the  value  of  fruit  and  vegetables  to  man  in  winter,  and  dur- 
ing this  time  succulent  food  is  equally  valuable  to  the  cow.  It  may 
be  secured  either  from  ensilage  or  roots.  When  the  first  expense  can 
be  afforded,  the  silo  is  the  cheapest  and  best  way  of  providing  green 
feed  for  the  winter,  and  corn  the  best  crop  for  silage.  Where  the 
dairyman  has  no  silo,  mangel-wurzels  or  sugar  beets  should  be  raised 
to  furnish  succulent  winter  feed. 


168  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Succulent  feeds  in  winter  have  two  advantages ;  they  are  appetiz- 
ing, which  makes  the  cow  enjoy  her  feed,  and  they  keep  the  system 
in  a  healthy  condition  and  the  bowels  loose.  The  nearer  we  can  feed 
our  cow  in  winter  to  secure  the  natural  loose  condition  of  the  drop- 
pings as  they  are  from  June  pasture,  the  more  she  can  eat  and  the 
more  she  will  be  able  to  give  in  return  for  each  pound  of  beef  eaten. 
When  a  cow  is  constipated  there  is  a  feverish  condition  of  the  body, 
a  smaller  per  cent  of  the  feed  is  digested  and  converted  into  milk 
and  the  yield  is  lowered. 

If  the  dairyman  has  neither  ensilage  nor  roots,  he  should  com- 
bine his  feeds  to  secure  as  nearly  as  possible  the  right  condition  of  the 
bowels.  This  is  hard  to  do  without  succulent  feeds.  In  the  list  of 
feeds  following,  the  general  effect  which  each  has  in  this  respect  is 
given: 

LOOSENING  FEEDS.  CONSTIPATING  FEEDS. 

Alfalfa.  Corn  fodder. 

Sorghum  hay.  Corn  stalks. 

Ensilage.  KafRr  corn  fodder. 

Roots.  Prairie  hay. 

Bran.  Timothy  hay. 

Soy  bean  meal.  Kaffir  corn  grain. 

Linseed  meal.  Corn  (in  light  feeds). 

Gluten  meal.  Cottonseed  meal. 

Rations  can  be  made  from  these  constipating  feeds  alone  which 
will  contain  digestible  protein  and  energy  values  in  the  right  propor- 
tions, and  such  rations  are  frequently  used  with  results  of  low  milk 
yields,  although  the  cows  have  apparently  an  abundance  of  nutri- 
tious feed.  This  factor  in  profitable  milk  production  should  always 
be  considered. 

Variety. — Cows,  like  human  beings,  crave  variety  in  their  food, 
and  do  best  when  they  have  it.  A  ration  containing  the  proper  food 
elements  can  sometimes  be  given  by  using  one  rough  feed  and  one 
grain  feed  only,  and  fair  results  be  obtained,  but  best  results  are  se- 
cured when  a  variety  is  given,  and  it  is  well  to  have  a  variety  both 
in  roughness  and  in  grain.  A  mixture  of  two  grains  will  produce  a 
higher  yield  than  the  same  amount  of  food  given  in  one  grain,  and 
four  or  five,  or  even  more,  kinds  of  grain  mixed  together  will  usually 
give  better  returns  than  two,  although  the  bulk  of  the  mixture  is 
made  of  one  grain.  Small  additions  of  a  number  of  feeds  flavor 
the  mixture  and  make  it  more  appetizing,  and  for  this  reason  the 
cow  will  eat  more  and  yield  more  in  proportion  to  what  she  eats. 
Ground  oats  usually  cost  too  much  to  form  any  large  portion  of  the 
dairy  eow's  ration,  but  cows  like  this  feed  and  it  is  frequently  profit- 
able to  add  a  handful  of  ground  oats  to  the  grain  ration  of  each  meal, 
as  it  makes  the  whole  feed  taste  better,  and  when  cows  relish  their 
feed  it  adds  to  the  yield.  The  feeders  of  the  cows  that  have  made  the 
high  records  have  thoroughly  understood'  this  fact,  and  a  part  of 
their  success  is  due  to  feeding  a  mixture  of  a  number  of  nutritious, 
palataible  foods,  thereby  inducing  their  cows  to  eat  large  quantities. 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  169 

While  cows  need  a  variety,  they  want  it  to  come  by  having  a 
mixture  of  feeds  at  each  meal,  and  not  by  receiving  one  kind  of 
feed  at  one  meal,  another  at  the  next,  and  still  another  at  the  third. 
Such  a  method  of  giving  a  variety  is  sure  to  reduce  the  yield,  as 
the  cow%  at  a  given  feeding  time,  expects  the  same  kind  of  feed  that 
she  ate  yesterday  at  the  same  time,  and  if  not  given  it  will  be  dis- 
turbed and  will  give  less  milk.  It  is  not  necessary  to  give  a  cow 
the  same  kinds  of  feed  for  supper  that  she  has  for  breakfast,  but 
the  breakfast  mixtures  should  be  alike  for  all  breakfasts  and  the 
supper  feeds  the  same  for  all  suppers  for  a  considerable  period. 

Sudden  changes  usually  decrease  the  milk  yield,  even  when  the 
new  ration  is  better  than  the  old,  and  when  it  is  necessary  to  make 
a  change  in  feed  the  change  should  be  made  gradually,  taking  a 
week  to  ten  days  to  make  any  radical  change. 

Appetizing  Rations. — It  was  stated  in  the  last  paragraph  that  a 
variety  in  the  ration  brought  better  yields  because  it  made  the  food 
more  appetizing,  inducing  the  cow  to  eat  more  and  to  yield  more  for 
what  she  ate.  Whatever  makes  the  feed  taste  better  or  makes  it  more 
enjoyable  to  the  cow  increases  its  value  for  milk  production.  Early- 
cut  hay  is  best  for  the  dairy  cow,  not  only  because  it  contains  more 
protein  than  that  cut  lato,  but  because  its  aroma  and  flavor  make  it 
more  palatable  to  the  cow.  The  appetizing  effect  from  the  early 
cutting  and  careful  curing  of  all  forage  crops  increases  their  feed 
value  for  milk  production.  Freshly-harvested  and  freshly-ground 
grain  are  the  most  palatable  to  the  dairy  cow  and  will  give  best 
results.  Dairymen  who  grind  feed  should  grind  often,  as  grain  that 
has  lost  its  freshness  is  not  the  best  relished  by  the  cow. 

Often  the  dairyman  has  a  large  quantity  of  coarse,  rather  un- 
palatable rough  fodders,  such  as  com  fodder  and  over-ripe  or  slightly 
damaged  hay,  which  he  must  feed,  and  has  only  a  limited  quantity 
of  choice  roughness  to  feed  with  it.  In  this  case,  best  results  can  be 
secured  by  giving  the  more  palatable  roughness  in  the  morning  or 
with  the  grain  night  and  morning  and  feeding  the  poorer  roughage 
as  the  last  feed  at  night,  to  be  eaten  at  the  cow's  pleasure  during  the 
night,  or  else  put  in  racks  in  the  yard  for  mid-day  meals.  Palatable 
feed  in  the  morning  gives  a  contented  cow  through  the  day,  and  this 
contentment  brings  more  milk. 

When  several  kinds  of  feed  are  given  it  is  usual  to  throw  them 
together  into  the  manger  and  let  the  cow  eat  at  will.  This  method 
does  not  secure  the  highest  milk  yield.  You  do  not  want  your  soup 
and  pie  served  together  on  the  same  plate,  and  neither  docs  the  cow 
like  this  method  of  serving  her  food.  If  all  the  feed-stuffs  for  a  meal 
are  thrown  together,  the  more  palatable  are  eaten  first.  In  separat- 
ing and  eating  these,  the  others  are  "mussed"  over,  and  when  the 
cow  comes  to  eat  them,  they  do  not  taste  good  and  she  will  not  eat 
enough  to  produce  the  greatest  milk  yield.  We  like  to  feed  our  most 
palatable  roughness  and  give  this  just  before  the  milkers  go  to  their 
meal.  When  the  milkers  come  back  from  eating,  the  cows  have  fin- 
ished their  first  feed,  and  the  less  palatable  roughness  can  then  be 
given  them.    It  will  not  then  have  been  slobbered  on  and  will  be 


170  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

better  relished  and  more  of  it  eaten.  This  method  of  feeding  re- 
quires time  and  care,  but  it  pays. 

If  the  cows  are  given  their  rough  feed  in  racks  out  of  doors,  it 
will  pay  to  put  feed  in  these  racks  often,  so  that  the  feed  will  be  clean 
and  appetizing.  Mangers,  feed  troughs,  and  racks  should  be  kept 
clean  and  fresh  from  old,  soiled  feed,  both  as  a  matter  of  health  and 
because  the  food  in  a  clean  manger  smells  and  tastes  better. 

The  dairyman's  rule  should  be  to  harvest  feed  in  its  most  pala- 
table form  and  feed  in  the  most  appetizing  manner. — (Kan.  B.  81.) 

Silage  and  Vegetables. — One  of  the  chief  requisites  of  a  ration 
for  profitable  milk-production  is  that  it  be  succulent,  by  which  is 
meant  that  a  portion  of  the  ration  contains  a  large  percentage  of 
water.  This  watery  condition,  or  succulency,  adds  to  the  palatability 
of  the  food,  and  also  seems  to  have  a  beneficial  physical  efi^ect  upon 
the  animal  digestion.  The  cow,  therefore,  eats  a  larger  quantity  of 
food,  digests  and  assimilates  it  more  thoroughly,  and  consequently 
gives  a  larger  flow  of  milk.  Although  the  major  portion  of  Califor- 
nia does  not  have  the  long  cold  winters  to  which  the  Eastern  States 
are  subject,  and  where  it  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  store  large  quan- 
tities of  food,  both  succulent  and  dry,  still  every  section  of  our  State 
has  a  longer  or  shorter  period  during  the  year  when  pastures  are 
dry.  The  provident  dairyman,  therefore,  anticipates  these  dry 
months,  and  either  lays  in  a  store  of  green  food  beforehand,  or  has 
some  growing  which  he  may  cut  and  feed  to  his  cattle. 

Roots. — Several  of  the  vegetables  are  valuable  in  supplying  suc- 
culence for  the  ration.  Among  the  root  class  the  one  in  most  com- 
mon use  is  the  mangel  wurtzel  beet,  because  very  large  quantities 
can  be  grown  per  acre  and  because  it  is  palatable  to  all  kinds  of  live 
stock.  Carrots  are  also  used  in  some  sections,  and  they  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  containing  a  slightly  larger  amount  of  dry  matter  than 
mangels.  Of  all  the  roots  moreover  none  are  more  relished  by  horses 
than  carrots.  Sugar  beets  are  not  found  profitable  to  grow  for  feed- 
ing stock,  because  they  yield  so  small  a  tonnage  in  comparison  to 
mangels,  and  the  greater  cost  of  growing  and  gathering  can  only  be 
undertaken  on  the  ground  of  their  greater  value  for  sugar.  Potatoes 
contain  about  twice  as  much  dry  matter  as  mangels  and  three  times 
as  much  carbonaceous  material.  They  are,  therefore,  of  greater  food 
value,  but,  like  sugar  beets,  have  too  high  a  commercial  value  as 
human  food  to  make  them  profitable  for  stock. 

Squashes. — Another  class  of  vegetables  which  are  useful  and 
easily  grown  is  that  of  the  melons  or  squashes.  A  very  familiar  ex- 
ample is  the  so-called  pie-melon.  This,  like  the  ordinary  field  pump- 
kin, can  be  produced  readily  in  large  quantities  on  most  lands,  and 
it  ripens  at  a  time  when  green  food  is  likely  to  be  scarce.  All  of 
these  vegetables  when  fed  to  dairy  stock  produce  an  increased  milk 
yield,  which  is  more  than  commensurate  with  their  actual  content 
of  food  substance.  This  is  because  of  their  palatalbility,  beneficial 
effect  upon  digestion,  and  the  addition  of  a  wholesome  variety  to  the 
ration.     Any  of  the  vegetables  named  may  be  fed  with  profit  to 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  17X 

swine  and  poultry  when  in  confinement,  and  to  sheep  especially  dur- 
ing the  nursing  period. — (Cal.  B.  132.) 

Sugar-Beet  Pulp. — In  the  process  of  manufacturing  beet  sugar 
there  remains  a  by-product  containing  a  large  proportion  of  w^ater 
and  for  which  no  profitable  use  has  been  found  thus  f£ir,  except  as 
a  food  for  stock.  Upon  the  arrival  of  the  sugar-beets  at  the  factory 
they  are  first  washed  and  then  run  through  a  slicing  machine  which 
shreds  them  into  small  strips  resembling  a  large  size  of  twine.  The 
shredded  beets  are  placed  in  large  cylinders  through  which  hot 
water  is  forced  and  the  sugar  thereby  dissolved  out  of  the  beets.  The 
portion  remaining  after  the  sugar  has  passed  off  in  solution  is  what 
is  known  as  beet-pulp,  or  residue.  It  is  of  no  further  use  to  the 
manufacturer,  who  is  always  ready  to  dispose  of  it  at  a  nominal 
price.  Because  of  its  passing  through  such  a  soaking  process,  the 
beet  pulp  comes  from  the  factory  with  a  high  content  of  water,  which 
in  most  cases  is  about  ninety  per  cent  of  its  total  weight.  It  is  there- 
fore heavy  material  to  handle,  and  the  cost  of  transportation  is  likely 
to  be  high  in  proportion  to  its  actual  value,  either  for  food  or  any 
other  purpose.  The  presence  of  so  much  water,  however,  renders 
the  beet  residue  of  much  value  for  milch  cows  where  other  succulent 
foods,  as  green  pasture,  silage  or  soiling  crops,  are  not  available. 

Several  years  of  experience  in  California  have  proven  sugar-beet 
pulp  of  value  for  fattening  cattle  as  well  as  for  producing  milk,  and 
the  fact  is  that  the  larger  portion  of  the  beet  pulp  in  the  State  is  con- 
sumed by  cattle  which  are  being  fitted  for  the  butcher's  block.  It 
has  been  fed  also  to  some  extent  to  sheep.  Both  cattle  and  sheep  eat 
the  pulp  so  readily  that  there  is  scarcely  any  difficulty  about  getting 
them  accustomed  to  it.  So  far  as  we  are  able  to  learn  aU  those  who 
have  fed  beet  pulp  to  either  of  these  kinds  of  stock  have  been  success- 
ful except  where  they  tried  to  make  the  pulp  the  sole  food.  This 
should  never  be  done  for  more  than  a  few  days  at  most,  because  the 
animal  cannot  consume  enough  of  such  watery  food  to  maintain  life 
and  produce  milk  or  meat.  Moreover,  as  a  general  principle,  an 
animal  should  never  be  expected  to  do  its  best  when  confined  to  a 
single  article  of  diet. 

Storing  Beet  Pulp. — When  a  pile  of  beet  pulp  has  been  sub- 
jected to  the  weather  for  some  time  the  whole  exposed  surface  decays 
to  a  depth  of  six  to  eight  inches,  forming  a  crust  which  serves  as  a 
seal  to  preserve  the  under-lying  material.  Beet  pulp  may  be  said, 
therefore,  to  silo  itself;  and  the  chief  points  in  arranging  storage 
for  it  are  to  confine  the  desired  quantity  into  as  small  a  space  as 
possible  and  reduce  the  exposed  surface  to  a  minimum.  These  points 
are  secured  by  means  of  silos  of  various  kinds.  Since  the  food  value 
of  beet  pulp  is  so  small  in  proportion  to  its  weight,  there  is  no  profit 
in  constructing  costly  storage  places ;  therefore  the  silo  may  be  cheap, 
but  it  must  be  strongly  built.— (Cal.  B.  132.) 

Sorghum  Silage. — The  question  which  confronts  the  farmer  is: 
What  crop  can  I  raise  most  economically  for  the  silo?  This  means: 
What  crop  will  produce  most  tons  of  good  nutritious  food  per  acre? 
Oowpea  hay  is  known  to  be  an  excellent  forage,  but  the  yield  is 


172  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

small ;  moreover  it  does  not  make  a  good  quality  of  silage.  The  same 
is  true  with  oats,  rye,  or  beggarweed  hay.  It  comes  then  to  the  ques- 
tion of  deciding  between  corn  and  sorghum.  Analysis  shows  sor- 
ghum silage  to  be  a  Httle  richer  in  total  digestible  nutrients  than  com 
silage.  Sorghum  has  also  a  heavier  yield  of  green  forage  per  acre 
than  com.  If  then,  sorghum  produces  silage  richer  in  total  diges- 
tible nutrients,  and  also  gives  a  larger  yield  of  green  forage  per  acre, 
it  has  two  important  points  in  its  favor.  It  is  not  only  the  best  crop 
for  the  silo,  but  also  the  cheapest. 

The  cost  of  cultivating  an  acre  of  ground  is  the  same  regardless 
of  the  yield ;  that  is,  the  time  and  labor  required  to  produce  an  acre 
of  corn  will  be  tlie  same,  whether  two  tons  or  ten  tons  of  forage  are 
produced  per  acre ;  but  the  cost  of  production  per  ton  will  be  reduced 
as  the  yield  per  acre  is  increased.  For  example,  if  it  costs  $10  to 
fertilize  and  cultivate  one  acre  that  produces  only  four  tons  of  forage, 
the  cost  per  ton  will  be  $2.50;  but  if  for  the  same  expenditure  of 
money  we  can  produce  some  other  crop  that  will  yield  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  tons  per  acre,  then  the  cost  per  ton  will  be  reduced  by 
nearly  60  to  75  per  cent.— (Fla.  B.  92.) 

Feeding  Roots. — Roots  of  some  kind  are  good  for  all  domestic 
animals.  Their  effect  is  tonic  as  well  as  nutritive.  Breeders  and 
feeders  of  animals  for  exhibition  find  them  invaluable.  For  most 
purposes  the  roots  are  chopped  or  sliced  before  feeding.  Various 
hand  and  power  machines  are  on  the  market  for  this  work.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  roots  should  not  be  fed  alone  as  they  carry  too  much 
water.  A  feed  may  vary  from  25  to  50  pounds  per  day  for  a  thou- 
sand pounds  of  animal,  according  to  the  amount  of  dry  concentrates 
and  roughage  fed.  It  is  usual  to  put  the  cut  roots  into  the  feed  box 
and  distribute  the  ground  grain  over  them.  For  poultry,  however, 
the  whole  roots  may  be  given,  allowing  the  fowls  to  pick  them.  It 
is  said  by  some  that  turnips  and  rutabagas  impart  a  flavor  to  milk. 
However,  if  no  roots  are  in  the  milking  room  at  the  time  of  milking 
and  they  are  fed  just  after  milking,  this  may  be  avoided. 

Feeding  Cabbage. — Cabbages  are  good  food  for  cattle,  sheep  and 
swine.  When  they  are  grown  for  stock  feeding  it  has  not  been  a 
general  practice  to  remove  them  from  the  field.  If  it  is  convenient 
for  feeding  to  continue  into  early  winter  they  are  pulled  and  piled 
closely,  then  fed  directly  from  the  field.  When  fed  to  sheep  they  are 
generally  not  cut.  The  sheep  can  nibble  them  very  well.  When, 
fed  to  cattle  they  should  be  cut  either  by  a  cutting  machine,  or  they 
may  be  chopped  fairly  well  with  a  square  pointed  shovel.  They 
should  be  fed  as  soon  after  being  cut  as  possible.  Sometimes  the 
grain  or  chopped  feed  is  mixed  with  them. 

It  is  claimed  by  many  feeders  that  cabbages  are  likely  to  lend  a 
disagreeable  odor  or  taste  to  the  milk  when  fed  to  dairy  cattle.  This 
may  be  avoided,  however,  by  feeding  just  before  or  just  after  milk- 
ing, care  being  taken  to  remove  the  milk  from  the  presence  of  the 
ca;bbage  as  soon  as  possible. — (N.  Y.  Cornell  B.  242.) 

Relation  of  Live  Weight  to  Proper  Feeding. — The  live  weight 
of  a  cow  is  a  good  index  of  whether  the  cow  is  being  fed  a  proper 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  173 

amount  or  not,  but  good  judgment  must  be  used  in  regulating  the 
ration  by  observing  this  condition.  We  must  expect  that  a  cow  will 
lose  weight  in  the  first  few  weeks  of  her  milking  period,  but  after 
this  period  is  past  there  is  no  reason  why  she  need  to  change  much  in 
wei^t  for  several  months,  and  this  is  the  period  when  the  greater 
part  of  the  milk  production  is  secured.  It  will  not  mean,  of  course, 
that  the  animal  should  not  be  allowed  to  gain  in  weight  during  the 
latter  end  of  the  milking  period.  This  is  necessary  on  account  of 
the  development  of  the  foetus,  and  since  it  is  natural  for  the  animal 
to  carry  some  fat  on  her  body  at  calving  time. 

It  does  not  mean,  however,  that  in  order  to  feed  a  herd  of  cows 
economically  it  will  not  do  to  feed  them  all  the  same  quantity  of 
grain  whether  they  are  giving  a  ^lon  of  milk  a  day  or  whether 
they  are  giving  four  gallons,  and  it  means  that  when  a  cow  in  the 
middle  of  her  lactation  period  is  putting  on  weight  that  she  is  being 
fed  more  than  she  needs  and  will  give  just  as  much  milk  if  the  feed 
is  cut  down  somewhat.  It  also  means  that  if  a  certain  animal  is  los- 
ing in  weight  that  sufficient  feed  is  not  being  given,  and  if  the  defi- 
ciency is  not  supplied  it  will  not  be  long  before  the  milk  production 
will  come  down  to  correspond  with  the  amount  of  feed  available. 

Feeding  as  Individuals. — In  connection  with  this  subject  of  the 
amount  to  feed  cows  it  needs  to  be  pointed  out  that  it  is  only  possible 
to  feed  a  bunch  of  cows  economically  when  they  are  fed  as  individu- 
als, and  not  as  a  herd.  A  too  common  practice,  even  in  the  other- 
wise well  conducted  herds,  is  for  all  animals  to  be  fed  the  same 
amount  of  grain  regardless  of  the  time  they  have  been  in  milk  or  the 
quantity  of  milk  individual  cows  are  producing.  Such  feeding  al- 
waj's  lacks  economy,  as  the  high  producing  cow  does  not  get  enough, 
and  while  she  may  milk  very  well  for  a  short  time,  she  soon  comes 
down  to  a  lower  level,  while  the  lighter  producing  cow  usually  gets 
too  much  and  accumulates  fat.  One  of  the  difficult  problems  which 
confronts  the  practical  feeder  is  how  to  adjust  the  quantity  of  feed 
to  meet  these  individual  requirements.  It  can  be  done  fairly  well 
even  in  the  large  herds  by  observing  how  much  milk  the  cow  is  pro- 
ducing, and  whether  she  is  gaining  or  losing  in  body  weight. 

Amount  of  Grain  and  Roughness  to  Feed. — The  cow  being 
adapted  by  nature  for  consuming  bulky  feeds  does  not  feel  satis- 
fied unless  she  has  sufficient  bulk  to  the  ration  given  at  all  times. 
An  animal  that  is  fed  too  much  grain  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  roughness  may  seem  hungry,  while  she  really  has  a  sufficient 
amount  of  nutrients,  but  so  concentrated  that  it  does  not  have  suffi- 
cient bulk.  The  cow  should  be  fed  practically  all  the  roughness  she 
will  eat  up  clean,  and  the  difference  in  rations  fed  to  diflferent 
animals  should  not  be  so  much  in  the  amount  fed  as  in  varying 
amounts  given:  1.  Feed  all  the  roughness  they  will  eat  up  clean 
at  all  times.  2,  Feed  one  pound  of  grain  per  day  for  each  pound 
butter  fat  produced  per  week,  or  one  pound  grain  daily  for  each 
three  pounds  of  milk.  3.  Feed  all  the  cows  will  take  without  gain- 
ing in  weight. 


174  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

The  rule  regarding  the  amount  of  grain  to  feed  per  day  to  each 
cow  applies  only  when  good  roughness  such  as  com  silage,  and 
clover,  cowpeas,  or  alfalfa  hay  is  used. 

Home  Grown  Balanced  Rations. — One  reason  why  the  average 
farmer  makes  a  mistake  of  feeding  his  cows  rations  that  are  not  prop- 
erly balanced  is  that  it  is  easier,  or  he  thinks  it  is,  to  grow  feeds  that 
are  excessively  rich  in  carbohydrates  and  lacking  in  protein.  This 
comes  about  principally  by  the  large  amount  of  com  grown  and 
used.  Many  farmers  have  corn  fodder  and  timothy  hay  for  rough- 
ness and  practically  nothing  in  the  way  of  grain  but  com.  From 
such  feeds  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  ration  that  supplies  the  neces- 
sary nutrients  to  produce  much  milk.  It  is  possible  to  make  a  fairly 
food  ration  using  these  for  roughness,  but  it  is  only  possible  to  do  so 
y  buying  large  quantities  of  mill  feeds  that  are  rich  in  protein. 
The  thing  for  the  farmer  to  do  is  to  raise  the  feeds  he  requires  on 
his  own  mrm,  as  far  as  possible,  and  it  is  possible  to  produce  prac- 
tically all  that  is  needed  to  make  a  balanced  ration.  The  place  to 
begin  in  considering  the  feeding  of  an  animal  always  is  with  the 
roughness,  since  the  character  of  the  roughness  determines  to  a  large 
extent  the  kind  of  grain  it  is  advisable  to  feed. 

The  cheapest  source  of  protein  is  in  leguminous  hays,  including 
clover,  alfalfa  and  cowpea  hay.  If  an  abundance  of  any  one  of 
these  hays  are  on  hand,  the  problem  of  making  an  economical  bal- 
anced ration  is  very  much  simplified.  The  use  of  these  hays  makes 
it  unnecessary  to  buy  any  large  quantities  of  bran,  oil  meal  or  cotton- 
seed meal  for  ordinary  dairy  cows,  and  makes  it  possible  that  the 
principal  grain  used  be  corn,  which  is  usually  our  cheapest  grain. 
Even  cowpea  or  alfalfa  hay  alone,  with  corn  for  grain,  makes  a 
fairly  good  ration  for  an  ordinary  dairy  cow,  and  such  a  ration  could 
be  substituted  with  good  results  for  that  of  timothy  hay  and  corn 
fodder.  When  hay  is  purchased,  it  is  always  best  to  purchase  one 
of  the  kinds  mentioned,  as  the  price  is  about  the  same,  or  lower  than 
that  of  timothy,  which  is  far  inferior  as  a  milk  producing  food.  If 
any  hay  is  to  be  sold  from  the  farm  it  should  be  timothy  hay  and  not 
clover  or  cowpea  hay. — (Mo.  Cir.  44.) 

Suggestions  to  Consumers. — There  appears  to  be  a  growing  ten- 
dency on  the  part  of  consumers  to  purcnase  proprietary  brands  of 
feeding  stufiFs  that  are  mixtures  of  two  or  more  by-products.  Many  of 
these  mixtures  are  compounded  for  the  purpose  of  providing  a  me- 
dium in  which  inferior  waste  products  lose  their  identity  by  mixing 
them  with  materials  of  good  and  well  recognized  quality.  For  in- 
stance, an  "oat  feed"  may  contain  hominy  feed,  oat  hulls  and  some- 
times enough  of  some  material  rich  in  protein,  perhaps  gluten  meal, 
to  bring  the  protein  content  of  the  mixture  up  to  a  desirable  propor- 
tion. Such  a  mixture  is  worth  commercially  what  the  hominy  feed 
and  gluten  meal  would  cost  and  no  more.  If  20  per  cent  of  oat  hulls 
are  present  then  the  price  of  the  mixtures  should  be  20  per  cent  less 
than  what  a  full  ton  of  the  hominy  feed  and  gluten  meal  mixture 
would  cost.  ^  Oat  hull  mixtures  are  not  an  imposition  on  the  con- 
Bumer,  provided  they  are  sold  at  a  price  proportional  to  the  standard 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  175 

materials  which  the  mixtures  contain,  otherwise  they  are  bought  at 
a  loss.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  these  mixtures  are  sold  at  about  the  prices 
which  rule  for  feeding  stuffs  of  standard  grade. 

If  farmers  foolishly  think  that  it  is  desirable  to  have  in  the 
grain  mixture  some  fibrous  material  like  oat  huUs,  let  them  hire 
someone  to  grind  up  their  straw  stacks  or  the  mows  of  poor  hay  and 
mix  the  good  grain  with  these.  It  is  pitiful  to  see  farmers  of  limited 
means  paying  grain  prices  for  an  ingredient  in  certain  commercial 
cattle  foods  which  is  worth  no  more  than  the  poorest  coarse  fodders 
around  the  barn.  Such  costly  business  management  seems  to  be  the 
fruit  of  either  wilful  ignorance  or  a  lazy  indifference. 

The  manufacturer  who  uses  oat  hulls  in  such  a  way  as  to  de- 
ceive his  customers  is  simply  dishonest.  One  of  the  most  glaring  im- 
positions discovered  is  the  case  of  sample  246,  representing  an  oat 
feed  found  on  sale  at  Homer.  The  oat  feed  ( ?)  contained  only  1.7 
per  cent  of  protein  and  over  30  per  cent  of  fiber.  It  was  nothing  but 
oat  hulls.  The  selling  price  was  $15  per  ton !  Comment  is  unnec- 
essary. 

The  wise  course  for  farmers  to  pursue  is  to  purchase  either 
standard  by-product  feeding  stuffs  or  the  entire  grains,  such  as  corn 
and  oats,  whole  or  ground.  At  $1.00  per  hundred  for  corn  meal  and 
$0.40  per  bushel  for  oats,  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  by  weight  of  these 
two  grains  can  be  secured  at  no  greater  price  than  what  is  asked  for 
certain  oat  feeds.  If  hominy  feed  is  used  in  place  of  the  corn  meal 
the  cost  would  be  lessened. — (N.  Y.  State  Bui.  198.) 

Nevertheless,  the  feeder  must  use  his  business  sense.  When 
oats  and  corn  are  both  hovering  around  $25  per  ton  there  is  no  com- 
bination of  pure  grains  that  can  be  made  which  will  yield  the  manu- 
facturer a  profit  at  $18  per  ton.  If  protein  feeds  are  desired,  consider 
content  of  protein  and  price  per  ton  together  in  the  selection.  The 
protein  feeds  are  submitted  in  a  wide  variety,  and,  this  year  at  least, 
the  differences  seem  to  be  in  analysis  rather  than  in  price. 

When  home-growTi  feed  commands  a  high  price,  sell  and  buy 
cheaper  feeds.  In  many  instances  the  purse  and  the  ration  are  both 
improved.  If  corn  is  high  and,  therefore,  to  be  sold,  and  gluten  meal 
is  Dought  in  its  place,  the  best  of  the  com  is  brought  home  again. 
It  is  a  common  practice  to  exchange  wheat  for  wheat  bran ;  why  not 
corn  for  gluten  meal  or  feed?  Still,  this  is  not  applicable  to  all  feeds ; 
for  while  an  exchange  of  corn  for  gluten  products  returns  the  best  of 
the  corn,  the  exchange  of  oats  for  oat  feed  returns  the  poorest  por- 
tions of  the  oats. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  home-grown  products  may  be  cheap,  and 
there  is  a  point  when  the  exchange,  though  desirable  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  ration,  will  not  prove  profitable  enough  to  warrant  itself. 
Remoteness  from  market,  the  price  of  feeds,  the  freight  rates  and 
the  small  returns  from  dairy  products  may  so  change  conditions  as 
to  render  one  feeder's  folly,  in  feeding  carbohydrates  wastefully,  the 
most  profitable,  if  not  the  most  desirable,  course  for  another  feeder  to 
pursue. 


176  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

All  these  things  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  feeder  who  would 
be  successful.  When  buying,  buy  wisely.  Buy  either  standard 
goods,  the  quality  of  which  may  be  judged  pretty  accurately,  or  in- 
sist on  guarantees.  Avoid  the  materials  which  are  marked  down  be- 
cause they  are  slightly  below  grade.  Usually  the  reduction  in  price 
is  by  no  means  large  enough,  and  having  accepted  the  goods  with  the 
statement  that  they  are  damaged  or  deficient,  there  is  no  redress. 

Of  course  it  must  be  remembered  that  certain  products  are  ex- 
empted from  the  provisions  of  the  law,  as  stated  in  the  opening  pag^ 
of  this  bulletin.  As  to  the  others,  the  Station  expects  to  do  its  duty 
in  the  matter.  In  the  fertilizer  inspection  it  has  been  found  that  the 
desire  to  stand  well  in  the  published  results  of  the  inspection  has 
been  an  important  factor  in  causing  a  careful  attention  to  legal  pro- 
visions. At  the  same  time,  those  who  find  it  necessary  to  purchase 
feeding  stuffs  should  remember  that  they  can  largely  assist  in  deter- 
mining the  extent  to  which  the  law  is  obeyed.  If  they  refuse  to  buy 
foods  not  properly  marked  or  for  which  no  guaranteed  analysis  can 
e  furnished,  when  under  the  law  such  should  be  furnished,  dealers 
will  not  handle  such  goods ;  and  when  dealers  refuse  to  handle  a  par- 
ticular brand,  the  manufacturer  will  be  obliged  to  comply  with  the 
law  to  protect  his  interests. — (N.  J.  B.  153.) 

Purchase  of  Commercial  Feeding  Stujfs. — A  well-managed 
dairy  farm  should  produce  all  of  the  coarse  fodder, — in  form  of  corn 
fodder  or  stover,  hay  and  ensilage, — which  is  needed  for  the  stock, 
and,  excepting  under  unusual  conditions,  should  also  supply  an 
abundance  of  starchy  food,  such  as  corn  meal  and  in  some  cases  oats 
and  barley,  for  feeding  purposes.  These  the  farmer  should  be  able 
to  produce  in  abundance.  But  in  order  to  feed  them  without  waste 
and  also  to  supply  a  deficiency  in  them,  it  is  almost  always  advisable 
or  necessary,  m  the  absence  of  clover,  alfalfa,  or  other  leguminous 
crops,  to  buy  feeds  rich  in  digestible  protein; — considerably  richer 
in  it  than  corn  meal. — (N.  J.  B.  115.) 

Best  Week  in  a  Cow's  Lactation  Period. — It  is  often  of  much  im- 
portance to  know  at  what  time  in  a  cow's  lactation  she  is  liable  to 
make  her  best  record.  Nearly  all  of  the  associations  of  our  improved 
dairy  breeds  favor  the  animals  making  large  milk  or  butter  records. 
In  some  cases  certain  fixed  standards  are  set,  as,  for  example,  in  the 
American  Jersey  Cattle  Club  Association  where  fourteen  pounds  or 
over  of  butter  is  required  to  admit  animals  to  what  is  known  as  the 
tested  list. 

In  looking  over  the  herd  records,  it  was  found  that  a  great 
variation  existed  as  to  the  best  week  of  lactation.  This  variation  was 
not  only  among  certain  individual  cows  but  it  also  existed  with  the 
same  cow  from  year  to  year.  In  order  to  get  reliable  data  it  was 
quite  evident  a  large  number  of  records  would  be  required  to  over- 
come the  varying  influence  and  find  a  fair  average.  Out  of  this  large 
number  of  carefully  compiled  records  the  following  data  and  results 
are  drawn.  It  was  found  that  nine-tenths  of  the  cows  made  their 
best  records  during  the  first  ten  weeks  of  lactation  and  that  over  one- 
half  made  their  best  records  during  the  first  month.    The  first  week 


Polled  Durham  Bull.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


Polled  Durham  Cow.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  179 

is  calculated  beginning  four  days  after  calving,  thus  making  the  end 
of  the  first  week  eleven  days  after  calving.  From  the  results  ob- 
tained, which  bid  fair  to  be  average,  the  second  and  third  weeks  of 
a  cow's  lactation  are  the  best,  and  there  is  not  much  difference  be- 
tween the  two.  A  cow  reaches  her  highest  production  of  butter  fat 
at  an  earlier  period  than  she  does  her  greatest  milk  flow. — (Nebr. 
B.  76.) 

Salt  Required. — A  cow  should  receive  enough  salt  to  compen- 
sate for  the  chlorine  contained  in  the  milk  produced.  In  general 
tliis  will  require  about  .6  ounce  of  salt  for  each  20  lbs.  of  milk  given. 
A  slight  excess  wdll  do  no  harm  and  it  is  recommended  that  dairy 
cows  be  given  at  least  1  oz.  of  salt  per  day.  Exceptionally  heavy 
milkers  will  require  more  than  this. — (Wis.  22d  Annual  Report.) 

Cattle  Food  Substitutes. — On  the  farm  or  in  the  city,  it  is  folly 
to  pay  feed  prices  for  low-grade  material  of  lower  utility  than  the 
ordinary  forms  of  farm  roughage.  If  consumers  should  see  the 
original  of  some  of  the  fine-ground  materials  which  are  appear- 
ing on  the  market,  they  would  almost  refuse  it  as  bedding,  for  fear 
the  animal  might  eat  it — cocoanut  shells,  peanut  shells,  rice  hulls, 
coffee  hulls,  and  various  other  kinds  of  hulls,  all  trading  on  the 
reputation  of  the  genuine  products,  such  as  true  cocoanut  meaJ,  pea- 
nut meal,  rice  meal,  etc. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  feed  with  less  than  7  per  cent  protem  is  a 
wise  purchase,  unless  under  exceptional  circumstances.  Even  aver- 
age cob  meal  contains  nearly  8  per  cent.  As  a  rule,  when  the  amount 
of  protein  present  in  a  feed  falls  below  7  per  cent  its  place  is  taken  by 
crude  fiber,  and  the  purchaser  does  not  receive  any  greater  amount, 
if  as  much,  of  the  more  digestible  forms  of  carbohydrates  than  if  the 
protein  were  furnished. 

Consumers  are,  therefore,  advised  to  be  on  their  guard  in  the 
purchase  of  some  of  these  so-called  cheap  feeds.  As  a  rule,  buy 
standard  feeds,  for  their  quality  may  be  pretty  accurately  judged. 
Avoid  materials  which,  you  are  confidentially  informed,  are  of 
slightly  inferior  grade;  they  are  apt  to  be  very  much  so.  If  the 
material  offered  is  such  that  the  law  requires  it  to  be  guaranteed, 
insist  on  having  the  guarantee  and  study  it. — (N.  J.  B.  156.) 

What  Concentrates  Shall  the  Farmer  Purchase? — Concentrates 
do  not  permanently  affect  the  percentage  composition  of  the  milk. 
Feeds  having  a  high  fat  percentage,  such  as  cottonseed  meal  and 
distillers'  dried  grains  may  temporarily  increase  the  fat  and  cream 
percentage,  but  the  milk  shortly  returns  to  its  normal  composition. 
The  richness  of  the  milk  in  fat  depends  primarily  on  the  breed  and 
individuality  of  the  cow  and  also  upon  the  stage  of  lactation.  The 
only  way  to  make  more  cream  and  more  butter  is  to  make  more 
milk. 

There  is  no  "best"  grain  ration.  Some  feeds  are  better  suited 
than  others  for  milk  production,  and  some  are  decidedly  more  eco- 
nomical. It  would,  of  course,  be  out  of  place  in  a  publication  of  this 
kind  to  attempt  to  specify  which  is  the  most  economical  grain  or 
grain  mixture  for  the  reason  that  the  market  is  subject  to  frequent 


180  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

and  sudden  changes  and  what  may  be  true  to-day  might  be  incor- 
rect a  week  or  month  hence. 

In  selecting  concentrates,  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  needed 
as  well  as  their  cost,  should  be  kept  steadily  in  mind.  Experiments 
have  clearly  demonstrated  that  the  dairy  cow  of  800  to  1,000  pounds 
live  weight,  yielding  10  to  14  quarts  of  milk  daily,  needs  from  14 
to  16  pounds  of  actual  digestible  matter  a  day,  and  of  this  quantity, 
2  to  2^^  pounds  should  be  protein,  the  balance  being  carbohydrate  or 
starchy  material.  Now  the  farm  produces  principally  one-sided  or 
starchy  feeds,  such  as  hay,  roots  and  corn.  A  combination  of  hay, 
silage  and  corn  meal  will  furnish  all  the  digestible  matter  that  is 
needed  in  the  daily  ration,  but  the  combination  will  be  lacking  in 
protein.  It  is  advisable  and  necessary  therefore,  in  order  to  produce 
milk  to  the  best  advantage,  to  purchase  feeds  rich  in  protein  to  make 
up  the  deficiency.  A  grain  ration  made  up  of  protein  feeds  will  also 
produce  manure  10  to  15  per  cent  more  valuable  than  one  composed 
of  hay,  silage  and  corn  meal. 

It  is  poor  economy  for  the  farmer  to  purchase  starchy  feeds, 
since  he  can  produce  them  more  economically.  Milk  producers,  on 
the  other  hand,  who  buy  all  of  their  grain  will  find  it  advisable  to 
have  one-third  of  their  ration  consist  of  corn  or  hominy  meals  in 
order  to  furnish  the  necessary  digestible  matter. 

Experience  and  experiments  have  taught  the  writer  that  the 
most  economical  and  satisfactory  concentrates  to  make  up  the  pro- 
tein deficiency  are  cottonseed  meal,  gluten  meal  and  gluten  feed, 
dried  distillers'  grains,  flour  middlings,  dried  brewers'  grains  and 
malt  sprouts.  Linseed  is  also  satisfactory  and  at  present  economical. 
Wheat  bran,  because  of  the  relatively  small  amount  of  protein  it  con- 
tains is  an  expensive  protein  feed.  It  is,  however,  valuable  as  a  di- 
luter  for  the  more  concentrated  articles,  and  has  a  satisfactory  effect 
on  the  bowels.  It  is  hardly  the  part  of  economy  to  have  the  grain 
ration  consist  of  over  one-third  bran,  and  many  feeders  will  endeavor 
to  get  along  without  it  by  using  corn  silage  or  distillers'  grains  as 
a  diluter.  If  starchy  feeds  are  needed  purchase  corn,  hominy  or 
barley  meals.  In  regard  to  the  so-called  mixed  feed  adulterated  with 
com  cobs,  the  various  oat  offals  containing  large  quantities  of  oat 
hulls,  and  other  inferior  feeds,  the  only  advice  that  can  be  given  is, 
do  not  be  tempted  to  purchase  them. 

Talk  About  Grain  Mixtures. — Many  farmers  are  prone  to  esti- 
mate the  value  of  the  different  grains  in  quarts  rather  than  in 
pounds.  Thus  a  quart  of  bran,  weighing  a  trifle  more  than  one-half 
pound,  is  compared  in  feeding  value  with  a  quart  of  cottonseed  meal 
weighing  1,4  pounds  and  the  feeding  effect  noted  on  this  basis.  That 
this  is  an  unfair  method  of  comparison  is  self-evident.  Feed  stuffs 
should  always  be  compared  pound  for  pound,  and  in  making  up  a 
grain  mixture,  a  definite  number  of  pounds  of  one  feed  should  be 
mixed  with  a  definite  weight  of  another.  The  weight  of  a  quart  of 
the  mixture  can  be  ascertained,  and  for  practical  purposes  a  certain 
number  of  quarts — equivalent  to  a  definite  number  of  pounds — may 
then  be  fed  daily. 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  181 

There  is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  among  feeders  as  to  the 
amount  of  grain  that  it  is  profitable  to  feed  daily,  and  in  fact  no 
exact  rule  can  be  laid  down.  Generally  speaking,  cows  weighing 
800  to  1,000  pounds,  that  are  producing  12  or  more  quarts  of  milk  a 
day,  can  profitably  utilize  6  to  8  pounds  of  grain  in  24  hours  in  addi- 
tion to  the  ordinary  roughage  ration.  When  milk  or  cream  brings 
a  low  price,  it  might  be  better  management  to  increase  the  roughago 
and  decrease  the  grain  to  4  or  5  pounds  daily,  and  on  the  other  hand, 
w^here  the  demand  for  milk  is  good  and  the  feeding  and  productive 
capacity  of  the  cow  is  known,  10  and  even  in  some  instances  12 
pounds  can  be  fed  to  advantage.  Heavy  milking  Holsteins  will 
often  use  double  these  amounts  when  fresh.  As  the  period  of  lacta- 
tion advances  and  the  animal  fails  to  respond  to  the  maximum 
ration,  the  quantity  of  concentrates  can  be  somewhat  reduced  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  judgment  of  the  feeder. 

It  is  unwise  to  feed  heavy  nitrogenous  concentrates  unless  di- 
luted with  some  bulky  feed,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  likely  to  be 
imperfectly  chewed,  digested  and  assimilated,  and  are  frequently 
chewed,  digested  and  assimilated,  and  are  frequent  causes  of  diges- 
tive disturbances.  Wheat  bran,  distillers'  grains,  malt  sprouts  and 
even  chopped  hay  or  silage  will  serve  as  proper  distributers.  In  the 
types  of  grain  mixtures  given  below,  one-third  wheat  bran  has  been 
used  in  most  of  the  combinations.  Some  very  successful  feeders 
maintain  that  the  most  satisfactory  rations  should  contain  one-half 
bran,  but  the  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  such  a  mixture  would  be 
too  expensive  for  the  average  feeder.  Grain  rations  should  be  so 
compounded  that  a  quart  of  the  combination  should  not  weigh  over 
one  pound  or  even  a  little  less. — (Mass.  B.  93.) 

Fertility  Value  of  Rations. — The  matter  of  fertility  values 
should  also  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  question  of  home- 
grown protein.  If  the  entire  feed-supply  is  derived  from  the  farm 
itself,  then  the  only  increase  in  fertility  elements  possible  is  that  due 
to  the  nitrogen  that  has  been  gathered  by  alfalfa,  red  clover,  cow 
peas  the  other  leguminous  crops,  while  when  feeds  are  purchased 
the  increase  in  fertility  elements  will  be  in  proportion  to  thq  amounts 
contained  in  the  manures  made  from  them.  In  the  home-gi*own 
ration  used  here,  the  gain  in  fertility  would  be  due  entirely  to  the 
qiiantity  of  nitrogen  that  would  be  gathered  from  the  air  by  the 
alfalfa. 

It  is  not  possible  to  correctly  estimate  the  quantity  of  nitrogen 
so  gathered,  because  leguminous  crops  use  both  soil  and  air  nitrogen, 
although  the  quantity  gathered  will  depend  upon  the  supplies  of 
nitrogen  in  the  soil.  That  is,  nitrogen  will  be  taken  from  the  soil 
in  greater  proportion  in  those  which  are  rich  in  this  element.  If  it 
is  assumed  that  all  of  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the  alfalfa  hay  used 
in  the  experiment  was  drawn  from  the  air,  then  the  quantity  was 
slightly  greater  than  that  which  was  contributed  by  the  purchased 
feeds.  If  all  was  obtained  from  the  land,  the  farm  is  poorer  in  nitro- 
gen, because  a  part  is  retained  in  the  milk,  while  the  use  of  the  feed 
ration  has  made  the  farm  richer  in  nitrogen  by  the  pounds  added 


182  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

in  the  feed,  less  that  sold  in  the  milk.  The  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 
ash have  been  drawn  from  the  soil,  and  the  farm  is  no  richer,  but  is 
poorer,  because  of  the  quantities  gathered  by  the  alfalfa  hay,  while 
the  purchased  feed^  brought  considerable  quantities  to  the  farm. 
It  has  been  shown,  however,  that  on  reasonably  strong  soils,  the 
crops  following  alfalfa  are  able  to  obtain  their  mineral  food  more 
readily  than  if  they  follow  cereal  or  grass  crops,  which  draw  all  of 
their  nitrogen  from  the  soil.  This,  however,  does  not  change  the 
fact  that  in  the  purchase  of  feeds  considerable  quantities  of  fertility 
elements  are  added  to  the  total  supply  on  the  farm,  and  should  be 
regarded  as  an  offset  in  part,  at  least,  against  the  cost  of  feed  supplies. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  growing  of  alfalfa  presents  a  possible 
means  of  gaining  nitrogen,  while  at  the  same  time  increasing  the 
power  of  other  plants  to  absorb  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  from  the 
soil.— (N.  J.  B.  204.) 

Period  of  Gestation  in  Cows. — Of  182  births  the  average  period 
of  gestation  was  almost  exactly  280  days.  The  shortest  period  was 
264  days;  the  longest  296  days.  Approximately  equal  numbers  of 
births  occurred  on  each  day  from  the  274th  to  the  287th  inclusive. 
The  period  of  gestation  was  the  same  for  male  and  female  calves. — ■ 
(N.  Y.  Cornell  B.  162.) 

Whole  Straw  and  Cut  Corn  Fodder  for  Bedding. — Many  farm- 
ers may  hesitate  at  using  fodder  for  bedding.  In  the  minds  of  most 
people,  fodder  is  one  of  the  staple  forage  crops  of  the  farm,  and  is 
raised  and  cared  for  for  feed  only.  As  was  mentioned  before,  feed 
and  bedding  were  taken  from  the  same  pile  at  the  time  these  tests 
were  made,  and  it  was  very  good  feed  too.  To  use  such  material  for 
bedding  may  appear  very  wasteful.  Wheat  straw  can  be  used  for 
no  other  purpose.  It  is  valueless  as  feed,  and  we  have  come  to  re- 
gard it  as  a  bedding  material.  But  a  few  comparisons  may  put  the 
matter  in  a  different  light.  As  was  stated,  the  cut  stover  makes  a 
more  satisfactory  bedding  than  the  straw.  Now  the  question  comes 
as  to  its  cost.  There  are  but  two  ways  to  get  at  this.  The  market 
price  of  good  wheat  straw  is  a  little  more  than  that  of  fodder  per  ton. 
In  fact,  this  difference  in  selling  value  is  about  sufficient  to  balance 
the  difference  in  the  weights  of  straw  and  fodder  necessary 
for  the  same  results  in  bedding.  Another  way  to  compare  the  two 
is  to  consider  the  amounts  grown  per  acre.  Good  wheat  mil  make 
about  two  tons  of  straw  per  acre.  But  a  good  crop  of  fodder  is  much 
more  sure  than  is  a  good  crop  of  straw,  and  a  person  depending  on 
corn  fodder  for  bedding  is  not  so  likely  to  be  disappointed  as  when 
depending  on  wheat  straw.  Of  course  there  are  other  factors  to  be 
considered.  A  corn  crop  is  surer  and  more  valuable  than  a  wheat 
crop.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  with  the  present  system  of  farming, 
wheat  is  thought  necessary  as  a  nurse  crop  for  grass.  But  what  we 
were  trying  to  establish  was  that  it  was  not  necessary  or  even  ad- 
visaible  to  grow  wheat  purposely  for  bedding.  Corn  fodder  is  as  good 
or  better,  is  a  surer  crop,  and  is  a  more  valuable  crop  othenvise  than 
wheat.  It  should  take  the  place  of  wheat  straw  for  bedding  to  a  great 
extent. 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  183 

Sawdust  and  Shavings  for  Bedding. — For  the  strictly  sanitary 
dairy,  sawdust  or  shavings  are  the  ideal  bedding  material*!,  though 
the  ordinary  dairy  farmer  could  not  be  advised  to  buy  when  he  could 
raise  either  the  straw  or  the  stover.  There  is  a  little  dust  in  shavings, 
but  it  would  have  no  effect  on  the  wholesomeness  of  the  milk,  as  the 
dust  from  the  shavings  is  generally  small  particles  of  wood  and  sel- 
dom contains  any  moulds  or  bacteria.  As  was  stated  before  the  saw- 
dust is  damp  and  has  no  dust.  Moreover,  both  of  these  materials 
keep  the  cows  cleaner  and  make  a  stable  look  neater  than  either  the 
straw  or  the  stover. 

Rye  Straw. — In  the  city  markets  rye  straw  sell  for  about  twice 
as  much  as  any  other  material  intended  for  bedding.  Of  course  it 
is  intended  almost  exclusively  for  horses,  and  the  double  price  paid 
for  it  would  indicate  that  horsemen  considered  it  just  twice  as  de- 
sirable for  bedding.  It  is  a  little  difficult  to  get  at  the  true  reason. 
Farmers  evidently  prefer  the  wheat  straw  for  both  horses  and  oows. 
It  is  very  doubtful  if  rye  straw  would  prove  at  all  satisfactory  in  a 
dairy  stable.  It  is  hard  and  stiff  and,  in  some  tests  made  at  this 
station,  w4th  a  separate  and  smaller  herd  than  the  one  used  in  the 
previous  tests,  about  the  same  quantity  of  rye  straw  as  of  wheat  straw 
was  used,  but  the  cows  did  not  keep  in  as  clean  a  condition.  The 
rye  straw  apparently  was  a  very  poor  absorbent. — (Md.  B.  104.) 

RAISING  CALVES. 

The  Proper  Kind  of  Treatment. — If  the  cow  fails  to  lick  the  calf 
soon  after  birth  it  should  be  rubbed  dry  with  cloth  or  straw,  and  if 
necessary  assisted  to  get  its  first  meal.  It  is  especially  important 
for  the  calf  to  get  the  first  or  colostrum  milk  of  the  dam.  This  milk 
contains  about  17.6  per  cent  of  protein  or  nearly  six  times  as  much 
as  ordinary  milk.  It  also  contains  more  ash.  It  is  a  powerful  laxa- 
tive and  tonic  and  is  effective  in  removing  the  faecal  matter  from 
the  alimentary  canal.  The  calf  should  receive  its  mother's  milk  for 
the  first  week,  after  which  it  may  get  the  mixed  whole  milk  of  the 
herd. 

The  calf  may  be  allowed  to  suck  until  the  milk  is  fit  for  human 
consumption,  usually  about  the  eighth  or  ninth  milking.  The  calf 
may  then  be  removed,  preferably  to  an  adjoining  pen  or  lot  where 
the  cow  may  reach  and  fondle  it  but  where  the  partition  is  sufficient- 
ly high  to  prevent  it  from  sucking.  This  will  insure  the  content- 
ment of  the  cow,  and  when  the  calf  is  kindly  treated  will  go  a  long 
way  to  inspire  confidence  in  the  herdsman  or  attendant.  The  cow 
is  a  mother  and  we  must  appeal  to  the  mother  instinct  if  we  are  to 
expect  large  and  profitable  returns. 

Danger  of  Overfeeding. — It  should  be  remembered  that  while 
the  stomach  of  the  cow  is  remarkably  large,  holding  in  its  four  com- 
partments about  260  quarts,  that  of  the  calf  is  small,  holding  about 
two  or  three  quarts,  its  first  two  compartments  being  yet  undevel- 
oped. When  allowed  to  run  with  the  cow,  the  calf  is  said  to  suck 
from  10  to  15  times  daily,  taking  only  a  little  milk  at  a  time.  When 
removed  from  its  mother  and  left  from  6  to  12  hours,  it  gets  ex- 
ceedingly hungry  and  when  offered  milk  in  large  quantities  will 


184  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

gorge  itself  and  force  the  milk  on  through  the  stomach  before  diges- 
tion can  take  place,  resulting  in  disorders  in  the  alimentary  canal. 
Great  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  overfeed  the  young  calf. — (Wis. 
B.  192.) 

Teaching  the  Calf  to  Drink. — When  the  calf  is  weaned  from  its 
mother  it  is  well  to  let  it  go  18  to  24  hours  without  milk  in  order 
to  have  it  hungry  for  its  first  meal  from  the  pail.  A  calf  is  much 
more  tractable  when  hungry  and  this  may  materially  aid  in  keeping 
the  feeder  in  a  better  humor  and  thus  insure  better  care  of  the 
calves.  The  first  feed  from  the  pail  is  a  crisis  in  the  calf's  life. 
The  calf  will  not  learn  to  drink  any  quicker  by  being  forced  to 
breathe  the  milk  into  its  lungs.  The  feeder  should  realize  that  in- 
stinct compels  the  calf  to  look  up  for  its  feed  and  he  must  change 
this  by  teaching  the  calf  to  look  down.  Some  calves  are  taught  to 
drink  from  the  pail  at  the  first  trial  with  little  or  no  sucking  of 
fingers.  Others  will  require  much  more  persistent  effort,  and  con- 
siderable patience  and  common  sense  is  required.  The  calf  will  re- 
spond to  kindness,  although  stubborn  at  times,  and  the  feeder  who 
will  put  himself  in  sympathy  with  calf  nature  will  find  the  stubborn- 
ness of  the  calf  may  soon  be  conquered. 

The  Calf  on  a  Milk  Diet. — The  amount  of  milk  fed  should  be 
carefully  regulated.  A  good  plan  with  the  normal  calf  is  to  give  4 
pounds  (2  quarts)  of  whole  milk  three  times  per  day,  fed  sweet  and 
at  blood  temperature.  In  the  state  of  nature  the  calf  gets  milk  con- 
taining about  3  per  cent  fat.  Our  domesticated  oows  have  been  bred 
in  some  instances  to  give  nearly  twice  this  amount.  Milk  that  is 
too  rich  may  cause  serious  trouble  from  scours,  and  in  feeding  such 
milk  care  should  be  exercised  to  give  limited  amounts  at  the  proper 
temperature.  The  feeding  of  whole  milk  should  be  continued  for 
about  three  or  four  weeks,  when  the  number  of  meals  may  be  re- 
duced to  two  per  day.  From  one-half  to  a  pint  of  skim  milk  may 
now  be  substituted  for  an  equal  quantity  of  whole  milk.  The 
amount  of  skim  milk  may  be  gradually  increased  and  the  amount 
of  whole  milk  correspondingly  decreased  until,  at  the  end  of  a  week 
or  10  days,  the  calf  is  getting  all  skim  milk.  Feed  the  milk  sweet 
and  at  blood  temperature. 

The  Calf  on  Skim  Milk. — Not  over  10  to  12  pounds  of  milk 
daily  should  be  fed  until  the  calf  is  5  to  7  weeks  old.  Later  the 
amount  may  be  increased  to  14  or  16  pounds  and  at  three  months 
may,  though  not  always,  go  to  about  20  pounds.  The  amount  fed 
however  must  be  carefully  regulated  by  the  ability  of  the  calf  to 
handle  it  without  scouring.  The  following  method  has  been  suc- 
cessfully used  as  a  guide. 

For  the  first  100  pounds  live  weight  10  pounds  of  skim 
milk  per  day;  For  the  second  100  pounds  live  weight  5  pounds  of 
skim  milk  per  day;  For  the  third  100  pounds  live  weight  2^/2 
pounds  of  skim  milk  per  day.  A  calf  weighing  80  pounds  would  be 
fed,  according  to  this  plan,  8^2  pounds  (one  gallon)  of  skim  milk; 
a  calf  weighing  300  pounds  would  be  getting  a  little  over  17  pounds 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  185 

(two  gallons)  per  day.  If  skim  milk  is  available  it  can  be  fed  profit- 
ably to  the  dairy  calf  six  to  eight  months,  or  even  a  year. 

Whenever  the  calf  does  not  eat  readily,  cut  down  the  supply 
of  milk.  The  adding  of  boiling  water  or  scalding  the  milk  may 
help  materially  at  such  times. 

Factory  vs.  Hand  Separator  Skim  Milk. — Good  calves  can  be 
raided  on  factory  skim  milk  provided  the  creamery  is  careful  to  re- 
ceive only  good  sweet  milk  so  that  the  skim  milk  may  be  kept  sweet 
until  consumed  by  the  calf.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however, 
that  unless  factory  skim  milk  is  heated  sufficiently  to  destroy  germ 
life  it  is  not  only  difficult  to  keep  sweet  but  it  maj-  spread  disease, 
especially  tuberculosis,  to  the  calves  and  hogs  kept  on  the  farm. 

It  is  much  less  work  when  the  hand  separator  is  used,  and  the 
calves  are  assured  of  a  more  uniforai  feed.  The  calves  are  usually 
fed  immediately  after  separating,  while  the  milk  is  still  warm  and 
sweet.  This  uniformity  of  condition  and  freedom  from  outside  in- 
fection in  the  milk  is  exceedingly  important,  and  the  hand  separator 
deserves  much  credit  for  making  this  possible  and  practicable. — 
(Wis.  B.  192.) 

Roughage  for  Calves. — Calves  will  eat  roughage  at  about  the 
same  time  they  begin  to  eat  grain,  viz.,  two  to  three  weeks  of  age,  and 
will  consume  about  the  same  quantity  of  each  at  first.  As  the  calf 
grows  older  the  proportion  of  roughage  to  grain  increases,  and  by  the 
time  the  calf  is  six  months  of  age,  it  will  have  consumed  about  three 
times  as  much  roughage  as  grain.  The  quality  of  the  hay  should  be 
of  the  best,  always  clean  and  bright.  It  can  be  placed  in  a  rack  in 
one  corner  of  the  calf  pen.  Any  left  uneaten  should  be  removed  at 
the  next  feeding  time  and  a  new  supply  added.  The  kind  of  hay 
may  vary  according  to  the  needs  and  condition  of  the  calf.  Early 
cut  blue  grass  is  good,  as  is  also  hay  from  mixed  grasses.  Clover  and 
alfalfa  are  frequently  used  to  excellent  advantage  even  with  the 
young  calf,  although  there  is  probably  more  danger  from  scours  with 
these.  Their  importance,  as  the  calf  grows  older,  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. Corn  silage  is  also  proving  an  excellent  roughage  for 
calves.  It  is  usually  safe  to  give  the  calf  all  the  roughage  it  will 
eat. 

Pasture. — Some  feeders  have  difficulty  from  scours  in  turning 
calves  on  pasture.  This  may  be  overcome  by  allowing  the  calves 
to  graze  for  only  a  short  time  the  first  day  and  gradually  increasing 
the  time  each  day  until  they  become  accustomed  to  handling  the 
green  feed  or  what  is  better,  gradually  get  them  used  to  green 
feed  by  an  increasing  daily  allowance  of  soiling  crops.  Sud- 
den changes  in  feeding  should  be  avoided.  It  is  doubtful  if  there 
is  any  gain  in  placing  calves  on  pasture  before  they  are  four  months 
of  age. 

Water  and  Salt  for  Calves. — Calves,  like  other  farm  animals, 
get  thirsty,  even  though  milk  forms  a  large  part  of  their  ration. 
Calves  three  months  of  age  will  drink  as  much  as  five  guarts  of  water 
daily  per  head.  They  like  to  drink  often,  sipping  a  little  at  a  time. 
A  half  barrel,  cleaned  and  replenished  twice  aaily,  will  serve  nicely 


186  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

as  a  water  trough.  Another  good  device  is  an  automatic  waterer, 
which  may  be  easily  cleaned,  situated  a  little  above  the  floor  to  keep 
out  the  litter.  Salt  is  essential  to  the  development  of  the  calf,  a^ 
of  other  animals,  and  should  be  kept  continually  available. — (Wis. 
B.  192.) 

Grain  for  Calves. — ^When  calves  are  changed  to  skim  milk  they 
need  some  substitute  for  butter  fat.  This  may  be  furnished  in  the 
form  of  fat  as  cod  liver  oil.  It  is  more  cheaply  obtained  from  the 
starch  and  fat  found  in  grain.  Ground  flaxseed  made  into  a  jelly 
and  fed  with  milk  is  soothing  and  makes  a  good  substitute  for  the 
'butter  fat  in  the  milk  until  the  calf  is  three  or  four  weeks  old  when 
it  should  be  necessary  to  eat  ordinary  farm  grains  as  corn  and  oats 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  substitute  for  the  butter  fat.  Many  feed- 
ers start  on  farm  grains  without  flaxseed  and  report  good  results. 

Kind  and  Amount  of  Grain  to  Feed. — Skim  milk  contains 
more  protein  and  carbohydrates  than  whole  milk.  In  selecting  a 
grain  to  take  the  place  of  the  fat  that  has  been  removed,  it  is  not  nec- 
essary nor  is  it  advisable  to  get  one  rich  in  protein,  as  the  skim  milks 
furnishes  the  nutrient.  AVhile  calves  may  do  well  on  high  priced 
concentrates,  they  are  unnecessarily  expensive  and  give  no  better  re- 
sults than  the  cheaper  carbonaceous  grains,  as  corn,  barley,  oats, 
Kafir  corn,  or  sorghum. 

Calves  will  sometimes  learn  to  eat  the  grain  more  readily  if  a 
little  bran  forms  a  part  of  the  ration  for  a  short  time.  A  number 
of  farm  grains  have  been  used  successfully  in  feeding  calves.  The 
following  list  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  calf  feeder  in  making  se- 
lections or  combinations  to  suit  his  conditions:  1.  Corn  meal  grad- 
ually changed  in  four  to  six  weeks  to  shelled  corn  with  or  without 
bran.  2.  Whole  oats  and  bran.  3.  Whole  oats  and  corn  chop,  the 
latter  gradually  replaced  by  shelled  corn  in  four  to  six  weeks.  4. 
Ground  barley  with  bran  or  shelled  corn.  5.  Shelled  corn  and 
ground  Kafir  corn  or  sorghum.  6.  Whole  oats,  ground  barley  and 
bran.  7,  A  mixture  of  20  pounds  of  corn  meal,  20  pounds  of  oat 
meal,  20  pounds  of  oil  meal,  10  pounds  of  blood  meal  and  5  pounds 
of  bone  meal,  changed  to  com,  oats  and  bran  when  calves  are  three 
months  old.  8.  A  mixture  of  5  pounds  whole  oats,  3  pounds  bran,  1 
pound  corn  meal  and  1  pound  of  linseed  meal.  The  calf  may  be 
taught  to  eat  grain  by  rubbing  a  little  on  its  mouth  when  it  is 
through  drinking  milk.  From  this  it  will  soon  learn  to  eat  from  the 
feed  box.— (Wis.  B.  192.) 

Dehorning  Calves. — It  is  much  easier,  to  say  nothing  of  being 
more  humane,  to  dehorn  calves  when  they  are  young,  preferably 
when  from  three  to  four  days  old.  Clip  the  hair  away  from  the  but- 
t-on ;  take  a  stick  of  caustic  potash,  wrapped  in  some  material  to  pro- 
tect the  fingers,  moisten  one  end  with  water,  and  rub  gently  over  the 
button  until  the  skin  becomes  slightly  raw  and  smarts  a  little.  In  a 
few  days  a  scab  will  form,  which  will  soon  disappear,  and,  if  the 
work  is  properly  done,  will  leave  the  calf  without  horns.  One  appli- 
cation is  usually  enough,  but  iu  case  the  horns  start  again  the  appli- 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  187 

cation  can  be  repeated.    Care  should  be  taken  that  none  of  the  caustic 
potash  runs  down  over  the  hair,  to  injure  the  eyes  and  skin. 

In  case  the  horns  break  through  the  skin  before  the  caustic  is 
applied,  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  use  a  knife  to  cut  off  the  but- 
ton, after  which  a  little  caustic  potash  can  be  rubbed  over  the  ex- 
posed surface.  There  are  a  number  of  chemical  preparations  which 
give  good  results,  but  a  man  cannot  afford  to  pay  very  much  for 
them,  as  caustic  potash  is  comparatively  cheap  and  effective. 

Water  and  Salt. — Calves  enjoy  clean,  fresh  water.  A  test  was 
made  by  weighing  the  water  given  to  thirteen  calves  that  ranged 
from  two  to  three  months  of  age.  It  was  found  that  868  pounds  of 
water  were  consumed  in  seven  days,  or  nearly  ten  pounds  per  day 
per  head.  It  was  also  noticed  that  the  calves  drank  several  times  a 
day,  sipping  a  little  at  a  time;  even  after  their  ration  of  milk  they 
would  take  a  swallow  of  water.  An  automatic  waterer  situated  a 
little  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  the  best  arrangement  for 
supplying  this  want.  Calves  seem  to  demand  salt  as  well  as  older 
stock,  and  this  should  be  kept  before  them  at  all  times. — (Kan.  B. 
126.) 

Calf  Ties. — Where  there  are  only  a  few  calves  to  be  fed,  fairly 
good  ties  can  be  had  by  the  use  of  short  ropes  with  snaps,  to  be  fast- 
ened to  ropes  around  the  calves'  necks,  supplied  wdth  rings.  When 
this  method  is  employed  the  calves  should  be  hitched  far  enough 
apart  to  prevent  their  reaching  each  other  after  drinking  their  milk. 

By  far  the  best  method  of  fastening  calves  is  by  means  of 
stanchions.  Here  the  calf  finds  his  place  and  waits  his  turn.  The 
feeder  can  set  a  bucket  of  milk  down  to  the  calf  and  then  feed 
others,  without  fear  of  the  calf  tipping  the  bucket  over.  Where  the 
stanchions  are  properly  constructed,  the  calves  cannot  reach  each 
other,  and  they  can  be  left  in  the  stanchions  until  their  mouths  are 
dry.  Calves  will  commence  eating  grain  sooner  when  fastened  in 
stanchions  than  when  tied  with  ropes. 

Scours  or  Diarrhea. — Undoubtedly  the  greatest  difficulty  that  the 
calf-feeder  has  to  contend  with  is  scours.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  an 
ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure.  The  principal  causes 
of  this  difficulty  are  overfeeding,  sour  milk,  feeding  cold  milk,  feed- 
ing grain  with  the  milk,  using  dirty  milk-pails,  very  cold  water,  too 
much  water  after  periods  of  thirst,  and  irregularity  in  feeding.  The 
careful  feeder  will  watch  very  carefully  the  effect  of  his  feed  upon 
his  calves,  and  as  soon  as  there  are  any  signs  of  scours  the  milk 
should  be  reduced  one-half  or  more  and  gradually  increased  again' 
as  the  calf  is  able  to  stand  it.  A  mild  case  of  scours  can  usually  be 
cured  in  from  one  to  two  days  by  reducing  the  milk  and  adding 
a  teaspoonful  of  dried  blood  while  the  calf  is  drinking.  In  a  test 
that  was  made  with  five  calves  that  were  scouring  at  the  same  time, 
two  were  fed  dried  blood  after  reducing  the  regular  feed  of  milk; 
the  others  were  fed  dried  blood  without  changing  the  feed  of  milk. 
In  the  former  case  the  calves  recovered  after  two  feeds  and  the  latter 
after  three  feeds. 


188  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

In  feeding  dried  blood  a  teaspoonful  at  a  feed  is  a  great  plenty. 
This  should  be  continued  until  the  scours  disappear,  or,  in  the  case 
of  a  weak  calf,  the  allowance  may  be  increased  to  a  tablespoonful 
per  feed.  The  blood  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  milk  to 
prevent  its  settling  to  the  bottom  of  the  pail.  The  packing  com- 
panies are  now  making  soluble  blood-meal  that  is  claimed  to  dis- 
solve in  milk  much  more  readily  than  the  regular  dried  blood.  No 
dried  blood  should  be  used  that  has  not  been  thoroughly  sterilized ; 
otherwise  it  would  be  comparatively  easy  to  carry  disease  into  the 
herd.  In  severe  cases  of  scours,  the  addition  of  one  or  two  eggs  with 
the  dried  blood  has  been  found  to  be  very  effective. 

Another  remedy  that  has  been  found  to  be  successful  is  to  give 
from  one  to  two  ounces  of  castor-oil  in  the  morning,  and  follow  in 
about  twelve  hours  with  fifteen  to  twenty  drops  of  laudanum  and  a 
teaspoonful  of  dried  blood.  If  the  case  is  a  persistent  one,  one  or 
two  raw  eggs  may  be  added,  as  mentioned  above,  which  will  help  to 
keep  the  calf  from  suffering  from  hunger,  as,  under  such  conditions, 
it  is  useless — yes,  worse  than  useless — to  give  it  much  milk. —  (Kan. 
B.  126.) 

Dairy  By-Products  as  Substitutes  for  Milk. — This  dairy  by- 
product is  of  practically  the  same  composition  as  skim  milk.  There 
is  little  question  if  it  has  not  the  same  feeding  value  as  sour  skim 
milk.  Experiments  show  that  calves  fed  buttermilk  make  good 
gains  and  may  even  be  less  subject  to  scours  than  those  fed  skim 
milk.  Where  buttermilk  is  fed  special  effort  should  be  made  to  have 
its  condition  at  feeding  time  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible. 

Whey  has  the  casein  as  well  as  the  butter  fat  removed  and  hence 
is  a  much  less  valuable  feed  than  skim  milk;  a  good  grain  ration 
must  be  carefully  selected  as  a  supplementary  feed.  The  calf  to  be 
fed  on  whey  should  receive  whole  milk  for  the  first  week  or  two ;  it 
can  then  be  changed  to  skim  milk.  If  this  is  not  available  it  should 
be  continued  on  whole  milk.  A  calf  will  do  better  not  to  receive 
whey  for  five  or  six  weeks.  It  will  take  ten  days  to  two  weeks  more 
to  complete  the  change  to  whey.  Calves  will  handle  about  the  same 
amount  of  whey  as  skim  milk,  viz.,  14  to  16  pounds  daily  per  calf. 
An  excessive  amount  may  cause  undue  largeness  of  the  paunch. 
The  feeder  will  need  to  give  more  care  and  attention  to  calves  fed  on 
whey  than  to  those  fed  on  milk.  The  grain  for  whey-fed  calves 
should  be  selected  for  its  constipating  effect  so  as  to  counteract  the 
tendency  to  scours.  Oats,  sorghum  seed,  shelled  com,  or  middlings 
(as  part  of  the  ration)  are  good  for  the  purpose.  Avoid  soy  beans 
and  other  grains  that  have  a  loosening  effect.  For  roughage,  mixed 
hay  is  probably  the  best.  Alfalfa,  clover  or  silage  should  be  fed 
sparingly  until  the  feeder  knows  whether  the  calves  can  handle  them 
without  scouring. — (Wis.  B.  192.) 

Calf  Meal  as  a  Substitute  for  Milk. — The  food  requirements  for 
a  given  gain  increases  with  the  age  of  animals.  The  steer  requires 
7.4  pounds  of  digestible  organic  matter  to  produce  one  pound  in- 
crease in  live  weight,  while  the  calf  makes  the  same  gain  from  1.57 
pounds  of  dry  matter.    To  secure  these  economic  gains,  the  ration 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  189 

of  the  calf  must  be  liberal  in  amount,  easily  digested  and  rich  in 
nutrients  suitable  for  growth.  The  calf  designed  for  beef  purposes 
may  be  pushed  for  the  most  rapid  gains.  The  dairy  calf  should  be 
kept  in  a  thrifty  growing  condition,  but  should  not  be  allowed  to 
become  fat.  A  calf  intended  for  a  dairy  cow  should  not  gain  more 
than  one  and  one-half  pounds  per  day  for  the  first  four  months  and 
less  thereafter.  The  most  rapid  gains  with  calves  can  be  made  with 
mother's  milk.  Skim  milk  reinforced  with  hay  and  grain  will  pro- 
duce satisfactory  gains  with  calves,  especially  those  designed  for 
dairy  animals.  Several  substitutes  for  milk  have  been  recommended 
among  which  are  hay  tea  and  the  various  calf  meals. — (Conn.  B. 
43.) 

Skim-Milk  Substitutes  for  Calf  Raising. — ^The  calves  had  mixed 
hay  before  them  at  all  times,  and  all  were  provided  liberally  with 
a  grain  mixture  composed  of  6  pounds  of  corn  and  oats,  3  of  wheat 
bran,  and  1  of  oil  meal,  which  was  supplemented  with  the  different 
feeds  entering  into  the  comparison.  The  records  are  given  for  from 
4  to  5  months  from  birth,  and  include  experiences  for  two  seasons; 
the  first  with  skim-milk,  Schumacher  Calf  Meal,  and  Lactina  Suisse 
(an  imported  powder  said  to  be  principally  of  vegetable  origin) ;  the 
second,  with  skim-milk,  Schumacher  Calf  Meal,  Blatchford  Calf 
Meal,  and  skim-milk  powder.  The  latter  was  purchased  from  the 
Merrill-Soule  Co.,  of  Sj^racuse,  N.  Y.,  and  was  said  to  be  dried  skim- 
milk.  The  substitutes  for  the  skim-milk,  were  fed  in  gruel  form. 
It  is  evident  from  the  results  of  these  experiments  and  those  else- 
tvhere,  that  good,  strong,  healthy  calves  can  be  raised  without 
skimmed  milk  or  milk  of  any  kind  after  the  first  thirty  days.  .  .  . 
Skimmed  milk,  hay,  and  grain,  make  the  best  substitute  for  whole 
milk  in  raising  calves. — (U.  Y.  Cor.  B.  269.) 

The  best  substitute  for  the  ordinary  skim-milk  seemed  to  be 
the  dried  skim-milk  powder.  Schumacher  Calf  Meal  was  the  best 
commercial  substitute,  in  the  nature  of  grain.  The  Lactina  Suisse 
and  the  Blatchford  Calf  Meal  were  too  expensive  for  economical 
use,  especially  in  view  of  the  gains  in  weight  which  were  made. — 
(R.  I.  B.  140.) 

Regularity  and  Care. — Feeding  the  same  time  each  day  wdth 
the  same  quantity  and  quality  of  milk,  has  much  to  do  in  maintain- 
ing a  healthful  condition  of  the  calf.  With  this  should  go  the  pre- 
caution of  providing  a  dry  pen,  warm  and  well  ventilated  in  winter 
and  cool  in  summer.  The  calf  is  sensitive  and  should  have  kind 
treatment.  The  successful  calf  feeder  will  watch  his  calves  closely 
and  at  the  first  signal  of  scours  will  cut  down  the  supply  of  milk ;  at 
this  time  a  couple  of  tablespoons  of  castor  oil  in  scalded  milk  may 
effect  a  cure.   Persistent  cases  will  require  more  strenuous  treatment. 

Change  in  Character  of  Feed. — "When  the  skim  milk  diet  is 
stopped  at  any  time  from  6  to  12  months  of  age,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  calf  is  deprived  of  a  nitrogenous  feed  and  its  place 
should  be  taken  by  some  nitrogenous  grain  or  roughage.  The  ten- 
dency of  the  dairy  calf  to  get  too  fat  depends  not  only  upon  its  tem- 
perament but  al^  upon  its  fe^d.    Avoid  too  much  corn.    For  grain, 


190  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

oats  and  barley  are  ^ood ;  for  roughage,  bright  clover  or  alfalfa  hay 
with  corn  silage  to  give  succulence  and  variety.  The  aim  should  be 
to  keep  the  calf  in  a  healthy,  thrifty  and  growing  condition.  Under 
proper  treatment  the  calf  should  continue  to  grow  until  four  to  six 
years  old. 

Every  effort  should  be  made  to  develop  a  large  stomach  and 
consequently  large  capacity;  build  muscle  and  good  bone,  but  do 
not  allow  it  to  get  too  fat.  The  good  dairy  cow  must  handle  largo 
amounts  of  feeds.  This  she  should  learn  to  do  while  young.  For 
this  purpose  roughage  exercises  the  digestive  apparatus  more  than 
concentrates.  There  are  some  who  think  that  with  a  good  quality  of 
clover  or  alfalfa  with  corn  silage  or  roots  for  succulence,  no  grain 
is  necessary  from  the  time  the  calf  is  weaned  from  skim  milk  until 
she  drops  her  first  calf.  There  are  others,  however,  and  probably 
these  include  the  larger  number  of  our  progressive  dairymen,  who 
think  a  little  grain  should  be  given  daily  to  keep  her  stomach  ac- 
customed to  handling  grain. 

Size  depends  much  upon  heredity  but  even  more  upon  liberal 
and  judicious  feeding.  It  is  impossible  to  starve  good  dairy  quali- 
ties into  a  growing  heifer  but  many  a  promising  heifer  has  beeu 
starved  into  a  poor  cow. 

The  Herdsman's  Responsibility. — After  all  that  has  been  said 
and  done,  the  calf  will  not  be  properly  raised,  unless  its  feed  and  care 
have  been  directed  by  intelligence  on  the  part  of  the  herdsman.  Calf 
feeding  requires  skill  and  good  common  sense.  The  art  of  calf  rear- 
ing cannot  be  taught  out  of  books,  bulletins  and  papers.  There  must 
be  brains  and  intelligent  interest  to  properly  accommodate  the  calf 
to  its  feed  and  environment.  There  are  no  hard  and  fast  rules  that 
can  be  laid  down.  The  intelligence  that  the  herdsman  puts  into  his 
calf  feeding  will  have  a  great  influence  upon  the  future  cow.  There 
are  great  possibilities  in  the  production  of  good  cows  but  these  are 
seldom,  if  ever  seen,  appreciated  or  attained  except  by  an  intelligent, 
thoughtful  feeder.  The  ear  marks  of  an  intelligent  feeder  are  seen 
in  his  herd.  The  calves  are  thrifty,  active,  with  bright  eyes,  smooth 
glossy  coats,  always  hungry,  and  playful  and  lusty. —  (Wis.  B.  192.) 

Age  at  Which  to  Breed. — The  heifers  fed  only  2  pounds  of 
grain  per  day  during  the  winter  of  1908-1909  were  not  as  large  as 
they  should  have  been  for  their  age,  when  they  were  turned  out  to 
pasture  in  the  spring.  This  was  a  considerable  loss  to  the  herd  as 
it  necessitated  waiting  much  longer  before  breeding  them,  than 
would  have  been  necessary  had  they  been  larger.  The  loss  was  one 
of  time  as  well  as  of  feed.  We  were  compelled  to  do  without  the  milk 
they  should  have  been  producing,  as  well  as  to  feed  them  for  another 
six  months,  at  a  cost  approximating  $20.00.  Heifers  should  be  w^ell 
enough  grown  to  drop  their  first  claves  when  from  24  to  27  months 
old.  The  objection  is  made  that  heifers  bred  too  young  will  be 
dwarfed  in  size,  and  that,  if  the  policy  is  continued,  the  race  wdll  de- 
teriorate. This  is  not  necessarily  true.  The  heifers  can  be  so  fed 
and  cared  for  as  to  be  large  enough  and  vigorous  enough  to  keep  up 
the  vitality  of  the  race,  even  if  they  come  into  milk  at  two  years  old. 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  191 

If  this  is  done,  two  important  things  will  have  been  accomplished. 
First,  time  and  feed  have  been  saved;  and  second,  the  heifer's  ener- 
gies are  early  turned  towards  milk  production,  before  the  habit  of 
producing  flesh  and  fat  has  been  acquired.  The  latter  reason  may 
be  considered  fanciful  by  some,  but  there  seems  to  be  good  evidence 
for  the  belief  that  coming  into  milk  early  in  life,  helps  to  develop  and 
fix  the  milking  habit.  Even  if  this  were  not  true,  the  saving  in  time 
and  feed  will  amply  repay  the  farmer  for  giving  the  young  things 
extra  care  until  they  are  two  years  old. — (Conn.  B.  63.) 

Authorities  Consulted :  Cattle  Foods  and  Feeding. — ^la.  A.  E.  S. 
B.  87;  Cornell  B.  154;  Miss.  B.  104;  Kans.  B.  115;  Miss  B.  114;  Tex. 
B.  110,  135;  Va.  B.  164,  173;  la.  B.  87;  Miss.  B.  92;  Pa.  B.  70; 
Colo.  B.  125;  Ky.  B.  141;  Mich.  B.  203;  N.  H.  B.  154,  147,  149, 
133,  116;  Mass.  B.  50;  Wa^h.  B.  48;  Minn.  B.  36,  27;  Pa.  B.  50; 
Del.  B.  5;  R.  I.  B.  78,  98;  S.  C.  B.  105;  Del.  B.  7;  la.  B.  86;  Mass. 
B.  51,  45;  la.  B.  66;  Ag.  Dept.  Bu.  Chem.  B.  108;  111.  Cir.  88,  92, 
94 ;  Wis.  B.  151 ;  N.  J.  B.  184 ;  Ind.  B.  21 ;  111.  B.  Ill ;  Kans.  B.  124, 
130,  132;  Miss.  B.  136,  92;  Kans.  B.  112,  39,  61,  60,  51,  67;  Minn. 
B.  60;  Ky.  B.  108;  Pa.  B.  83,  74;  Idaho  B.  24;  Utah  B.  101,  54;  Pa. 
B.  68,  64,  53;  Wash.  B.  79;  Pa.  B.  57;  F.  B.  320;  Nebr.  B.  75,  85, 
90;  Tex.  B.  86;  Minn.  B.  99;  Vt.  B.  152;  N.  Dak.  B.  73,  33;  Tex. 
B.  97;  Colo.  B.  102;  S.  Dak.  B.  97;  Okla.  B.  58;  Mo.  B.  25;  Va.  B. 
173;  Mo.  B.  75;  Va.  B.  164;  111.  B.  103,  83,  Cir.  94;  Nebr.  B.  100; 
111.  Cir.  92;  Ag.  Dept.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  131 ;  Ind.  B.  141,  152;  F.  B. 
346;  Ag.  Dept.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  143;  Wis.  B.  187. 

Calves  and  Calf  Feeding.— Mo.  A.  E.  S.  B.  57;  Wis.  B.  192; 
Kans.  B.  97;  Pa.  B.  60;  Ind.  B.  47;  Mass.  B.  28;  La.  B.  104;  Kans. 
B.  126;  Mo.  B.  47;  N.  H.  B.  58;  Mich.  B.  257;  Idaho  B.  48;  Va.  B. 
172;  Conn.  B.  43;  Conn.  B.  63;  R.  I.  B.  140, 


MILK. 

PROPERTIES  OF  MILK. 

NORMAL  milk  is  an  opaque,  almost  white  fluid,  nearly  free 
from  germ  life  when  first  drawn  from  the  udder.  The 
lack  of  transparency  is  due  partly  to  the  fat  held  in  sus- 
pension and  partly  to  a  suspension  of  the  nitrogenous  and 
mineral  matter.  It  has  a  slight  smell  and  a  mild  sweetish  taste. 
When  allowed  to  stand  for  any  length  of  time,  a  multitude  of  flat 
globules  rise  to  the  surface  and  form  what  is  termed  cream.  On  con- 
tinuous standing,  the  sugar  of  milk  is  converted  by  bacteria  into 
lactic  acid,  and  the  milk  coagulates  or  sours.  The  larger  part  of  milk 
consists  of  water,  which  contains  a  variety  of  substances  in  suspen- 
sion and  solution.  The  substances  large  dissolved  in  water  are  caseia 
and  albumen,  milk  sugar,  and  the  ash  or  mineral  matter,  which  to- 
gether form  the  milk  serum.  The  fat  is  suspended  in  the  milk  in 
microscopic  globules,  which  are  semi-solid,  and  with  the  serum, 
form  what  is  termed  an  emulsion. — (Mass.  B.  110.) 

SOURCES  AND  KINDS  OF  MILK. 

In  civilized  countries  where  the  climate  allows,  cows  have  been 
most  generally  bred  for  the  purpose  of  giving  milk,  probably  not  so 
much  because  their  milk  was  more  particularly  desirable  for  human 
food  than  that  of  some  other  mammals  as  because,  all  things  con- 
sidered, they  can  be  made  to  give  the  best  results  for  a  given  amount 
of  care  and  feed.  Our  preference  for  their  milk  is  undfhibtedly  the 
result  of  habit  and  acquired  taste  rather  than  of  any  intrinsic  supe- 
riority, save,  of  course,  as  special  breeding  has  developed  certain 
desirable  characteristics.  In  some  parts  of  the  world  other  kinds  of 
milk  are  used ;  goat's  milk  is  very  common,  especially  in  the  rough, 
hilly  districts  of  Europe ;  buffalo's  milk  is  much  used  in  India,  and 
llama's  milk  in  South  America,  while  camel's  milk  is  esteemed  in 
desert  countries,  and  mare's  milk  on  the  steppes  of  Russia  and  Cen- 
tral Asia.  Sheep's  milk  is  used  in  Europe  and  elsewhere  for  making 
certain  kinds  of  cheese  and  in  other  ways,  and  the  milk  of  reindeers 
is  commonly  used  as  food  in  the  arctic  regions.  So  much  does  cow's 
milk  predominate  in  the  western  world,  however,  that  unless  other- 
wise specified  the  word  milk  almost  always  refers  to  that  kind. 

Perhaps  no  food  has  been  more  often  studied  by  chemists  than 
milk  and  its  products,  and  so  a  great  deal  of  information  is  available 
regarding  the  composition  and  properties  of  these  important  food 

192 


MILK 


193 


materials.    The  average  composition  of  cow's  and  some  other  kinds 
of  milk  used  for  food  is  given  in  the  table  which  follows: 


Average  com 

position  of  milk  of 

various  kinds. 

Kind  of  milk. 

Water. 

Total 
solids. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
(milk 
sugar). 

Mineral 
matters. 

Fuel 
value 

Casein. 

Albumin. 

Total. 

per 
pound. 

Woman 

Per  ct. 
87.58 
87.27 
86.88 
83.57 
82.16 
86.13 
87.13 
86.55 
67.20 
•90.58 
90.12 

Per  ct. 
12.6 
12.8 
13.1 
16.4 

Perct. 
0.80 
2.88 
2.87 
4.17 
4.26 

Percent. 
1.21 
.51 
.89 
.98 
.46 

Perct. 
2.01 
3.39 
3.76 
5.15 

■"3.03 

Perct 
3.74 
3.68 
4.07 
6.18 
7.51 
4.80 
2.87 
3.16 
17.09 
1.14 
1,37 

Percent. 
6.37 
4.94 
4.64 
4.73 
4.77 
5.34 
5.39 
5.60 
2.82 
5.87 
6.19 

Percent. 
0.30 
.72 
.85 
.96 
.84 
.70 
.74 
.80 
1.49 
.36 
.47 

Calories 
310 

Cow 

310 

Goat 

315 

41U 

Buffalo  (Indian) . 
Zebu 

Camel 

10.4 

8.49 
3.00 
8.38 
1.30 
.79 

.38 
.90 

1.51 
.75 

1.06 

Llama 

Mare 

Ass 

215 

As  the  figures  in  the  table  make  plain,  milk  of  all  sorts  is  a 
dilute  food,  as  it  contains  a  large  percentage  of  water,  the  lowest 
proportion  according  to  the  figures  cited  being  not^d  with  reindeer 
milk  and  the  highest  with  mare's  milk.  The  three  groups  of  protein, 
fat,  and  carbohydrates  are  represented  by  fair  proportions,  the  quan- 
tities of  protein  and  fat  being  especially  noteworthy,  as  it  is  these 
constituents  and  the  mineral  matter  or  ash  which  to  a  large  degree 
give  milk  its  peculiar  value  as  a  food  for  young  mammals. — (Dept. 
Agr.  F.  B.  363.) 

Germ  Life. — Bacteria,  Yeasts,  Etc. — Most  of  the  changes  that 
take  place  in  milk,  after  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  are  due  to  minute 
forms  of  plant  life,  principally  bacterial  ferments,  which  gain  access 
to  it  and  in  their  growth  and  development  bring  about  many  and 
varied  changes  in  it  and  its  products.  As  all  air  contains  bacteria 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  no  milk  is  free  from  them.  A  change 
well-known  to  all  is  that  of  the  souring  of  milk,  which  is  due  to  lac- 
tic acid  bacteria  gaining  access  to  it  and  converting  the  sugar  of 
the  milk  into  lactic  or  milk  acid. 

These  various  organisms,  when  they  gain  access  to  milk,  find 
it  a  perfect  food,  and  if  the  temperature  and  other  conditions  be 
favorable  to  their  growth  they  develop  very  rapidly.  Although  they 
are  extremely  small,  single-celled  organisms,  visible  only  under  a 
strong  microscope,  yet  their  rapidity  of  growth  and  reproduction  ex- 
plains the  marked  changes  that  often  take  place  in  milk  within  a 
comparatively  short  space  of  time.  Their  usual  method  of  reproduc- 
tion is  to  lengthen  somewhat  and  then  divide  into  two.  Under  favor- 
able conditions  this  will  take  place  in  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour's 
time.  Assuming  it  to  take  place  in  an  hour's  time,  and  the  process 
to  go  on  at  this  rate  for  twenty-four  hours,  the  result  would  be  about 
17,000,000  organisms  from  the  one  parent  organism.  Of  course  as 
these  organisms  grow  they  feed  upon  the  milk  and  bring  about  many 
changes — fermentation;? — in  it  which  may  seriously  affect  its  flavor, 
change  its  condition  physicallyj  impair  its  food  value,  and,  if  they 


194  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

be  disease  organisms,  render  it  dangerous  to  us©  as  a  food.  This 
applies  to  both  milk  and  milk  products. 

A  Brief  Classification  of  Bacteria. — From  the  standpoint  of  the 
dairyman,  bacteria  may  be  briefly  classified  as  follows:  1.  Patho- 
genic or  disease  producing  bacteria,  such  as  those  of  tuberculosis,  ty- 
phoid fever,  scarlet  fever  and  diphtheria.  2.  Those  that  produce 
poisons  (ptomaines),  not  uncommon  in  ice-cream  that  has  melted 
and  been  re-frozen.  3.  Peptogenic  bacteria,  or  those  that  peptonise  or 
digest  the  casein  or  curd  portion  of  milk.  4.  Putrefactive  forms  of 
germ  life,  which  decompose  the  milk,  producing  offensive  flavors  and 
odors.  5.  Butyric  ferments  or  those  that  act  upon  the  fat  of  tho 
milk,  producing  rancidity.  All  are  familiar  with  the  taste  and  smell 
of  rancid  milk,  butter  and  cheese,  due  to  this  cause.  6.  Bacteria 
which  bring  about  changes  in  the  color  of  milk  (chromogenic)  pro- 
ducing red,  blue  and  other  tints.  7.  Sw^eet-curdling  bacterial  fer- 
ments which  cause  the  casein  or  curd  portion  of  the  milk  to  coagu- 
late without  souring.  Their  action  may  be  compared  to  that  of  ren- 
net. 8.  Gas-producing  organisms.  Many  of  the  organisms  that  pro- 
duce bad  flavors  in  milk  and  its  products  also  produce  gas.  This 
is  particularly  noticeable  where  milk  is  made  into  cheese,  as  the  gas 
is  likely  to  produce  holes  or  openings  in  it.  9.  Lactic  acid  bacteria 
which  convert  the  sugar  into  lactic  acid,  or  cause  the  ordinary  sour- 
ing of  milk. 

This  is  not  an  exhaustive  list,  but  will  prove  sufficient  to  illus- 
trate the  many  and  varied  changes  in  milk  and  its  products,  due  to 
the  action  of  germ  life — ferments.  In  fact  the  problem  of  ferments 
and  fermentations,  and  how  to  control  them,  is  the  great  task  which 
the  dairyman  has  to  face  in  the  handling  of  milk,  the  manufacturing 
of  it  into  its  different  products,  and  the  care  of  the  same.  Some  of 
these  organisms  are  decidedly  harmful,  and  when  present  in  milk 
make  it  dangerous  to  use.  Othei's  affect  its  flavor,  rendering  it  more 
or  less  unpleasant  to  the  taste  and  smell.  The  great  majority,  while 
not  specially  harmful  to  a  person  in  vigorous  health,  depreciate  the 
value  of  milk  as  a  food  and  also,  when  present  in  too  great  numbers, 
set  up  trouble  in  the  digestive  tracts  of  persons  with  weak  digestion, 
such  as  invalids  and  infants.  Others,  particularly  the  lactic  acid 
organisms,  are  what  may  be  classed  as  desirable  organisms,  that  is, 
when  not  present  in  too  great  numbers,  and  when  kept  under  control, 
they  aid  cheese  and  butter  makers  in  the  process  of  ripening  milk 
and  cream  for  their  respective  purposes.  They  are  not  desirable  in 
milk  or  cream'  to  be  consumed  as  such,  that  is,  if  allowed  to  develop 
to  any  extent  they  cause  it  to  sour. — (Manitoba  Agrl.  Col.  B.  3.) 

Baeteria. — Science  has  admirably  succeeded  in  tracing  back 
through  generations  the  species,  genera,  families  and  orders  of  plants 
and  animals,  but  whatever  may  be  the  prototype  of  any  living  organ- 
ism, the  origin  of  that  prototype,  that  first  form  of  living  substance, 
is  to-day  as  obscure  as  it  was  a  thousand  years  ago.  The  same  holds 
true  in  case  of  bacteria.  We  simply  have  to  admit  that  we  do  not 
know.  But  this  lack  of  information  is  of  little  consequence  to  the 
practical  dairyman.    To  him  the  knowledge  of  the  general  distribu- 


Interior  of  Large  Slaughter  House,    Dept.  of  Age. 


Dirty  Barnyard  and  Waste  of  Manure.    Dept.  of  Agr.  1909. 


MILK  197 

tion  of  bacteria  in  nature  and  the  channels  through  which  milk  may 
become  infected  is  of  much  greater  importance.  It  is  well  for  him  to 
bear  in  mind  that  wherever  life  is  possible  there  he  may  also  find 
bacteria.  They  are  present  in  the  water,  in  the  soil,  in  the  air,  in 
dead  animal  and  plant  tissues,  on  the  skin,  on  the  hair,  in  the  upper 
air  passages  and  in  the  intestinal  tract  of  man  and  beast,  in  excreta, 
in  dust  and  in  dirt,  etc. 

Realizing  this  most  liberal  distribution  of  bacteria  in  nature  it 
is  not  difficult  for  the  milk  producer  to  imderetand  how  they  may 
gain  access  to  the  milk. 

But  milk,  even  before  it  is  drawn,  has  been  found  to  contain 
variable  and  often  large  numbers  of  these  microorganisms.  The 
first  source  of  bacteria  in  milk  is  the  udder  itself.  If  the  animal  is 
suffering  from  a  specific  infectious  disease  such  as  tuberculosis,  an- 
thrax, foot  and  mouth  disease  and  other  cattle  diseases,  the  bacteria 
causing  these  diseases  are  able  to  find  their  way  from  the  animal 
body  through  the  tissues  into  the  udder.  While  milk  from  such  ani- 
mals is  utterly  unfit  for  consumption  as  it  imperils  the  health  and 
life  of  the  consumer,  its  dangerous  effects  may  be  overcome  in  case 
of  tuberculosis  by  properly  pasteurizing  the  mflk.  In  the  case  of  an- 
thrax, however,  the  germs  are  very  resistant  and  heating  the  milk 
to  the  boiling  point  will  not  destroy  them.  Fortunately,  the  milk 
secretion  in  animals  suffering  from  anthrax '  decreases  rapidly  and 
ceases  completely  after  a  few  days;  the  milk  takes  on  a  yellow,  viscid 
appearance.  The  foot  and  mouth  disease,  which  is  causing  enor- 
mous loss  of  cattle  in  European  countries,  has,  thanks  to  the  rigid 
enforcement  of  our  quarantine  laws,  so  far  successfully  been  kept 
from  the  herds  of  this  country,  hence  an  infection  of  milk  from  this 
source  is  much  less  liable  to  occur. 

In  healthy  animals  the  only  possible  channel  of  bacterial  in- 
vasion is  the  teat.  The  teat  is  a  canal  surrounded  by  muscular  walls 
and  closed  at  the  extremity  by  an  involuntary  sphincter  muscle, 
which  varies  much  in  contractility  in  different  animals,  often  it  is 
so  lax  that  the  pressure  of  a  small  amount  of  milk  in  the  canal  is 
sufficient  to  open  it  and  the  animal  leaks  her  milk.  In  other  ani- 
mals it  requires  a  strong  effort  on  the  part  of  the  milker  to  draw 
the  milk.  This  canal,  with  a  temperature  of  the  animal  body  and 
containing  always,  even  after  the  most  complete  milking,  a  small 
amount  of  milk,  offers  ideal  conditions  for  bacterial  growth.  TOen 
the  animal  lies  down,  be  it  on  the  pasture  or  in  the  stable,  the  udder 
and  teats  come  in  contact  with  dust  and  dirt,  which  are  teeming 
with  bacteria.  It  seems,  then,  reasonable  to  conclude  that  in  case  of 
leaky  udders  the  bacteria  adhering  to  the  exterior  of  the  teat  have 
easy  access  to  the  interior,  where  they  meet  most  favorable  conditions 
for  rapid  development.  This  assumption  is  borne  out  by  the  results 
of  many  investigations  which  invariably  show  that  cows  with  leaky 
udders  harbor  a  very  large  number  of  bacteria  in  their  milk.  For 
this  reason  such  cows  are  discarded  from  the  herd  in  some  sanitary 
dairies.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  sphincter  muscles  close  the 
teat  firmly  the  bacterial  invasion  is  greatly  checked. 


198  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC, 

From  what  has  been  said  above  it  may  clearly  be  seen  that,  if 
cows  are  allowed  to  wade  in  swamps  covered  with  stagnant  water,  or 
lie  down  on  dirty,  filthy  stable  floors  which  are  covered  with  excreta, 
etc.,  the  chances  are  that  a  comparatively  large  number  of  bacteria 
will  be  able  to  enter  the  udder  through  the  teats,  a  fact  which  is  espe- 
cially true  in  the  case  of  cows  that  leak  their  milk.  It  is  obvious, 
therefore,  that  the  discarding  of  animals  which  suffer  from  disease 
and  of  cows  that  have  leaky  udders,  the  use  of  drained  pastures,  and 
of  clean  bedding  on  the  stall  floor,  constitute  the  first  step  towards 
improving  the  hygienic  and  keeping-quality  of  milk. 

Contamination  During  the  Operation  of  Milking. — Since  dead 
organic  matter  such  as  dust,  dirt,  excreta,  etc.,  is  charged  with  enor- 
mous numbers  of  bacteria,  large  numbers  of  these  microorganisms 
gain  access  to  the  milk  during  the  operation  of  milking  by  the  fall- 
ing into  the  milk  pail  dust  from  the  atmosphere,  of  hair  and  dirt 
from  the  animal  body,  from  the  unclean  hands  and  clothing  of  the 
milker  and  by  the  use  of  nonsterile  utensils.  Bacteriological  exam- 
inations of  the  stable  air  and  of  the  air  under  the  udder  during  milk- 
ing have  shown  that  thousands  of  these  germs  will  fall  into  the  open 
milk  pail  while  the  milk  is  being  drawn.  There  is  also  unquestion- 
able experimental  evidence  of  the  fact  that,  where  the  teats,  the 
udder  and  the  portions  immediately  surrounding  the  latter  are  care? 
fully  washed  before  milking,  where  the  stable  has  plenty  of  light,  is 
well  cleaned,  ventilated  and  the  floors  sprinkled  with  water  to  lay 
the  dust  before  milking,  where  the  milker  has  clean  hands,  wears 
clean  clothing  and  uses  sterile  utensils,  the  number  of  bacteria  in 
milk  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. —  (N.  Y.  Cornell  B.  203.) 

THE  MILKER. 

The  kinds  of  bacteria  that  the  milker  is  likely  to  introduce  into 
the  milk  include  nearly  the  whole  list.  It  seldom  occurs  to  the 
average  milker  that  it  is  as  necessary  to  wash  the  hands  before 
milking  as  before  eating  a  meal  of  victuals.  The  numbers  that 
come  from  soiled  clothes  and  dirty  hands  which  get  into  milk  are 
large.  The  hands  of  a  milker  working  around  the  farm  during  the 
afternoon  were  tested,  just  before  milking  time,  for  the  numbers 
of  bacteria  that  could  be  washed  off  in  a  quart  of  sterile  water.  The 
number  was  found  to  be  45,000,000.  This  washing  did  not  remove 
all  the  bacteria,  but  did  remove  all  those  that  might  have  dropped 
off  during  the  milking.  Another  experiment  was  tried  to  deter- 
mine how  many  bacteria  were  left  on  the  hands  after  thorough 
washing  with  soap  and  warm  water.  The  number  that  could  be 
washed  off  then  in  sterile  water  was  found  to  be  900,000.  These 
two  experiments  show  that  98  per  cent  of  bacteria  can  be  washed 
from  the  hands. 

The  clothes  of  the  ordinary  dairyman  carry  immense  numbers 
of  organisms  with  dust  from  all  sorts  of  contaminations.  The 
milker  has  a  much  wider  range  for  the  collection  of  a  larger  num- 
ber and  a  greater  variety  of  organisms  than  the  cow.  The  only 
proper  attire  for  a  milker  is  a  white  suit  and  cap  to  be  worn  only  at 
milking  time.     A  white  suit  shows  dirt  very  readily,  and  when 


MILK  199 

made  of  white  duck  will  last  a  long  time  and  can  be  sterilized  almost 
indefinitely. 

The  milker  may  not  only  be  the  source  of  a  very  large  number 
of  harmless  bacteria,  but  the  largest  source  of  disease  germs  that 
get  into  milk.  The  milker  may  be  the  immediate  source  of  dis- 
ease germs  or  may  transmit  them  from  another  person.  The  disease 
germs  that  get  into  milk  are  largely  from  human  origins,  infectious 
diseases  that  pass  individual  to  individual.  A  grave  mistake  has 
been  made  in  the  past  by  allowing  persons  ill  with  contagious  dis- 
eases to  enter  a  cow  stable  or  dairy  where  milk  is  handled.  Many 
an  epidemic  of  diptheria,  scarlet  fever  and  typhoid  has  been  traced 
to  a  case  of  illness  on  the  dairy  farm,  which  was  not  properly  quar- 
antined and  cared  for.  One  high  grade  milk  handling  concern 
requires  that  if  a  case  of  contagious  disease  arises  in  the  dairy  of  one 
of  its  patrons,  that  the  milk  supply  be  withheld  till  the  patient  has 
passed  the  danger  limit  of  conveying  the  disease  germs.  The  milk 
produced,  however,  is  paid  for  during  the  quarantine.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  make  the  average  individual  understand  or  even  believe 
that  our  worst  diseases  are  caused  by  special  kinds  of  bacteria,  and 
that  these  bacteria  can  be  transmitted  to  a  healthy  individual,  who 
is  likely  to -contract  the  same  disease. — (Conn  B.  51.) 

Bacteria  Decrease  in  Milk  After  Drawing. — In  contrast  with 
this  generally  accepted  opinion,  investigators  have  from  time  to 
time  made  the  statement  that  for  a  certain  length  of  time  the  num- 
ber of  bacteria  decreases,  so  that  milk  when  a  few  hours  old  contains 
a  smaller  number  of  organisms  than  it  did  when  first  obtained. 
Which  of  these  conditions  actually  takas  place  in  milk  is  of  great 
practical  importance  to  all  milk  handlers,  since  it  bears  upon  the 
importance  of  immediate  cooling.  If  all  the  bacteria  contained  in 
the  fresh  milk  developed  from  the  very  outset,  the  value  and  im- 
portance of  irri'mediate  cooling  can  not  be  over-emphasized,  but  if, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  falling  off  in  all  species  during  the  first 
few  hours,  it  would  only  be  necessary  to  cool  the  milk  before  the 
time  of  minimum  numbers  had  passed  and  they  again  commenced 
to  multiply. 

The  decrease  in  the  numbers  of  the  normal  milk  bacteria  dur- 
ing the  first  few  hours  after  milking  is  not  properly  to  be  attributed 
to  germicidal  condition  or  property  possessed  by  the  milk,  but 
simply  of  the  natural  dropping  out  of  those  species  which  do  not 
find  the  milk  a  suitable  medium  in  which  to  develop. —  (Conn. 
B.  37.) 

Kinds  Rather  than  Numbers. — The  great  host  of  bacteria  are 
workers  for  the  common  good.  They  are  transformers,  cleaning  up 
the  accumulations  of  plant  and  animal  life  that  would  otherwise  clog, 
and  encumber  the  soil  to  the  extent  of  preventing  the  existence  of 
even  plant  and  animal  life,  on  the  earth.  All  these  products  they  con- 
vert into  absolutely  necessary  plant  foods.  There  are  a  few  kinds 
of  bacteria  which  are  harmful  to  man  and  animals  in  that  they 
produce  disease.  It  would  be  very  unreasonable  to  condemn  the 
whole  group  of  plants  because  there  are  a  few  poisonous  plants. 


200  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

It  would  be  just  as  illogical  to  condemn  the  whole  group  of  bacteria 
because  a  few  are  disease  germs.  Not  more  than  one  per  cent  of  all 
bacteria  are  harmful  to  man.  The  ninety-nine  per  cent  are  bene- 
ficial and  are  absolutely  necessary  to  the  existence  of  life  on  the 
earth.  Many  bacteria  are  out  of  place  when  in  our  food,  though 
they  may  be  perfectly  harmless.  Here  they  are  performing  their 
natural  functions  in  changing  and  breaking  down  materials,  which 
work  is  essential  in  the  soil,  but  not  in  foods.  They  are  striving  to  do 
in  milk  what  they  were  created  to  do  in  the  products  necessary  to 
be  changed  for  the  growth  of  plants. 

The  number  of  organisms  that  get  into  milk  is  proportionate 
to  the  carelessness  and  ignorance  of  the  producer.  The  question  of 
the  numbers  of  bacteria  that  get  into  milk  is  not  so  serious  as  the 
power  of  growth  or  multiplication  of  those  that  do  get  in.  For  ex- 
ample, a  bacterium  will  divide  into  two  bacteria  in  twenty  or  thirty 
minutes,  according  to  the  temperature,  and  again  these  two  into  four 
in  another  twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  and  so  on  in  geometrical 
progression.  So  that  a  bacterium  given  sufficient  food  and  proper 
conditions  would  multiply  into  a  mass  the  size  of  the  earth  in  five 
days  and  eight  hours.  But  yet  the  question  of  multiplication  is  not 
so  serious  as  the  kinds  of  bacteria  that  get  into  milk. 

Ten  typhoid  bacilli  in  a  quart  of  milk  are  a  source  of  disease 
and  even  death  to  the  consumer,  while  the  three  hundred  millions 
to  six  hundred  millions  of  lactic  acid  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter 
in  sour  milk  and  butter-milk  render  these  products  not  only  harmless, 
but  excellent  and  strengthening  articles  of  food.  The  settling  of 
a  limit  by  boards  of  health  for  the  numbers  of  bacteria  that  a  cubic 
centimeter  of  market  milk  shall  contain  falls  far  short  of  the  real 
requirement.  The  question  should  be,  are  those  present  harmless 
or  dangerous?  The  ideal  market  milk  would  be  milk  entirely  free 
from  bacteria,  but  under  present  conditions  this  ideal  is  an  impos- 
sibility. On  the  other  hand,  milk  to  be  used  for  the  making  of  butter 
and  cheese  must  contain  certain  kinds  of  bacteria  for  the  proper 
ripening  of  cream  and  cheese.  These  kinds  which  are  necessary 
to  the  creameryman  are  the  most  difficult  ones  to  keep  out  of  milk. 
—(Conn.  B.  51.) 

Why  Cold  Aids  in  Preserving  Milk, —  Dairymen  at  the  present 
time  understand  that  milk  is  sure  to  contain  bacteria  in  greater  or 
less  numbers,  and  that  these  bacteria  are  the  cause  of  the  various 
changes  characterizing  the  spoiling  of  milk.  It  is  the  type  of  bac- 
teria known  as  lactic  bacteria  that  is  responsible  for  the  souring  of 
milk  and  all  of  the  other  changes  which  are  liable  to  prove  trouble- 
some to  the  dairyman,  slimy  milk,  bitter  milk,  etc.,  etc.,  are  to-day 
well  known  to  be  due  also  to  bacteria  in  the  milk.  It  is  not  simply 
the  presence  of  bacteria  in  the  milk  that  produces  these  changes, 
but  rather  their  growth  and  multiplication.  If  they  did  not  multi- 
ply at  all,  the  milk  would  not  sour;  the  more  rapidly  they  multiply, 
the  quicker  the  changes  of  the  milk  take  place;  the  longer  the 
growth  may  be  delayed  and  the  slower  it  is,  the  longer  the  milk 
may  be  retained  in  its  fresh  condition.      These  facts  arefunda- 


MILK  201 

mental  phenomena  associated  with  the  keeping  of  milk,  and  every 
milkman  should  therefore  understand  as  a  foundation  of  dairy  prac- 
tice that  the  keeping  of  milk  is  dependent  upon  preventing  or 
checking  the  multiplication  of  bacteria,  rather  than  upon  simply 
preventing  their  presence  in  milk. 

A  second  fact  which  is  not  so  thoroughly  appreciated,  but  is 
equally  true,  is  that  the  rapidity  of  growth  of  all  species  of  bacteria 
is  dependent  upon  temperature.  Within  certain  limits  the  rate  of 
multiplication  rises  with  the  increase  and  falls  with  the  decrease 
in  temperature.  At  a  temperature  of  freezing,  bacteria  do  not  grow 
at  all,  and  milk,  therefore,  if  frozen,  may  be  kept  indefinitely  with- 
out any  changes  taking  place  therein.  If  the  milk  is  kept  at  a  few 
degrees  above  freezing,  the  growth  of  bacteria  begins,  but  at  low 
temperatures  this  growth  is  extremely  slow.  As  the  temperature 
rises,  the  rapidity  of  bacterial  growth  increases.  When  the  tem- 
perature reaches  70°,  bacteria  grow  very  rapidly;  at  a  temperature 
of  80°  and  90°  they  grow  more  rapidly  still;  and  at  a  temperature 
of  about  100°  the  growth  of  some  species  of  bacteria  is  most  rapid 
of  all.  All  this  is  generally  understood,  but  it  is  not  generally  rec- 
ognized that  if  the  temperature  is  raised  somewhat  above  these 
higher  limits,  the  bacteria  do  not  grow  so  rapidly.  If  the  tempera- 
ture is  raised  to  120°,  most  of  these  organisms  find  conditions  un- 
favorable to  their  life,  and  grow  very  slowly ;  indeed  many  of  them 
cease  to  grow  at  all.  At  temperatures  above  this  the  ordinary  milk 
bacteria  entirely  fail  to  develop.  From  these  facts  it  will  be  seen 
that  in  general  the  growth  of  the  kinds  of  bacteria  that  produce 
trouble  in  milk  will  be  found  between  temperatures  of  freezing  and 
a  little  above  100°  F.,  and  that  the  greater  the  temperature,  within 
these  limits,  the  more  rapid  is  the  development  of  the  bacteria,  and 
hence  the  more  rapid  the  spoiling  of  the  milk. 

From  these  facts  of  course  it  follows  that  the  keeping  of  milk 
will  be  very  closely  dependent  upon  temperature.  At  high  tempera- 
tures (90°)  milk  will  sour  very  rapidly.  At  somewhat  lower  tem- 
peratures (70°)  the  souring  is  not  quite  so  rapid,  but  still  it  takes 
place  in  a  comparatively  few  hours.  At  lower  temperatures  still, 
in  the  \'icinity  of  freezing,  the  souring  and  all  other  changes  may 
be  delayed  for  a  long  time;  and  if  milk  can  be  frozen,  it  may  be 
retained  indefinitelv  without  any  appreciable  change  taking  place 
in  it.— (Conn.  B.  26.)  ^ 

Flies. — The  domestic  fly  is  passing  from  a  disgusting  nuisance 
and  troublesome  pest  to  a  reputation  of  being  a  dangerous  enemy  to 
human  health.  A  species  of  mosquito  has  been  demonstrated  to  be 
the  cause  of  the  spread  of  malaria.  Another  kind  of  mosquito  is 
the  cause  of  yellow  fever,  and  now  the  house  fly  is  considered  an 
agency  in  the  distribution  of  tj^^hoid  fever,  summer  complaint, 
cholera  infantum,  etc. 

The  numbers  of  bacteria  on  a  single  flv  may  range  all  the  way 
from  550  to  6.600,000.  Early  in  the  fly  season  the  numbers  of 
bacteria  on  flies  are  comparatively  small,  while  later  the  numbers 
are  comparatively  verj^  large.    The  place  where  flies  live  also  deter- 


202  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

mines  largely  tjie  numbers  that  they  carry.  The  average  for  414 
flies  was  about  one  and  one-fourth  millions  bacteria  on  each. — 
(Conn.  B.  51.) 

The  Air. — The  air  is  not  a  source,  but  a  medium,  of  distribu- 
tion for  bacteria.  The  outdoor  air  away  from  cities  is  very  free 
from  organisms.  It  is  the  interiors  of  buildings  where  germs  collect 
that  cause  the  air  to  become  a  medium  of  distribution.  The  con- 
stant accumulation  of  dust  that  is  not  removed  is  ready  at  the 
slightest  commotion  to  be  raised  into  the  air  and  spreads  itself  to 
every  part  of  a  room.  After  an  hour  or  two  it  settles  on  all  exposed 
surfaces  ready  to  be  again  wafted  into  the  air  at  any  disturbance. 
iDust  and  bacteria  are  almost  synonymous  terms.  The  former 
scarcely  ever  exists  without  the  latter.  In  fact,  bacteria  utilize  float- 
ing dust  as  air  ships  for  distribution.  Hay  is  the  most  abundant 
source  of  dust  and  bacteria  in  a  bam  and  stable.  If  the  dust  is 
never  removed  it  collects  in  very  large  quantities.  Grain  feeds  are 
dusty  and  well  supplied  with  bacteria.  Poor  or  swamp  hay  bed- 
ding is  a  very  abundant  source  of  bacteria  and  is  so  near  the  milk 
pail  during  milking  that  it  furnishes  large  numbers  that  get  into 
the  milk.  It  is  advisable  not  to  use  hay  for  bedding,  but  instead 
use  sawdust,  planer  shavings  or  clean  straw.  Dry  sweeping  is  the 
worst  method  of  cleaning  floors,  because  it  fills  the  air  with  dust 
that  settles  over  everything  and  only  removes  the  coarser  particles 
of  dirt.  Dusting  should  be  done  with  damp  cloths,  not  dusters. 
Sweeping  with  some  damp  material  spread  over  the  floor,  or  better, 
on  cement  floors,  flush  with  water.  The  air  is,  then,  a  medium  for 
the  distribution  of  nearly  all  kinds  of  bacteria,  including  a  few 
varieties  of  disease  germs  whenever  the  sources  of  bacteria  and  dust 
are  dried  and  pulverized  materials. —  (Conn.  B.  51.) 

Lactic  Fermentation. — As  pointed  out  in  the  previous  bulletin, 
the  lactic  fermentation  is  produced  by  a  large  variety  of  bacteria. 
This  fact  has  been  confirmed  over  and  over  again  in  recent  years 
and  the  list  of  lactic-acid  bacteria  has  been  constantly  growing.  At 
the  present  time  a  very  large  number  of  species  (over  one  hundred) 
have  been  described  as  producing  the  acid  fermentation  of  milk. 
To  what  extent,  however,  they  are  all  to  be  regarded  as  producing 
the  lactic  fermentation  we  can  hardly  say,  because  in  most  cases  no 
attempt  has  been  made  to  determine  chemically  the  presence  of 
lactic  acid,  the  investigators  being  ordinarily  content  with  the  deter- 
mination of  the  production  of  an  acid  reaction.  Moreover,  it  is 
impossible  to  state  to  what  extent  these  different  species  are  really 
different  from  each  other.  The  list  includes  many  pathological 
forms,  as  well  as  the  distinctively  dairy  bacteria.  The  first-described 
species,  Bacillus  acidi  lactici,  has  been  found  to  assume  many 
varieties. 

Eleetricity. — The  action  of  lactic  organisms  appears  to  be  still 
the  only  known  method  of  spontaneous  milk  souring.  It  is  true 
that  careful  investigation  has  shown  that  when  milk  is  drawn  fresh 
from  the  cow  it  is  commonly  very  slightly  acid,  an  acidity  depend- 
ent upon  certain  conditions  in  the  milk  gland,  but  no  other  second- 


MILK  203 

ary  causes  of  milk  souring  are  known  except  that  of  micro-organ- 
isms. Experiments  on  the  relation  of  electricity  to  milk  have  verified 
the  conclusion  that  electricity  has  no  direct  influence  in  producing 
the  souring  of  milk.  The  only  recent  work  on  this  subject  has  been 
that  of  Liebig,  whose  conclusions  are  that  the  souring  of  milk  dur- 
ing a  thunderstorm  is  simply  due  to  the  rapid  growth  of  bacteria, 
produced  by  the  same  conditions  which  produce  the  thunderstorm. 
(See  Effect  of  Thunderstorms  on  the  Souring  of  Milk.) 

Butyric  Acid. — We  know  little  in  regard  to  this  type  of  fer- 
mentation. Butyric  acid  fermentation  is  a  very  common  type.  At 
the  present  time  about  a  dozen  organisms  are  known  to  produce  this 
fermentation  and  have  been  described.  There  are  many  others 
which  have  been  less  thoroughly  studied,  but  which  produce  butyric 
acid  as  a  by-product.  They  have  been  found  in  various  milk  products 
(milk,  butter,  and  cheese)  and  in  other  places  in  nature  as  well. 

The  butyric-acid  fermentation  does  not  appear  to  be  so  simple 
a  one  as  the  lactic  fermentation.  In  the  lactic  fermentation  we  have 
what  we  regard  as  nearly  a  smooth  splitting  of  the  milk-sugar  mole- 
cule into  carbonic  acid  and  lactic  acid.  It  is  true  that  there  are 
always  produced  other  by-products,  and  these  sometimes  in  consid- 
erable amount,  but  these  secondary  products  are  not  very  important 
in  the  lactic  type  of  fermentation.  In  the  case  of  butyric  acid,  how- 
ever, the  reverse  is  the  case.  Butyric  acid  is  to  be  regarded  prob- 
ably in  all  cases  as  an  end  product  of  a  long  series  of  fermentative 
changes.  It  is  always  accompanied  by  many  by-products,  and 
usually  the  butyric  acid  is  slow  in  its  appearance  and  is  not  the  chief 
product  in  the  fermentation. —  (U.  S.  Dep.  Agr.  0.  E.  S.  B.  25.) 

Flavors  in  Milk. — Milk  may  acquire  abnormal  flavors  and  odors 
in  various  ways: 

(1)  The  cow  may,  through  some  pathological  condition,  pro- 
duce milk  with  an  unusual  flavor.  This  may  occur  when  the  cow 
shows  no  outward  sign  of  disorder  and  usually  last  for  a  short  time 
only. 

(2)  Highly  flavored  foods  may  impart  their  peculiar  flavors 
to  the  milk.  The  disagreeable  results  of  feeding  even  small  quan- 
tities of  wild  onion,  turnips,  and  similar  feeds  are  unfortunately  too 
familiar  to  need  comment.  Other  feeds  with  a  less  pungent  taste 
no  doubt  afi'ect  the  flavor  of  the  milk  to  a  less  degree. 

(3)  Milk,  especially  warm  milk,  takes  up  the  odors  and  flavors 
of  the  surrounding  air  with  great  rapidity.  The  flavor  thus  ac- 
quired may  be  so  slight  that  it  ordinarily  passes  unnoticed,  or  it  may 
be  so  pronounced  that  anyone  may  recognize  its  source. 

(4)  The  flavor  of  milk  may  be  materially  changed  by  the 
growth  of  bacteria,  with  the  infinite  variety  of  by-products  which 
result  from  their  development.  If  milk  is  sterilized  and  then  inocu- 
lated with  some  one  kind  of  bacteria,  a  certain  flavor,  frequently 
very  pronounced,  will  result;  and  under  the  same  conditions  this 
particular  variety  will  always  produce  the  same  flavor.  Another 
kind  may  produce  an  equally  pronounced  but  entirely  difi'erent 
flavor,  while  some  species  may  grow  for  a  long  time  without  causing 


204  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

any  noticeable  change.  In  ordinary  milk,  however,  the  conditions 
are  different,  in  that  many  kinds  of  bacteria  are  growing  together 
and  the  milk  is  usually  consumed  before  there  is  any  marked  change 
in  the  flavor. 

When  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  bacteria  grow  together, 
as  they  usually  do  in  milk,  the  development  is  not  equal.  One 
variety  finds  the  conditions  of  food  or  temperature  or  acidity  more 
suited  to  its  peculiar  habits  of  life  and  develops  more  rapidly  than 
other  kinds.  In  a  short  time  this  rapidly  growing  form  may  so 
change  the  milk,  that,  while  the  conditions  arc  more  favorable  to 
its  own  growth,  they  become  less  and  less  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
others.  In  the  course  of  time  this  form  crowds  out  all  others  and 
an  examination  would  show  large  numbers  of  this  kind,  while  the 
others  originally  present  would  have  entirely  disappeared,  or  would 
occur  only  occasionally.  It  is  in  this  way  that  the  special  fermenta- 
tions develop. 

If  milk  shows  a  peculiar  flavor  when  it  is  first  drawn,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  the  flavor  is  not  produced  by  bacteria  but  by  the  cow, 
usually  through  something  in  the  feed.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
fresh  milk  is  normal  and  the  flavor  develops  as  the  milk  stands, 
it  is  usually  due  to  bacteria. 

Sweet  Curdling  and  Digestion. — It  sometimes  happens  that 
milk  curdles  without  showing  the  usual  acid  taste.  This  is  followed 
by  the  separation  of  a  straw-colored  whey,  which  slowly  increases 
until  the  curd  has  nearly  all  disappeared.  This  condition  is  the 
result  of  a  series  of  complicated  changes  brought  about  by  bacteria. 

When  milk  is  taken  into  the  stomach,  especially  the  stomachs 
of  young  animals  whose  diet  is  largely  or  wholly  milk,  a  certain 
constituent  of  the  digestive  juice  precipitates  the  casein,  forming  a 
firm  curd.  This  curd  resembles  the  acid  curd  in  appearance,  but 
differs  from  it  chemically  and  has  no  sour  taste.  The  part  of  the 
digestive  juice  which  produces  this  change  is  the  rennet,  with  which 
we  are  familiar  in  cheese  making  and  in  the  junket  tablets  of  the 
kitchen.  It  is  what  is  technically  known  as  an  enzyme,  and  while 
it  has  some  of  the  properties  which  we  ordinarily  attribute  to  living 
beings,  its  action  is  purely  chemical. 

In  this  precipitated  condition  the  casein  is  not  in  a  form  to  be 
used  by  the  animal.  It  must  be  so  changed  that  it  will  go  into  a 
solution  and  pass  through  the  membranes  lining  the  digestive  tract. 
This  change  is  brought  about  by  another  enzyme,  pepsin.  Pepsin 
changes  the  curd  rapidly  and  completely  into  compounds  soluble  in 
water. 

Bitter  Milk. — The  distinct  bitter  taste  which  sometimes  ap- 
pears in  milk  may  be  caused  by  (1)  certain  weeds  that  the  cow  has 
eaten,  (2)  an  abnormal  condition  of  the  udder,  (3)  an  advanced 
period  of  lactation,  or  (4)  the  action  of  certain  bacteria.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  bacteria  causing  bitterness  are  not  at  all  uncommon  and 
that  they  could  be  found  in  many  lots  of  milk  showing  no  bitter- 
ness,   Some  of  these  bacteria  form  acid  and  sour  the  milk;  the 


3IILK  205 

more  common  forms,  however,  form  little  acid,  and  are  checked  by 
the  growth  of  the  lactic-acid  bacteria. 

The  bacteria  causing  bitterness  in  unheated  milk  are  more  fre- 
quently those  of  the  acid-forming  classes,  which  are  better  able  to 
compete  with  the  lactic-acid  bacteria.  The  acid  formed  by  this 
group  is  usually  butyric  and  not  lactic.  Some  writers  have  stated 
that  the  bitterness  is  caused  directly  by  the  butyric  acid.  Neariy 
all  of  the  bacteria  known  to  produce  bitterness  bring  about  an  active 
digestion  of  the  casein  and  albumen,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  bitter 
principle  is  formed  in  this  decomposition.  In  most  cases,  however, 
the  bitterness  becomes  evident  before  there  is  any  visible  sign  of 
change  in  the  milk. 

Bitter  milk  may  occur  as  an  epidemic,  persisting  day  after  day 
and  causing  great  trouble.  This  may  be  due  to  some  constant 
localized  source  of  infection  which  adds  each  day  unusual  numbers 
of  bacteria  to  the  milk.  In  some  cases  it  has  been  found  that  the 
udder  of  a  cow  was  infected.  This  should  be  determined  by  carefully 
cleaning  the  udders  of  all  the  cows  and  milking  from  each  quarter 
of  the  udder  of  each  cow  into  fruit  jars  or  bottles  which  have  been 
previously  cleaned  with  boiling  water. 

In  case  one  of  these  samples  shows  a  well-developed  bitterness 
while  others  remain  normal,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  source  of 
infection  is  the  udder  of  the  cow  giving  this  milk.  In  that  case 
there  should  be  injected  into  the  udder  after  each  milking  a  solu- 
tion of  1  part  hyposulphite  of  soda  in  100  parts  of  water. 

It  is  probable  in  many  cases  that  the  source  of  infection  is  not 
localized.  If  through  some  combination  of  circumstances  the  lactic- 
acid  bacteria  are  suppressed,  other  kinds  become  predominant.  The 
utensils,  the  milk-room,  and  the  stable  gradually  become  inoculated 
with  these  bacteria  or  their  spores  and  each  new  lot  of  milk  is  thor- 
oughly inoculated.  The  bitter-milk  bacteria  m.ay  be  one  of  the  new 
forms.  In  this  event  it  may  be  necessary,  after  thoroughly  cleaning 
and  steaming  everything  coming  in  contact  with  the  milk,  to  intro- 
duce some  good  sour  milk  from  a  neighboring  dairy.  In  this  way 
the  normal  fermentation  may  be  restored  and  the  objectionable 
bacteria  suppressed. 

Ropy  or  Stringy  Milk. — In  this  most  troublesome  fermenta- 
tion the  milk  becomes  what  is  commonly  described  as  ropy  or 
stringy.  The  milk  is  slimy  and  viscid.  As  this  condition  increases 
the  milk  may  be  drawn  out  into  threads. 

This  fermentation  should  not  be  confused  with  garget,  which 
appears  in  the  fresh  milk  and  is  due  to  an  inflammation  of  the 
udder.  Ropy  or  stringy  milk  develops  after  the  milk  is  drawn  and 
is  caused  by  the  growth  of  certain  kinds  of  bacteria.  Although  a 
number  of  kinds  of  bacteria  causing  this  trouble  have  been  studied 
as  distinct  varieties,  it  is  probable  that  they  are  nearly  all  closely 
related.  They  do  not  form  spores  and  are  therefore  destroyed  by  a 
comparatively  low  heat. 

If  a  sample  of  ropy  milk  is  examined  under  a  microscope  it  is 
found  to  be  filled  with  these  small  bacteria,  each  one  surrounded 


206  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

by  a  capsule  of  a  sticky,  gummy  substance.  This  gum  or  slime  holds 
the  bacteria  together.  When  a  thread  is  drawn  out  it  is  really  a  chain 
of  bacteria  held  together  by  their  sticky  capsules. 

Ropy  milk  is,  so  far  as  known,  in  no  way  detrimental  to  health. 
The  famous  Edam  cheeses  are  nearly  all  made  from  milk  which  has 
undergone  this  fermentation.  The  peasants  of  Norway  consider 
ropy  milk  a  desirable  beverage  and  bring  about  this  fermentation 
by  adding  to  fresh  milk  the  leaves  of  certain  plants  on  which  the 
bacteria  causing  ropy  milk  are  abundant.  Most  people,  however, 
object  seriously  to  milk  with  any  tendency  to  form  threads.  This 
trouble  frequently  affects  the  milk  of  a  dairy  day  after  day  and  is 
removed  only  by  the  most  drastic  measures. 

Outbreaks  of  this  nature  frequently  occur  in  the  cold  months, 
because  the  bacteria  of  this  group  thrive  better  at  low  temperatures 
than  the  lactic-acid  bacteria  which  hold  them  in  check  under  normal 
conditions.  In  one  case  it  was  found  that  these  bacteria  were  abun- 
dant in  the  dust  of  the  stable.  The  trouble  was  removed  by  a  thor- 
ough cleaning  and  whitewashing.  In  another  serious  and  persistent 
outbreak  it  was  found  that  the  milk  as  it  came  from  the  dairy  con- 
tained few  or  no  ropy  milk  bacteria,  but  that  they  were  abundant 
in  the  water  tank  in  which  the  milk  was  held  over  night.  The  small 
amount  of  water  occasionally  splashed  into  the  cans  added  sufficient 
bacteria  to  make  the  milk  ropy  in  a  comparatively  short  time.  The 
utensils  and  floor  had  become  so  thoroughly  impregnated  with  this 
organism  that  milk  exposed  in  the  room  or  strained  through  the 
wire  strainer  became  ropy  without  contamination  with  the  water. 
The  trouble  was  removed  by  thoroughly  scalding  all  the  utensils, 
disinfecting  the  floor  with  a  5  per  cent  sulphuric  acid  solution,  and 
destroying  the  organisms  in  the  ice  water  by  adding  potassium 
bichromate.  This  was  used  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  in  1,000, 
or,  roughly,  1  ounce  to  1  cubic  foot  of  water. 

The  source  of  the  trouble  can  sometimes  be  easily  located  by 
taking  small  samples  of  the  milk  in  clean  glass  jars  at  different 
stages  in  the  handling.  These  should  be  covered,  set  away  in  a  cool 
place  to  retard  the  souring,  and  examined  after  twenty-four  to  thirty- 
six  hours  for  indications  of  ropiness. 

In  dairies  getting  milk  from  a  number  of  farms  the  source  of 
the  difficulty  may  be  located  on  some  particular  farm  and  proper 
methods  taken  to  remove  the  source  of  contamination. 

Any  precaution  is  almost  sure  to  be  ineffectual  if  all  utensils 
coming  in  contact  with  the  milk  are  not  thoroughly  scalded,  or, 
better  still,  steamed. 

Miscellaneous  Fermentations. — ^In  addition  to  the  various  fer- 
mentations previously  described,  milk  may  undergo  many  other 
changes  as  a  result  of  the  action  of  bacteria  or  other  micro-organ- 
isms. The  color  may  be  changed.  The  appearance  of  color  in  milk 
is  due  to  the  growth  of  bacteria  which  produce  a  pigment  soluble 
in  water.  All  the  colors  of  the  rainbow,  from  bright  red  to  violet, 
are  formed  by  bacteria.  Blue  unilk,  which  is  the  most  common  of 
the  color  fermentations,  is  probably  due  to  contaminations  from 


MILK  207 

■water,  in  which  the  blue  and  violet  forming  bacteria  are  known  to 
occur  frequently.  It  is  only  under  unusual  circumstances  that  these 
bacteria  occur  in  milk  in  sufficient  numbers  to  give  any  trouble. 

Milk  sometimes  undergoes  an  alcoholic  fermentation,  and  in 
some  countries  this  is  brought  about  by  proper  inoculation  and  con- 
trol of  temperatures  to  produce  a  beverage.  The  alcoholic  fermenta- 
tion is  usually  caused  by  a  yeast  which  has  the  ability  to  break  up 
milk  sugar  into  alcohol  and  large  quantities  of  carbon  dioxid  gas. 
The  ordinary  yeast,  such  as  is  used  in  bread  making,  produces 
similar  changes  in  cane  sugar,  but  does  not  affect  milk  sugar.  In 
the  alcoholic  drinks  made  from  milk  the  alcoholic  fermentation  is 
usually  combined  with  an  acid  fennentation.  Koumiss,  a  drink 
made  originally  in  the  Caucasus  from  mare's  milk,  is  a  combination 
of  an  alcoholic  and  a  lactic-acid  fermentation. 

The  Presence  of  Leucocytes  in  Milk. — It  has  long  been  known 
that  milk  contains  many  bacteria  and  cellular  elements.  The  rela- 
tion existing  between  the  kind  of  bacteria  and  the  cellular  elements 
has  been  a  subject  of  considerable  discussion  in  the  last  few  years. 
Early  observers  found  that  the  leucocytes  and  bacteria  were  invari- 
ably increased  in  the  milk  from  a  cow  with  udder  inflammation. 
When  milk  contained  a  large  number  of  bacteria  and  cells,  it  was 
thought  that  some  one  animal  in  a  herd  was  suffering  from  garget 
or  mammitis.  Later  observers  contended  that  these  cellular  ele- 
ments were  found  in  normal  milk,  and  that  different  animals  and 
even  different  quarters  of  the  udder  in  the  same  animal  contained 
varying  amounts  of  these  elements. 

The  variety  of  bacteria  commonly  associated  with  an  increase 
of  leucocytes  is  the  streptococcus.  Whether  the  polymorphonuclear 
leucocyte  is  to  be  considered  as  a  pus  cell  or  a  normal  leucocyte  is 
still  an  unsettled  question.  The  early  milk  experts  were  inclined  to 
consider  the  presence  of  large  numbers  of  leucocytes  as  an  indication 
of  udder  disease,  the  reason  for  this  being  that  they  found  increased 
numbers  of  the  streptococci  also  present.  Some  later  observers — for 
instance,  Savage — did  not  find  this  relation.  Since  normal  milk 
contains  leucocytes  in  varying  numbers,  it  is  a  somewhat  general 
opinion  that  they  can  not  be  considered  as  pus  cells  unless  they  are 
present  in  large  numbers,  associated  with  pus-producing  organisms. 
The  mere  presence  of  leucocytes  in  milk,  therefore,  does  not  seem 
to  indicate  pus  formation  in  the  udder. — (U.  S.  Dep.  Agr.  Bu.  An. 
Ind.  B.  117.) 

Pasteurizing  and  Sterilizing. — Heating  milk  for  the  purpose  of 
destroying  the  germs  present  is  effected  by  means  of  two  methods, 
known  as  sterilization  and  pasteurization.  Pasteurized  milk  has  the 
same  relation  to  sterilized  milk  that  rare-done  beef  has  to  well-done 
beef.  Such  milk  has  not  been  heated  sufficiently  to  give  it  the 
cooked  taste,  and  its  preparation  is  founded  on  the  fact  that  disease 
germs  can  be  destroyed  at  a  temperature  below  that  which  causes 
this  cooked  condition.  As  most  of  the  other  germs  in  the  milk  are 
destroyed  at  the  same  time,  such  milk  is  greatly  improved  as  regards 
its  keeping  qualities. 


208  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Sterilized  milk,  properly  speaking,  is  that  which  has  had  all 
of  its  germ  content  destroyed.  Hence  if  such  milk  be  guarded  from 
further  contamination,  it  will  reniain  unaltered,  even  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  for  an  indefinite  period.  To  destroy  all  the  germs  in 
milk,  including  the  spores,  it  becomes  necessary  to  subject  it  to  the 
action  of  live  steam  under  pressure,  at  a  temperature  considerably 
above  the  boiling  point  (240°).  Such  a  proceeding  is  neither  prac- 
ticable nor  necessary  in  the  household,  as  pasteurizing  serves  all 
ordinary  purposes.  Milk  may,  however,  be  completely  sterilized 
by  repeated  pasteurization.  The  heating  is  repeated  daily  for  nearly 
a  week,  because  all  the  spores  present  do  not  germinate  after  the  close 
of  the  first  or  even  after  the  second  heating,  though  there  are  very 
few  that  remain.  While  milk  sterilized  by  this  method,  has  no 
cooked  flavor,  yet  it  is  a  method  commercially  impracticable. 

What  is  generally  called  sterilized  milk  is  not  entirely  free 
from  germs,  but  having  been  subjected  to  a  more  thorough  heating 
than  with  pasteurization,  and  being  guarded  against  further  con- 
tamination, it  will  keep  longer  than  does  pasteurized  milk.  This 
is  its  main  advantage,  for  it  has  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  the  cooked 
flavor. 

The  Simplest  Method  of  Pasteurizing. — If  there  is  no  objection 
on  the  part  of  the  consumer  to  the  cooked  flavor,  the  process  of  heat- 
ing milk  need  not  be  so  carefully  done.  No  thermometer  is  needed. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  to  bring  the  milk  to  the  boiling  condition. 
But  if  one  is  to  pasteurize  milk  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  thermometer. 
One  costing  twenty-five  cents  is  sufficient  for  this  purpose. 

The  simplest  method  of  pasteurizing  milk  requires  no  addi- 
tional apparatus  aside  from  the  commonest  kitchen  utensils.  One 
has  simply  to  heat  the  milk  as  rapidly  as  possible  in  a  common  gran- 
iteware  pan,  stirring  all  the  while  with  a  spoon  of  convenient  size, 
while  the  thermometer  is  held  in  the  milk.  As  soon  as  the  mercury 
has  run  up  to  185°  (which  occurs  very  quickly)  the  dish  is  covered, 
removed  from  the  fire  and  set  aside.  In  our  own  practice  we  receive 
the  milk  at  9  a.  m.  It  is  at  once  scalded  at  185°.  This  suffices  for 
the  day.  After  supper,  what  is  left,  is  heated  again  to  preserve  it 
for  breakfast.  No  refrigeration  is  used.  Where  the  milk  is  received 
in  time  for  breakfast,  unless  some  is  needed  through  the  night,  the 
second  heating  is  unnecessary.  In  case  there  is  no  fear  of  disease 
germs,  what  is  used  for  the  first  meal  or  two  (depending  on  the 
season)  can  be  used  raw,  while  the  portion  that  is  reserv^ed  for  later 
use  is  heated.  Milk  can  be  kept  for  some  days  without  ice,  even  in 
warm  weather,  by  this  method  of  scalding  night  and  morning.  The 
use  of  ice  makes  one  heating  a  day  to  be  sufficient. 

Pasteurizing  Milk  in  Bottles. — ^The  bottles  known  as  sterilizing 
bottles  are  tall,  narrow  ones,  with  a  capacity  of  eight  ounces,  or  half 
pint.  After  being  filled  with  milk,  the  bottles  are  corked  most  con- 
veniently by  means  of  a  wad  or  plug  of  cotton  batting.  But  of  course 
care  must  be  used  that  this  does  not  become  wet,  and  the  bottles 
must  be  kept  upright.  They  may  also  be  stoppered  with  ordinary 
corks  which  have  recently  been  boiled  each  time  before  using,  and 


MILK  209 

then  less  care  to  keep  the  bottles  upright  will  be  needed.  But  corks 
must  be  firmly  tied  down,  when  sterilizing  is  done,  to  prevent  their 
being  forced  out. 

To  heat  the  milk  in  these  bottles,  it  is  necessary  to  put  them  into 
a  boiler  upon  a  perforated  false  bottom  or  platform  to  keep  them 
from  direct  contact  with  the  bottom  of  the  boiler.  Water  is  poured 
in  around  the  bottles  to  the  same  level  as  the  milk.  This  water  is 
heated,  and  as  the  temperature  of  the  milk  lags  some  ten  or  more 
degrees  behind  that  of  the  water,  the  latter  must  be  raised  to  the 
boiling  point,  when  the  bottles  can  be  removed  and  cooled,  gradually, 
to  prevent  their  cracking.  As  it  is  advantageous  to  cool  the  milk 
rapidly,  the  use  of  tin  cans  of  similar  shape  as  the  bottles  is  recom- 
mended. Such  cans  may  be  put  at  once  in  iced  water.  The  part  of 
the  bottles  above  the  milk  is  not  pasteurized,  and  hence  the  bottles 
should  be  kept  upright  to  prevent  contamination. 

At  170°,  water  begins  to  steam,  and  simmer;  while  boiling  be- 
gins at  190°  to  195°,  at  which  time  the  milk  in  the  bottles  has 
reached  185°.  ^ 

If  it  is  desired  to  pasteurize  at  a  lower  temperature,  say  at  155°, 
the  water  must  be  held  at  this  point  for  half  an  hour,  and  at  140° 
for  about  an  hour.  This  will  take  more  care  and  time  than  the 
method  described. 

To  use  this  boiler  as  a  sterilizer  it  is  only  necessary  to  boil  the 
water  for  about  ten  minutes  to  half  an  hour,  or  longer.  The  time 
will  depend  on  M'hether  the  bottles  are  taken  out  and  cooled  at  once 
or  left  in  the  hot  water  to  cool  gradually.  In  the  latter  case  the 
boiling  can  be  shorter. 

The  boiler  can  also  be  used  as  a  steamer,  by  putting  less  water 
in  and  putting  on  the  cover.  When  bottles  are  plugged  with  cotton 
it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  cover  when  the  steaming  is  completed 
to  prevent  the  plugs  from  getting  wet  by  the  condensing  steam.  In 
this  case  the  plugs  and  upper  parts  of  the  bottles  become  sterilized. 
If  desired,  the  plugs  may  be  withdrawn  after  sterilizing,  and  steril- 
ized corks  substituted,  care  being  exercised  to  prevent  the  finger  from 
touching  the  bottom  of  the  corks  or  the  lips  of  the  bottle.  Or,  the 
cotton  plugs  can  be  made  impervious  by  saturating  them  with  melted 
paraffine.  This,  of  course,  must  not  be  done  until  after  the  steaming 
is  completed.— (N.  J.  B.  152.) 

Supposed  Effect  of  Thunderstorms. — A  consideration  of  the 
subject  of  the  souring  of  milk  would  not  be  complete  without  refer- 
ence to  the  effect  of  electricity.  The  popular  belief  that  thunder- 
storms will  sour  milk  is  so  widespread  that  it  would  seem  as  if  there 
must  be  some  foundation  for  it.  It  has  been  asserted  by  many  that 
the  ozone  produced  in  the  air  by  electricity  causes  the  milk  to  be- 
come sour.  In  experiments  in  which  electnc  sparks  were  discharged 
over  the  surface  of  the  milk,  however,  little  or  no  effect  has  been 
produced  upon  it.  The  conclusion  is  that  electricity  is  not  of  itself 
capable  of  souring  milk  or  oven  of  materially  ha.stening  the  process. 
Nor  can  the  ozone  developed  during  the  thundei'storm  be  looked 
upon  as  of  any  great  importance.    It  seems  probable  that  the  connec- 


210  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

tion  between  the  thunderstorm  and  the  souring  of  milk  is  one  of  a 
different  character.  Bacteria  certainly  grow  most  rapidly  in  the 
warm,  sultry  conditions  which  usually  precede  a  thunderstorm,  and 
it  frequently  happens  that  the  thunderstorm  and  the  souring  occur 
together,  not  because  the  thunder  has  hastened  the  souring,  but 
rather  because  the  climatic  conditions  which  have  brought  the  storm 
have  at  the  same  time  been  such  as  to  cause  unusually  rapid  growth 
of  the  bacteria.  This  fact  has  been  verified  by  many  experiments 
which  have  shown  that  without  the  presence  of  lactic  organisms  there 
can  be  no  spontaneous  souring  of  milk.  Milk  deprived  of  bacteria 
will  certainly  keep  well  during  thunderstorms.  Dairymen  find  no 
difficulty  in  keepmg  milk  if  it  is  cooled  immediately  after  being 
drawn  from  the  cow  and  is  kept  cool.  Milk  submerged  in  cool  water 
is  not  affected  by  thunderstorms.  Dairymen  find  that  during  "dog- 
day"  weather,  even  when  there  is  no  thunder,  it  is  just  as  difficult 
to  keep  milk  as  it  is  during  thunderstorms,  and  they  also  find  that 
scrupulous  cleanliness  in  regard  to  the  milk  vessels  is  the  best  pos- 
sible remedy  against  souring  during  a  thunderstorm.  It  is  safe  to 
conclude,  therefore,  that  in  all  cases  it  is  the  bacteria  which  sour  the 
milk,  and  if  there  seems  to  be  a  casual  connection  between  the 
thunder  and  the  souring  it  is  an  indirect  one  only;  climatic  condi- 
tions have  hastened  bacteria  growth  and  have  also  brought  on  the 
thunderstorm.  The  same  conditions  would  affect  the  milk  in  exactly 
the  same  way  even  though  no  thunderstorms  were  produced,  and  this 
effect,  our  dairymen  tell  us,  is  frequently  observed  during  the  warm, 
sultry  autumn  days. 

FERMENTED    MILKS. 

Food  Value  of  Fermented  Milk. — The  high  food  value  of  milk 
is  too  generally  recognized  to  need  discussion  here ;  fermented  milks 
also  have  a  high  food  value,  except  that  in  some  cases  the  fat  is 
partially  or  entirely  removed.  Otherwise  the  food  value  of  the  fer- 
mented milk  differs  little  from  that  of  the  fresh  milk  from  which* 
it  is  made.  Any  increased  digestibility  of  the  fermented  milk  is  due 
not  so  much  to  change  in  the  chemical  nature  as  to  the  fact  that 
the  casein  is  furnished  in  a  precipitated  and  finely  divided  condi- 
tion. In  none  of  the  fermented  milks  is  there  any  material  cleavage 
of  the  casein  resembling  the  digestion  in  the  stomach.  The  fat  is 
almost  unchanged,  and  a  part  only  of  the  sugar  is  converted  into 
acid,  alcohol,  or  gas.  In  certain  gastric  troubles  in  which  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  find  any  food  that  can  be  retained  by  the  patient,  fermented 
milks  are  frequently  used  with  good  results.  Kefir  and  kumiss 
especially  are  used  under  such  circumstances,  as  the  stimulating 
action  of  the  carbon  dioxid  which  they  contain  is  believed  to  aid  in 
their  digestion.  The  value  to  the  physician  of  a  highly  nutritious 
food  which  can  be  digested  when  other  foods  are  rejected  is  obvious. 

Therapeutic  Value  of  Fermented  Milk. — Fermented  milks  have 
been  used  since  very  early  times,  and  it  is  probable  that  their  value 
in  treating  intestinal  disorders  has  been  known  in  an  indefinite 
way  for  centuries,  but  it  is  only  in  recent  years  that  their  therapeutic 
possibilities  have  been  recognized  by  physicians.    The  developraeui 


MILK  211 

of  bacteriology  was  necessary  to  supply  the  information  on  which 
the  rational  use  of  this  therapeutic  agent  is  based.  For  the  past 
fifteen  or  twenty  years  medical  journals  have  contained  occasional 
papers  on  fermented  milks  of  various  kinds,  and  at  one  time  the 
use  of  kumiss  in  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis  and  other  diseases 
■was  much  discussed.  The  present  interest  in  the  subject  is  largely 
due  to  the  work  of  Metchnikoflf  and  his  students. 

Fermented  milks  are  now  recommended  when  a  nutritious  and 
digestible  food  is  essential,  but  it  is  in  the  treatment  of  disorders  re- 
sulting from  autointoxication  that  their  chief  value  is  supposed  to 
lie.  Autointoxication  may  be  caused  by  the  undue  accumulation 
of  poisonous  substances  which  are  promptly  removed  in  health. 
Toxic  substances  usually  found  in  small  quantities  may  be  produced 
in  excess,  or,  what  is  more  common,  toxins  may  be  formed  by  bac- 
teria in  the  intestines  in  amounts  too  great  to  be  disposed  of  through 
the  usual  channels.  These  toxic  substances  are  absorbed  into  the 
system  and  produce  symptoms  which  may  be  merely  an  uncomfort- 
able feeling  of  indigestion  and  headache,  or  which  may  assume  the 
more  acute  form  frequently  and  erroneously  spoken  of  as  ptomaine 
poisoriing.  This  form  of  autointoxication  is  usually  accompanied 
Dy  intestinal  gas  and  foul-smelling  stools.  One  symptom  of  great 
value  to  the  physician  is  the  excretion  in  the  urine  of  abnormal 
quantities  of  indican  and  ethereal  sulphates. 

The  Various  Forms  of  Fermented  Milk. — ^If  it  is  considered 
advisable  to  use  cultures  of  acid-forming  bacteria,  the  form  in  which 
these  are  taken  becomes  an  important  question.  In  large  cities  one 
usually  has  a  choice  of  lactic-acid  bacteria  from  several  sources. 
Buttermilk  is  usually  available,  although  it  is  not  always  of  good 
quality.  Sometimes  kumiss  or  kefir  can  be  obtained,  and  at  the 
present  time  milk  coagulated  with  the  so-called  Metchnikoff  bacillus 
is  sold  as  yoghurt  or  matzoon  and  under  various  trade  names. 

Buttermilk. — This,  properly  speaking,  is  the  by-product  result- 
ing when  milk  or  cream  is  churned  for  butter  making.  It  is  the 
milk  remaining  after  the  fat  has  been  collected  in  globules  and  re- 
moved. If  cream  is  churned  when  sweet  the  buttermilk  does  not 
differ  from  ordinary  skimmed  milk,  but  if  it  is  churned  when  sour — 
the  usual  practice — the  acidity  is  sufficient  to  coagulate  the  casein 
in  the  cream.  In  the  churning  process  this  curd  is  broken  up  into 
very  fine  particles.  These  curd  particles  settle  very  slowly,  and  if 
the  buttermilk  is  agitated  occasionally  it  will  retain  its  milky  ap- 
pearance. When  the  buttermilk  is  allowed  to  stand  undisturbed  for 
several  hours  the  curd  particles  sink  to  the  bottom  leaving  an  opal- 
escent whey  at  the  top.  At  the  present  time  a  large  part  of  the  but- 
termilk sold  in  cities  is  not  made  by  churning  cream,  but  is  simply 
soured  skimmed  milk  which  has  been  churned  or  stirred  in  order 
to  break  up  the  curd.  The  same  product  is  sold  also  under  the  name 
of  ripened  milk. 

The  souring  of  milk  or  cream  is  brought  about  by  the  activity 
of  certain  bacteria  which  form  lactic  acid  by  decomposing  the  milk 
sugar  (lactose).    The  ability  to  form  acid  from  lactose  and  other 


212  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

sugars  is  possessed  by  many  kinds  of  bacteria,  but  is  so  character- 
istic of  a  certain  group  that  thej^  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
lactic-acid  bacteria.  These  bacteria  have  been  described  as  distinct 
species  or  varieties  under  many  names.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned Bacteriwm  guntheri,  Bacillus  acidi  lactici,  Streptococcus  lac- 
ticus,  and  many  others.  In  spite  of  the  confusion  in  nomenclature 
it  is  evident  that  the  term  "lactic-acid  bacteria"  includes  a  fairly 
well-defined  group  of  closely  related  varieties  possessing  in  common 
several  definite  characters.  Variations  from  the  type  in  minor  char- 
acters produce  an  almost  infinite  number  of  varieties.  These  varia- 
tions may  be  in  the  ability  to  ferment  different  sugars,  in  the  ten- 
dency to  grow  in  chains,  in  the  kind  of  flavor  formed  in  milk,  in 
the  intensity  of  acid  formation,  and  in  the  ability  to  produce  patho- 
logical conditions  in  animals. 

In  making  buttermilk  from  milk  the  same  procedure  should  be 
followed  as  in  making  a  starter  for  cream  ripening.  A  good,  clean- 
flavored  mother  starter  should  be  carried  along  with  every  possible 
precaution  to  prevent  contamination.  Good  commercial  cultures 
can  be  obtained,  but  if  it  is  not  convenient  to  use  one  of  these  a 
natural  starter  can  be  secured. 

Milk  to  be  used  for  making  buttermilk  should  be  fresh  and 
clean  flavored.  Good  buttermilk  can  not  be  made  from  milk  that 
is  tainted  or  too  old  to  be  used  for  other  purposes.  Skimmed,  partly 
skimmed,  or  whole  milk,  as  desired,  may  be  used. 

Butter  makers  in  the  Northwest  make  a  very  refreshing  and 
nutritious  drink  by  adding  sugar  and  lemons  to  buttermilk.  As  the 
casein  is  already  precipitated,  the  acid  juice  of  the  lemon  has  no 
effect.  Slightly  more  sugar  and  lemon  juice  are  necessary  than  in 
making  ordinary  lemonade,  and  the  mixture  should  be  well  iced. 

Kefir. — Fermented  milks  have  evidently  been  extensively  used 
by  the  people  of  southern  Russia,  Turkey,  the  Balkan  countries, 
and  their  neighbors  for  many  centuries.  The  natives  have  no 
records  and  few  traditions  of  the  origin  of  the  milks  they  use,  and 
it  is  probable  that  their  preparation  and  use  developed  gradually 
by  accident  and  cumulative  experience.  One  of  the  first  of  the  fer- 
mented milks  known  to  Europeans  was  the  kefir,  made  in  the  Cau- 
casus Mountains  and  neighboring  regions  from  the  milk  of  sheep, 
goats,  and  cows.  Kefir  differs  from  most  of  the  fermented  milks  of 
the  Mediterranean  countries  in  that  it  is  made  from  a  dried  prepa- 
ration and  contains  considerable  quantities  of  alcohol  and  gas. 
Kefir  is  made  by  many  tribes  under  varying  names,  as  hippe,  kepi, 
khapon,  kephir,  kiaphir,  and  kaphir,  all  of  which  are  said  to  come 
from  a  common  root  signifying  a  pleasant  or  agreeable  taste. 

The  mountaineers  of  the  Caucasus  depend  for  a  large  part  of 
their  food  on  kefir,  which  they  prepare  in  leather  bottles  made  from 
the  skins  of  goats.  In  the  summer  the  skins  are  hung  out  of  doors 
either  in  the  sun  or  in  the  shade  according  to  the  weather,  but  in 
winter  they  are  kept  in  the  house.  The  bags  are  usually  hung  near 
a  doorway,  where  they  may  be  frequently  shaken  or  kicked  by  each 
passer-by.    Fresh  milk  is  added  as  the  kefir  is  taken  out,  and  the  fer- 


Diagram  of  Cow  Showing  Points.  B.  A.  I.  15TH  Report,  i.  Head.  2  Muzzle. 
3.  Nostril.  4.  Face.  5.  Eye.  6.  Forehead.  7.  Horn.  8.  Ear.  9.  Cheek.  10. 
Throat,  ii.  Neck.  12.  Withers.  13.  Back.  14.  Loins.  15.  Hip  Bone.  16.  Pelvic 
Arch.  17.  Rump.  18.  Tail.  19.  Switch.  20.  Chest.  21.  Brisket.  22.  Dewlap. 
23.  Shoulder.  24.  Elbow.  25.  Forearm.  26.  Knee.  27.  Ankle.  28.  Hoof.  29. 
Heart  Girth.  30.  Side  or  Barrel.  31.  Belly.  32.  Flank.  $$.  Milk  Vein.  34. 
Fore  Udder.  35.  Hind  Udder.  36.  Teats.  37.  Upper  Thigh.  38.  Stifle.  39. 
Twist.    40.  Leg  or  Gaskin.    41.  Hock.    42.  Shank.    43.  Dew  Claw. 


Lattice  Rack  for  Feeding  Alfalfa  to  Sheep.    B.  P.  I.  Bul.  31. 


MILK  215 

mentation  continues.  Made  and  propagated  in  this  way,  foreign 
bacteria  becomes  mingled  with  the  essential  bacteria  of  the  grains, 
and  abnormal  and  frequently  disagreeable  flavors  result.  When  the 
milk  is  drawn  off,  in  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas,  a  string  is. 
first  tied  around  the  neck  of  the  leather  bottle,  so  that  the  small  part 
wanted  for  use  is  held  between  the  stricture  and  the  opening.  In  the 
villages  and  the  low  country  kefir  is  made  in  open  earthen  or  wooden 
vessels  and  most  of  the  gas  escapes.  Small,  yellowish,  convoluted 
masses  are  observed  in  kefir,  which  are  called  seeds  or  "grains." 

Kumiss. — The  missionary  monks  and  other  wanderers  who  first 
penetrated  the  undulating,  treeless  plains  of  European  Russia  and 
central  and  southwestern  Asia  brought  back  descriptions  of  a  fer- 
mented drink  which  in  the  light  of  more  recent  investigations  is 
easily  recognized  as  kumiss.  These  vast  prairies  are  inhabited  by 
tribes  of  nomads  who  live  in  squalid  huts  or  tents  in  the  winter  and 
wander  during  the  summer,  seeking  pasture  for  their  horses,  their 
herds  of  cattle,  or  flocks  of  sheep.  They  are  all  horsemen,  and  by  a 
process  of  selection  in  which  they  have  probably  played  only  a 
passive  part  have  developed  an  exceptionally  hardy  race  of  horses. 
The  mares  give  much  more  than  the  ordinary  amount  of  milk,  which 
constitutes  almost  the  entire  food  of  the  people  during  the  summer. 
This  is  never  used  in  the  fresh  condition,  but  is  fermented  to  make 
kumiss.  Unlike  kefir,  there  is  no  dried  ferment,  seeds,  or  grains 
with  which  the  fermentation  of  the  mare's  milk  is  started.  It  is  the 
practice  of  the  natives,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  establish  the 
fermentation  anew,  to  add  to  milk  some  fermenting  or  decaying 
matter,  such  as  a  piece  of  flesh,  tendon,  or  vegetable  matter.  What- 
ever the  material  used  to  supply  the  essential  organisms,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  milk  is  so  cared  for  that  a  combination  of  an  acid  and 
an  alcoholic  fermentation  is  favored  and  the  necessary  bacteria  and 
yeasts  are  soon  established.  No  doubt  the  change  in  the  milk  is 
produced  under  different  circumstances  by  different  combinations 
of  bacteria  and  yeasts,  and  there  are  usually  present  various  con- 
taminating organisms  which  are  detrimental  or  at  least  are  not 
essential  to  the  production  of  the  kumiss.  Native  kumiss  makers 
lay  great  stress  on  the  quality  of  the  milk,  the  breed  of  the  mares, 
and  the  condition  of  the  pastures;  but  it  is  probable  that  their 
troubles  ascribed  to  variations  in  these  conditions  are  more  likely  due 
to  imperfectly  controlled  bacteriological  factors. 

There  was  at  one  time  much  interest  in  kumiss  as  a  therapeutic 
agent  in  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis,  and  sanatoria  were  estab- 
lished in  Russia  where  invalids  could  be  given  this  treatment.  It  is 
probable  that  the  benefits,  real  or  imaginary,  derived  from  this  treat- 
ment came  more  from  the  general  methods,  which  corresponded 
somewhat  to  present  practices,  than  to  the  action  of  kumiss. 

Kumiss  is  often  made  and  offered  for  sale  in  this  country,  but 
as  this  is  usually  made  from  cow's  milk,  it  is,  more  correctly,  kefir. 

Yoghurt,  etc. — In  passing  to  a  consideration  of  the  fermented 
milks  used  by  the  people  of  the  countries  bordering  on  the  eastern 
end  of  the  Mediterranean  we  find  a  preparation  very  distinct  from 


216  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

that  of  the  Caucasus  and  the  Russian  steppes.  Kefir  and  kumiss  are 
limpid,  mildly  acid,  and  distinctly  alcoholic;  but  the  yoghurt,  ya- 
hourth,  or  jugurt  of  the  Turks,  the  kisselo  mleko  of  the  Balkan  peo- 
ple, the  mazun  of  Armenia,  the  gioddu  of  Sardinia,  the  dadhi  of 
India,  and  the  leben  or  leben  raib  of  Egypt  are  all  thick  curdled 
milks,  decidedly  acid,  and  with  very  little  or  no  alcohol.  The 
method  of  preparation  is  also  quite  different.  Goat's,  buffalo's,  or 
cow's  milk  may  be  used.  This  is  usually  boiled  and  sometimes  is 
reduced  by  evaporation  to  one-half  its  original  volume.  In  the  lat- 
ter case  it  is  not  used  as  a  drink,  but  is  eaten,  frequently  with  the  ad- 
dition of  bread,  dates,  or  other  food. — (Dep.  Agr.  Bu.  An.  Ind. 
Circ.  171.) 

Covered  Milk  Pails. — The  demand  for  a  good  wholesome  grade 
of  milk  produced  under  sanitary  conditions  is  steadily  increasing. 
People  in  the  cities  are  taking  more  and  more  interest  in  the  san- 
itary quality  of  the  milk  which  they  use  in  the  household.  The 
general  awakening  in  regard  to  the  sanitary  qualities  of  milk  which 
as  taken  place  in  the  last  few  years  can  be  attributed  chiefly  to  two 
causes.  The  first  of  these  is  in  harmony  with,  and  a  part  of  the 
general  desire  on  the  part  of  consumers  for  pure  and  wholesome 
food  products  of  all  kinds  and  the  milk  supply  has  come  in  for  its 
share  of  investigation.  The  general  supply  of  the  cities  has  been 
studied,  methods  of  transportation  have  been  considered  and  more 
recently  the  conditions  existing  upon  the  farms  where  the  milk  is 
produced  have  come  in  for  their  share  of  investigation. 

The  ordinary  market  milk  which  reaches  the  larger  cities  nor- 
mally contains  high  numbers  of  bacteria.  These  are  the  result  either 
of  more  or  less  dirty  conditions  in  the  production  of  the  milk  or  of 
too  warm  a  temperature  after  the  milk  has  been  produced  or  a  com- 
bination of  these  two  conditions.  It  is  perfectly  possible  to  produce 
milk  containing  a  very  low  number  of  bacteria,  a  fact  which  has 
been  demonstrated  by  many  producers  of  so-called  sanitary  or  cer- 
tified milk.  Consumers  in  general  at  the  present  time  are  not  will- 
ing to  pay  the  increased  price  charged  for  the  so-call'ed  certified 
grades  of  milk  which  are  now  available  in  practically  all  cities. 

Most  of  the  detrimental  changes  which  occur  in  milk  are  caused 
by  bacteria.  The  chief  source  of  these  organisms  is  the  dust  and 
dirt  which  fall  into  the  milk,  principally  while  the  milk  is  being 
drawn  from  the  cow  and  before  it  leaves  the  stable.  Any  means, 
therefore,  for  preventing  the  entrance  of  dirt  into  the  milk  during 
the  process  of  milking  will  tend  to  improve  the  sanitary  quality  of 
the  product.  One  of  the  most  practical  devices  used  at  the  present 
time  for  the  purpose  of  excluding  dirt  and  bacteria  from  the  milk 
during  the  process  of  production  is  some  form  of  covered  milk  pail. 
The  ordinary  milk  pail  is  about  twelve  inches  in  diameter  and  if  it  is 
entirely  uncovered  it  is  easy  to  see  tliat  a  considerable  amount  of 
dirt  might  fall  into  the  milk  during  the  process  of  milking.  If, 
however,  this  opening  can  be  reduced  to  a  small  proportion  of  the 
entire  area  of  the  pail  the  amount  of  dirt  which  could  fall  in  would 
be  correspondingly  reduced.    The  demand  for  some  form  of  covered 


MILK  217 

pail  which  is  both  effective  in  excluding  dirt  and  bacteria  and  which 
is  at  the  same  time  practical  has  resulted  in  the  development  of  a 
number  of  styles  of  covered  milk  pails.  The  purpose  sought  in  all 
of  these  is  the  same;  namely,  to  reduce  as  far  as  possible  the  area 
through  which  dirt  and  dust  can  fall  into  the  pail.  The  amount  to 
which  the  opening  can  be  reduced  is  necessarily  limited  because 
a  certain  sized  opening  is  necessary  for  the  practical  operation  of 
any  pail. 

The  following  gives,  in  a  condensed  form,  the  results  of  some 
carefully  made  experiments  with  several  kinds  of  covered  pails : 

The  use  of  the  covered  milk  pail  is  of  great  advantage  in  any 
stable  in  excluding  dirt  and  bacteria  from  the  milk.  The  relative 
advantage  gained  by  the  use  of  the  cover  depends  upon  the  sanitary 
condition  of  the  stable. 

The  special  form  of  cover  does  not  seem  to  be  important  pro- 
vided it  is  a  device  practical  for  use  and  the  area  through  which 
dirt  can  gain  access  to  the  milk  is  reduced  as  much  as  possible. 

Whether  or  not  a  strainer  on  the  covered  pail  is  desirable 
depends  upon  the  style  of  the  straining  device. 

The  use  of  the  strainer  in  a  pail  where  the  dirt  which  falls 
into  the  opening  is  likely  to  be  driven  through  by  the  succeeding 
streams  of  milk  is  not  desirable.  Its  use  tends  to  increase  the  germ 
content  of  the  milk  and  injure  its  keeping  quality. 

In  pails  where  the  dirt  which  falls  in  does  not  remain  where 
the  succeeding  streams  strike  against  it  a  strainer  cloth  aids  in 
keeping  down  the  number  of  bacteria  which  gain  access  to  the 
milk.     The  North  pail  is  an  illustration  of  this  type. 

The  use  of  absorbent  cotton  as  a  strainer  is  a  decided  advantage 
in  preventing  the  entrance  of  bacteria  into  the  milk. — (Conn. 
B.  48.) 

COW-TESTING   ASSOCIATIONS. 

Opportunity  and  Need. — According  to  the  Twelfth  Census  the 
average  production  of  butt^rfat  per  cow  in  the  United  States  in 
1900  was  145  pounds,  which  compared  with  the  average  produc- 
tion of  224  pounds  of  butter  per  cow  in  Denmark  is  entirely  too 
low.  The  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
reports  that  on  January  1,  1910,  there  were  21,801,000  milch  cows 
in  the  United  States,  and  if  it  were  possible  to  inaugurate  a  system 
whereby  the  average  production  per  cow  might  be  increased  even 
one  pound  of  butterfat  in  a  year,  this  increase  would  amount  to 
21,801,000  pounds,  which  at  the  price  of  30  cents  a  pound  would  be 
worth  $6,540,300.  If  such  an  increase  could  be  brought  about  by 
better  selection  of  cows  and  feeding  stuffs,  the  sum  mentioned  could 
be  figured  practically  as  clear  profit.  Investigations  by  experiment 
stations  and  breeding  associations  show  that  there  are  a  large  num- 
ber of  cows  which  yield  greatly  in  excess  of  this  average,  some  reach- 
ing an  amount  as  high  as  800  or  900  pounds  of  butterfat  in  a  year 
— one  cow  even  998  pounds.  This  being  the  case,  there  must  be  a 
large  number  of  cows  which  yield  less  than  145  pounds  of  butterfat 
in  a  year. 


218  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

The  Practical  Difficulty. — The  difficulty  has  been  to  devise  a 
system  whereby  the  unprofitable  cows  might  be  detected.  It  is  a 
common  belief  among  farmers  that  the  man  who  does  the  milking 
knows  the  best  cows  in  the  herd,  as  well  as  the  poorest ;  but  numer- 
ous experiments  have  demonstrated  clearly  that  this  belief  is  not 
warranted.  Many  factors  enter  to  lead  the  judgment  astray.  The 
cow  which  gives  a  generous  flow  of  milk  during  the  first  few  weeks 
of  her  period  of  lactation  is  usually  regarded  as  the  best  cow.  She 
may  soon  go  down  in  her  flow  of  milk,  and  perhaps  goes  dry  for  four 
or  five  months  of  the  year,  but  this  is  not  observed,  and  only  the 
memory  of  the  large  flow  she  gave  when  fresh  lingers  in  the  mind  of 
the  owner. 

Another  cow  may  give  only  a  fair  flow  of  milk  when  she  first 
comes  in,  and  may  not  be  regarded  highly  by  her  owner;  but  she 
may  continue  at  the  same  rate  of  yield  for  a  long  period,  and 
will  in  the  end  prove  a  great  deal  more  valuable  than  the  other  cow. 
No  milker  can  tell,  without  weighing  the  milk  regularly,  whether 
a  cow  gives  6,000  or  8,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year;  still  the  differ- 
ence may  prove  the  difference  between  profit  and  loss  on  that  par- 
ticular cow 

When  the  milk  is  valued  according  to  its  butterfat  content 
unsupported  estimates  of  the  cow's  performance  are  still  more  un- 
certain. It  requires  frequent  testing  to  ascertain  the  average  per- 
centage of  fat  in  the  milk  a  cow  yields;  the  test  may  vary  greatly 
from  milking  to  milking  and  from  day  to  day.  There  may  also 
be  a  great  variation  in  the  richness  of  the  milk  yielded  by  a  cow 
when  she  is  fresh  as  compared  with  a  time  later  in  the  period  of 
lactation. 

The  First  American  Association. — ^The  cow-testing  movement 
in  the  United  States  was  inaugurated  at  Fremont,  Mich.,  September 
26,  1905,  under  the  name  of  the  Newaygo  County  Dairy  Testing  As- 
sociation. The  general  purpose  for  which  it  was  formed  was  to  pro- 
mote the  dairy  interests  of  its  members,  and  particularly  to  provide 
means  and  methods  for  testing  the  milk  of  the  cows  of  the  members 
periodically.  It  consisted  of  31  members,  and  239  cows  completed 
the  first  year's  test.  The  officers  of  the  association  consisted  of  a 
president,  a  vice-president,  a  secretary  and  treasurer,  and  a  board  of 
nine  directors.  This  board  had  the  management  of  the  business  of 
the  association  and  employed  a  cow  tester,  who  made  monthly  visits 
to  each  herd,  and  as  there  are  only  twenty-six  working  days  in  a 
month,  it  was  necessary  for  him  in  some  cases  to  test  two  herds  in 
one  day. 

Methods  of  Operation. — The  cow  tester  arrives  at  the  faiTn  in  the 
afternoon  and  remains  there  for  twenty-four  hours,  when  he  is  car- 
ried by  the  farmer  to  the  farm  of  the  next  member  in  the  association. 

On  his  arrival  at  the  stable  the  cow  tester  enters  in  a  book  which 
he  carries  for  this  purpose  the  name  and  number  of  each  cow  in  the 
herd,  whether  she  gives  milk  or  not.  As  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  work 
to  ascertain  the  actual  status  of  the  whole  herd,  as  well  a.s  of  the  indi- 
vidual, every  cow  in  the  stable  should  be  entered  on  the  list.    It  is  ob- 


MILK  219 

vious  that  if  only  cows  with  large  yields  were  entered  on  the  list, 
at  the  end  of  the  year  the  herd  would  show  a  higher  average  than 
the  truth  would  warrant.  For  this  reason,  and  in  hope  of  obtaining 
commercial  advantages  from  such  high  records,  some  dairymen  have 
preferred  not  to  have  the  whole  herd  tested;  but  it  is  a  rule  of  the 
cow-testing  association  to  obtain  records  of  every  animal  in  the  herd 
which  has  had  one  calf,  and  no  records  are  published  where  such  is 
not  the  case. 

The  cow  tester  takes  part  in  the  feeding  of  the  cows,  and  while 
doing  so  he  weighs  the  amount  of  roughage  and  grain  each  cow  re- 
ceives and  records  these  data  in  a  book  which  he  carries  with  him  at 
all  times.  The  milk  yielded  by  each  cow  is  weighed  and  samples  of 
it  are  obtained  for  testing.  Records  of  the  feed  and  the  yield  for 
each  individual  are  again  obtained  and  recorded  the  next  morning, 
and  after  breakfast  the  fat  determination  is  made.  During  the  fore- 
noon the  calculations  are  made  and  entered  in  the  record  book,  which 
at  all  times  remains  in  the  possession  of  the  farmer. 

The  milking  is  done  at  the  usual  milking  time,  in  order  that 
the  average  yield  may  be  obtained  as  accurately  as  possible.  In  case 
of  competition  between  the  herds,  there  may  be  a  tendency  to  milk 
early  in  the  morning  on  the  day  the  tester  is  expected  to  arrive.  In 
this  way  the  yield  for  the  testing  day  might  be  somewhat  increased. 
To  guard  against  this  it  is  customary  in  some  associations  for  the 
cow  tester  not  to  follow  a  regular  route,  so  that  it  wnll  be  impossible 
for  the  dairyman  to  know  the  exact  day  on  which  to  expect  him. 

In  weighing  the  milk  a  shotgun  can — a  can  8  inches  in  diame- 
ter and  20  inches  high — is  used.  It  holds  35  pounds  and  has  straight 
sides,  with  a  handle  near  the  bottom  so  that  it  may  be  easily  emptied. 
The  empty  can  should  weigh  even  pounds  so  that  mistakes  in  sub- 
traction may  be  avoided.  It  has  straight  sides  so  that  accurate  samples 
may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  an  instrument  known  as  a  milk  thief, 
as  with  an  ordinary  milk  pail  with  a  flaring  top  an  accurate  sample 
might  not  always  be  obtained,  owing  to  the  greater  area  of  the  milk 
at  the  surface  than  at  the  bottom.  If  the  herd  is  large  it  is  desirable 
to  have  two  of  these  cans  with  straight  sides  so  that  the  milker  may 
pour  the  milk  into  them  and  proceed  to  milk  the  next  cow  without 
waiting  for  the  tester  to  weigh  and  sample  the  milk.  In  this  way 
time  is  saved  in  the  stable. 

For  weighing  the  milk  a  special  spring  balance  is  used,  weigh- 
ing to  30  pounds  and  having  two  indicators,  one  of  which  is  adjust*- 
able  and  should  be  set  at  zero  when  the  weigh  can  is  on  the  scales. 
The  balance  is  graduated  in  tenths  of  pounds  and  is  frequently  tested 
so  that  any  stretching  of  the  spring  may  be  immediately  detected. 
The  milk  is  poured  from  pail  to  pail  two  or  three  times  and  the 
sample  for  testing  is  taken  immediately  after  such  pouring  is  com- 
pleted. 

The  fat  determinations  are  invariably  made  at  the  farm.  The 
reason  for  this  is  the  difficulty  in  transporting  the  samples  to  the 
creamery  without  leakage,  churning  of  the  milk  in  hot  weather, 
^tc,  any  of  which  renders  correct  determination  difficult.    Another 


220  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

and  equally  important  reason  is  that  the  dairyman  becomes  more  in- 
terested in  the  work  if  it  is  done  on  the  farm.  He  usually  assists  the 
expert  with  the  testing  and  in  this  way  acquires  an  understanding  of 
the  principles  and  the  use  of  the  Babcock  test  which  he  would  not 
otherwise  get. 

If  a  cow  is  in  heat  or  temporarily  out  of  condition  on  the  testing 
day,  no  sample  of  her  milk  is  taken,  as  there  is  usually  an  abnormgd 
fluctuation  in  the  fat  content  at  such  times,  and  the  calculations 
based  upon  tests  taken  then  may  be  several  pounds  too  high  or  too 
low.  The  fact  of  such  temporary  abnormal  condition  is  recorded  in 
the  herd  book,  and  the  average  of  the  preceding  and  the  following 
months'  tests  is  used  in  the  calculations. 

Milk  fresh  from  cows  for  the  first  three  days  can  not  be  consid- 
ered normal,  and  calculations  based  upon  a  test  at  that  time  may  b© 
very  erroneous.  It  is  the  rule  not  to  use  the  test  of  a  cow's  milk  for 
calculations  until  she  has  attained  a  normal  condition.  If  she  has 
not  reached  this  condition  on  testing  day  the  following  month's  test 
is  used  as  a  basis  for  calculation.  The  yield  for  the  first  three  days 
is  omitted  from  the  record,  and  the  cow  is  considered  as  being  dry 
when  she  is  not  milked  every  day. 

The  day  upon  which  the  test  is  made  is  called  the  testing  day, 
and  the  records  obtained  on  that  day  are  used  as  a  unit  for  each  day 
in  the  period  extending  equal  lengths  of  time  on  both  sides  of  the 
testing  day.  This  period  is  called  the  testing  period,  and  is  so  marked 
off  as  to  end  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  time  between  two  testing 
days.  Observance  of  this  rule  is  very  important,  as  it  materially 
affects  the  accuracy  of  the  work.  The  number  of  days  in  the  testing 
period  is  understood  to  include  both  the  dates  mentioned  as  begin- 
ning and  end  of  the  period ;  thus,  if  the  testing  period  begins  March 
15  and  ends  April  14,  there  will  be  thirty-one  days  in  the  testing 
period.  The  yields  of  milk  and  butterfat  for  the  testing  period  are 
found  by  multiplying  the  yield  on  the  testing  day  by  the  number  of 
days  in  the  period.  The  daily  yield  of  milk  is  recorded  in  tenths 
and  the  monthly  yield  in  whole  pounds,  while  the  yield  of  butterfat 
is  recorded  in  tenths  of  a  pound.  If  12  tests  are  made  in  the  year,  12 
testing  periods  will  result,  and  the  sum  of  the  records  thus  obtained 
will  furnish  a  total  summary  of  the  various  items  for  one  year. 

It  is  always  advisable  that  the  dairyman  should  make  daily 
weighings  of  each  cow's  milk.  By  doing  this  he  will  discover  at  once 
any  sudden  fluctuation  in  the  milk  yield,  and  may  in  many  cases 
be  able  to  locate  and  remedy  the  cause.  He  should  also  note  when 
each  cow  goes  dry,  when  she  is  bred,  the  date  of  calving,  and  any 
changes  in  feed  during  the  testing  period,  so  that  he  may  be  able  to 
give  the  cow  tester  this  information  when  he  arrives. 

A  Michigan  Association's  Record  for  the  First  Four  Years. — 
The  Newaygo  County  Dairy  Testing  Association,  the  first  cow-test- 
ing association  organized  in  the  United  States,  has  now  been  in 
operation  for  a  number  of  years.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year  a 
number  of  members  withdrew  from  the  association,  but  new  mem- 


MILK  221 

bers  were  readily  found,  and  the  association  is  now  able  to  get  more 
members  than  it  can  take  care  of. 

Method  of  Organizing. — The  usual  way  of  organizing  an  asso- 
ciation has  been  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  interest  in  dairying 
in  a  community,  and  to  call  a  meeting  and  explain  the  merits  of  the 
cow-testing  association  as  an  institution.  If  enough  interest  is  ex- 
hibited to  warrant  going  on  with  the  work,  a  temporary  organiza- 
tion is  effected,  and  the  neighborhood  is  thoroughly  canvassed  dur- 
ing the  following  few  days  in  search  of  additional  members  for  the 
association.  When  enough  have  been  secured  a  second  meeting  is 
called,  at  which  the  organization  is  perfected,  officers  elected,  and 
by-laws  adopted. 

In  order  to  support  a  cow-testing  association  it  is  necessary  that 
there  should  be  26  herds,  conveniently  located,  and  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  cows  so  that  the  tester  can  get  a  reasonably  good  salary.  As 
it  is  each  member's  duty  to  furnish  the  tester's  conveyance  to  his 
next  place  of  work,  it  is  necessary  that  the  farms  of  the  members  be 
located  near  enough  together  so  he  can  be  conveyed  without  incon- 
venience. A  distance  of  2  miles  is  not  too  great  to  give  satisfaction, 
and  the  conveyance  is  often  furnished  by  some  passer-by.  If  the 
cow  tester  keeps  his  own  horse  and  buggy,  as  is  the  case  in  some  asso- 
ciations, a  larger  territory  is  usually  accommodated.  In  such  cases 
the  members  must  furnish  feed  and  stabling  for  his  horse.  The 
charge  to  the  farmer  is  usually  $1  a  year  for  each  cow.  This  money 
constitutes  the  pay  of  the  tester;  and  it  is  desirable  that  there  should 
be  not  less  than  400  cows  in  an  association,  in  which  case  the  tester 
gets  $400  a  j^car.  In  addition  he  gets  his  board  and  lodging  free  of 
charge  at  the  farm  where  he  is  working.  There  being  only  twenty- 
six  working  days  in  a  month,  it  is  not  possible  to  have  more  than  26 
members,  except  in  cases  where  two  men  with  small  herds  live  very 
close  together  so  that  it  is  possible  to  test  both  herds  in  one  day. 
On  such  farms  the  regular  milking  time  is  fixed  so  that  the  tester  can 
attend  to  the  weighing  and  testing  in  the  first  herd  and  still  have 
plenty  of  time  to  get  to  the  second  nerd  by  the  regular  milking  hour. 
In  addition  to  the  $1  a  cow,  the  farmer  pays  a  membership  fee  of 
25  cents  yearly.  This  money,  which  for  26  members  amounts  to 
$6.50,  is  used  for  paying  incidental  expenses,  postage,  cost  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  etc. 

The  Testing  Out  jit. — A  testing  outfit  consists  of  a  12-'bottle 
Babcock  tester  with  case  and  glassware,  a  shotgun  can  fitted  up  with 
3  trays  containing  sample  bottles,  a  spring  balance,  a  milk  thief,  a 
thermometer,  a  pair  of  dividers,  and  the  necessary  books  and  record 
blanks  The  outfit,  with  the  Babcock  tester,  is  sometimes  furnished 
by  the  State  authorities,  but  in  case  it  must  be  purchased  by  the  as- 
sociation assessments  have  to  be  levied  for  this  purpose  unless  the 
number  of  cows  is  great  enough  so  that  it  can  be  paid  out  of  the  fund 
collected  at  the  rate  of  $1  a  cow.  The  necessary  books  and  blanks 
have  in  some  ca.«!es  been  provided  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  until  such  time  as  the  States  have  appropriations  from 
which  to  supply  these.    The  States  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Ver- 


222  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

mont,  Ohio,  Iowa,  and  Maine  now  have  provision  for  supplying  this 
material  to  associations  within  their  own  borders. 

Qualijications  of  the  Tester. — The  cow"  tester  has  much  to  do 
with  the  successful  w^orking  of  an  association.  He  should  be  well 
fitted  temperamentally  and  should  have  had  special  training  for  the 
work.  Punctuality,  regularity,  and  accuracy  are  of  great  impor- 
tance, for  unless  he  has  these  qualities  the  records  may  not  be  a  time 
indication  of  the  value  of  the  respective  cows.  The  tester  should  also 
have  the  ability  to  advise  and  teach  the  farmers,  and  for  this  reason 
it  is  necessary  that  he  be  constituted  temperamentally  to  give  ad- 
vice in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  be  accepted  and  followed. 

The  work  of  a  cow-testing  association  depends  largely  for  its 
success  upon  the  capability,  reliability,  and  conscientiousness  of  the 
tester;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  result  of  this  work  depends  also 
upon  the  members.  They  should  be  willing  to  profit  by  the  lessons 
which  the  cow  testing  teaches  and  ready  to  put  into  effect  such 
changes  in  feed,  stabling,  and  operation  of  the  dairy  as  the  records 
show  will  be  profitable. 

In  this  country,  as  well  as  in  Europe,  the  position  of  cow  tester 
offers  excellent  opportunities  for  dairy  students  to  gain  practical 
experience  and  is  the  best  kind  of  school  to  fit  them  for  responsible 
positions  in  connection  with  dairy  work. — (Dep.  Agr.  Bu.  An.  Ind. 
Cir.  179.) 

CERTIFIED    MILK. 

Milk  Commissions. — The  first  milk  commission  was  organized 
April  13,  1893,  and  it  was  not  until  five  years  later  (1898)  that  the 
second  was  formed.  After  1899  the  movement  spread  more  rapidly 
and  commissions  were  organized  as  follows:  One  in  1900,  one  in 
1901,  five  in  1902,  two  in  1903,  three  in  1904,  one  in  1905,  five  in 
1906,  and  thirteen  organized  or  in  process  of  organizing  in  1907. 
The  subject  is  being  agitated  in  several  cities  at  the  present  time 
and  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  number  of  commissions  will  be  con- 
sideraibly  increased  in  the  near  future. 

Objects  of  the  Commission. — The  objects  and  requirements  of 
the  commission  were  stated  as  follows :  To  establish  correct  clinical 
standards  of  purity  for  cow's  milk ;  to  become  responsible  for  a  peri- 
odical inspection  of  the  dairies  under  its  patronage;  provide  for 
chemical  and  bacteriological  examinations  of  the  product,  and  the 
frequent  scrutiny  of  the  stock  by  competent  veterinarians;  to  pro- 
mote only  professional  and  public  interests. 

The  following  are  three  general  requirements  or  standards  for 
the  milk:  (1)  An  absence  of  large  numbers  of  micro-organisms, 
and  the  entire  freedom  of  the  milk  from  pathogenic  varieties;  (2) 
unvarying  resistance  to  early  fermentative  changes  in  the  milk,  so 
that  it  may  be  kept  under  ordinary  conditions  Avithout  extraordinary 
care;  (3)_  a  constant  nutritive  value  of  known  chemical  composition, 
and  a  uniform  relation  between  the  percentage  of  fats,  proteids,  and 
carbohydrates. 

Certified  Dairies  and  Quantity  of  Milk  Produced. — The  number 
<?f  dairies  producing  milk  for  any  one  conimissio»  varies  from  1  to 


Clean  Cows,  Good  Bedding,  Pure  Milk.     Dept.  of  Agr. 


Cows  IN  Filthy  Condition;   Clean  Milk  Impossible.     Dept.  of  Agr. 


MILK  223 

20.  Eleven  commissions  have  1  each;  three  have  2;  one  has  3; 
one  4;  and  one  20.  The  least  amount  handled  daily  by  any  one 
commission  is  120  quarts  and  the  greatest  amount  9,373  quarts.  A 
few  commissions  certify  to  cream  as  well  as  milk. 

Standards  for  Condition  and  Quality  of  Milk. — The  standards 
for  bacteria  vary  with  the  different  commissions.  Of  the  20  report- 
ing standards,  13  place  the  number  at  10,000  per  cubic  centimeter, 
1  at  20,000,  and  3  at  30,000.  One  has  a  standard  of  10,000  from 
October  to  April,  a*id  20,000  from  April  to  October.  Another  has 
a  standard  of  5,000  in  winter  and  10,000  in  summer,  and  another 
a  standard  of  25,000  in  winter  and  50,000  in  summer.  The  stand- 
ard for  cream  in  all  cases  where  it  is  certified  is  25,000  per  cubic 
centimeter. 

The  standard  required  for  fat  in  eight  instances  is  a  minimum 
of  4  per  cent;  in  three  instances,  3.5;  in  two,  4.5;  and  in  one,  3.7+. 
Four  allow  a  range  of  3.5  to  4.5,  one  a  range  of  3.25  to  4.50,  and 
one  3.75  to  4.50.  One  puts  out  a  special  milk  containing  a  higher 
percentage  of  fat,  which  must  keep  within  the  limits  of  4.50  and  5.50 
per  cent.  One  commission  specifies  that  the  cream  must  not  vary 
more  than  2  per  cent  from  the  guaranty.  Only  eight  commissions 
report  standards  for  solids  not  fat.  These  range  from  8  to  9.3  per 
cent. 

Living  up  to  the  Standard. — Twelve  commissions  report  that 
their  dairies  have  no  difficulty  in  producing  milk  that  is  up  to  the 
required  standards.  Five  report  a  little  difficulty,  and  one  states  that 
there  was  no  trouble  with  the  bacteria  count,  but  that  it  took  several 
months  to  reach  the  fat  standard,  which  was  4  per  cent. 

Inspection  of  Dairy  and  Product. — The  answers  from  the  vari- 
ous commissions  relative  to  inspections  show  considerable  variation. 
In  some  instances  the  inspections  are  made  by  members  of  the  com- 
mission and  in  others  paid  inspectors  are  employed  to  do  the  work. 
As  a  rule  inspections  of  the  dairy  are  made  monthly  either  by  a 
veterinarian  or  a  member  of  the  commission,  or  both,  and  in  some 
instances  inspections  are  made  every  two  weeks.  The  tuberculin 
test  is  usually  applied  annually,  but  in  some  cases  this  is  done  every 
six  months.  Chemical  and  bacteriological  examinations  range  all 
the  way  from  once  a  week  to  once  in  two  months ;  in  most  instances, 
however,  it  is  the  practice  to  make  t-ests  every  two  weeks  or  oftener. 

Health  of  Employes. — The  employes  in  certified-milk  plants 
are  required  to  be  clean  in  habits  and  appearance  and  are  not  admit- 
ted to  the  stables  or  dairy  if  not  in  good  health.  Some  commissions 
require  that  employes  be  regularly  examined  by  a  physician  and 
given  certificates  of  health.  In  some  certified  plants  attendants  when 
ill  are  cared  for  in  a  building  specially  set  apart  for  the  purpose. 

Precautions  to  Prevent  Spread  of  Contagious  Diseases. — ^Where 
a  large  milk  business  is  conducted  and  several  thousand  customers 
are  served  daily,  there  is  danger  that  some  contagious  disease  may  be 
brought  to  the  dairy  in  some  of  the  bottles.  To  avoid  this,  in  some 
instances  a  wagon  makes  a  special  trip  to  collect  bottles  from  any 
house  where  a  contagious  disease  is  known  to  exist.    These  bottlea 


224  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

are  thoroughly  boiled  in  a  special  room  before  they  come  to  the 
dairy  proper.  They  are  then  subjected  to  the  same  cleansing  process 
as  all  the  others. 

The  Production  of  Certified  Milk. — The  number  of  cows  in 
herds  producing  certified  milk  varies  from  25  to  500.  Practically 
every  breed  is  represented  in  some  of  these  herds,  and  some  grade 
or  native  stock  is  found  in  two-thirds  of  them.  There  are  several 
herds  of  registered  animals.  The  breed  is  not  considered  of  special 
importance  with  most  of  the  commissions,  provided  the  composition 
of  the  milk  produced  is  within  the  limits  of  the  standard  prescribed. 
The  health  of  the  animals  and  cleanliness  of  the  surroundings  and 
product  are  the  most  important  elements  in  production.  The  pro- 
duction of  the  different  herds  ranges  from  225  to  5,000  quarts  daily 
(though  the  milk  from  the  largest  herd  is  not  all  certified).  The 
butterfat  in  the  milk  as  reported  varies  from  3.6  to  6.5  per  cent 
and  averages  about  4.69  per  cent. 

Bacteria  in  the  Milk. — The  number  of  bacteria  in  the  milk,  as 
reported  by  the  dairymen,  varies  all  the  way  from  200  to  10,000  per 
cubic  centimeter.  One  has  an  average  of  3,317  for  43  weeks ;  another 
reports  a  count  of  below  1,000  for  one  year  and  an  average  of  150 
for  15  successive  weeks  from  samples  taken  at  random  in  the  city. 

Cleaning  and  Disinfecting  Stables. — It  is  the  general  practice 
in  certified  dairies  to  remove  the  manure  at  least  twice  daily  to  the 
field,  or  to  a  suitable  pit  some  distance  from  the  stable.  In  the  most 
carefully  managed  dairies  the  whole  interior  of  the  stable  is  washed 
and  scrubbed  daily  with  water  containing  a  washing  compound. 
Some  use  a  disinfectant  in  the  water  once  or  twice  a  week,  as  bichlorid 
of  mercury,  carbolic  acid,  or  permanganate  of  potash.  Bichlorid 
of  mercury  is  probably  the  most  expensive  of  any  of  the  dis- 
infectants; aside  from  this  fact  it  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  be- 
cause it  gives  off  no  odor.  One  dairyman  uses  cresol  in  water  daily. 
Where  the  interior  of  the  stable  is  built  of  wood,  it  is  whitewashed 
from  two  to  twelve  times  annually,  or  kept  well  painted.  Land 
plaster  is  the  most  common  disinfectant  for  floors  and  gutters. 
Slacked  lime  is  also  satisfactory  for  this  purpose.  Shavings  are  most 
in  favor  for  bedding.  Some  dairymen  do  not  use  any  bedding,  but 
this  system  is  not  recommended. 

Cleaning  and  Treatment  of  Cows. — The  cows  axe  cleaned  daily 
with  currycomb  and  brush.  The  udder  and  parts  in  proximity  to 
it  are  either  washed  and  wiped  with  a  clean  towel,  or  are  wdped  with 
a  damp  cloth  or  sponge.  In  many  cases  the  udder,  flanks,  etc.,  are 
clipped  periodically.  Occasionally  a  dairyman  sprays  stables  and 
cows  immediately  before  milking.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  fasten 
up  the  cows  after  they  have  been  cleaned,  in  such  a  way  that  they 
can  not  lie  down  till  they  have  been  milked. 

In  a  few  dairies  where  extraordinary  care  is  .used,  the  whole 
body  of  the  cow  is  groomed  an  hour  or  more  before  each  milking, 
and  any  soiled  parts  are  scrubbed  with  a  brush  and  water  containing 
a  washing  compound ;  the  entire  body  is  bathed  from  the  neck  back ; 
the  tail  is  washed ;  the  udder  is  washed  in  sterile  water  from  a  sterile 


MILK  225 

pail,  and  dried  with  a  clean  towel,  a  separate  one  being  provided  for 
each  cow. 

Milkers  and  Milking. — In  a  few  dairies  the  milking  is  not  done 
in  the  regular  stable,  the  cows  being  taken  to  a  milking  room  en- 
tirely separated  from  the  rest  of  the  barn.  This  room  is  well  lighted, 
and  every  precaution  is  taken  to  make  it  absolutely  sanitary.  Other 
dairymen  claim  that  just  as  good  results  can  be  secured  by  milking 
in  the  regular  stable  if  proper  precautions  are  taken.  As  some  of  the 
lowest  bacteria  counts  on  record  have  been  obtained  where  the  latter 
plan  is  followed,  this  fact  would  seem  to  substantiate  the  claim. 

The  custom  is  almost  universal  for  the  milkers  to  be  clad  in 
freshly  laundered  suits.  Where  the  most  extreme  care  is  taken,  the 
clothing  of  each  milker  receives  a  thorough  cleansing  with  boiling 
water  after  every  milking,  and  is  then  locked  in  an  individual  air- 
tight drying  room,  where  it  is  sterilized  and  dried  by  steam,  remain- 
ing there  until  wanted  for  use.  Before  putting  on  their  special  suits, 
milkers  are  required  to  wash  their  hands  and  faces  and  clean  their 
nails.  When  ready  for  milking  the  milker  is  supplied  with  a  pail 
and  a  stool,  both  of  which  have  been  cleansed  and  sterilized  since  last 
in  use.  With  these  extreme  precautions,  when  the  milker  goes  to  the 
milk  room,  he  is  as  clean  in  person  and  equipment  as  it  is  possible 
to  make  him.  In  milking  it  is  a  common  practice  to  discard  the 
foremilk.  The  milking  is  done  strictly  with  dry  hands,  except  in 
a  few  instances  where  vaseline  is  employed  (a  usage  which  is  re- 
ported to  be  entirely  practical).  In  some  dairies  milkers  are  re- 
quired to  wash  their  hands  before  milking  each  cow,  but  this  is  not 
the  general  practice. 

Handling  the  Milk. — After  being  drawn  the  milk  is  taken  im- 
mediately to  a  sepai'ate  room,  where  it  is  strained  into  a  can  through 
a  double  thickness  of  cheese  cloth  (a  separate  strainer  being  used  for 
each  pail  of  milk).  It  is  then  taken  immediately  to  the  bottling 
room,  where  usually  it  is  cooled  to  a  temperature  as  low  as  45°  to 
50°  F.,  and  in  some  cases  as  low  as  35 °F.  Sometimes  it  is  strained 
again  through  absorbent  cotton  on  reaching  the  cooling-  room.  In 
a  majority  of  the  dairies  a  cooler  of  some  description  is  used;  in  a 
few,  however,  the  milk  is  strained  into  cans  standing  in  ice  water. 
It  is  then  bottled,  packed  in  cases,  and  covered  with  crushed  ice. 

Certified  Milk  and  Market  Milk  Compared. — ^As  far  as  the  chem- 
ical composition  is  concerned,  certified  milk  does  not  differ  materially 
from  ordinary  market  milk.  The  milk  commissions  require  that  the 
fat  and  total  solids  shall  come  within  certain  limits,  and  for  this  rea- 
son there  is  but  little  variation  in  the  chemical  composition  of  certi- 
fied milk.  The  standards  are  not  high  for  the  reason  that  milk  con- 
taining about  4  per  cent  of  fat  is  considered  to  be  the  best  for  imme- 
diate consumption.  As  stated  elsewhere,  many  of  the  herds  in  certi- 
fied-milk  dairies  are  composed  of  grade  cows  and  do  not  produce  milk 
of  more  than  the  average  richness. 

When  we  compare  the  bacterial  content  of  certified  arid  market 
milk  we  find  a  very  striking  difference.  The  bacteria  in  the  average 
milk  supply  of  our  large  cities  exceed  500,000  to  the  cubic  centi- 


226  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

meter,  while  the  bacteria  in  certified  milk  seldom  exceed  30,000  to 
the  cubic  centimeter  and  in  most  instances  average  less  than  10,000. 
There  have  been  some  cases  where  commissions  have  reported  that 
no  bacteria  were  shown  to  be  present  by  the  ordinary  methods  used 
for  their  detection.  Liquefying,  putrefactive,  and  pus-forming  bac- 
teria are  seldom  present  in  large  numbers;  in  fact  the  contracts  of 
some  commissions  with  the  producers  specify  that  the  milk  shall  not 
contain  pathogenic  bacteria  or  more  than  a  limited  number  of  pus 
cells  to  the  cubic  centimeter. 

Keeping  Qualities  of  Certified  Milk. — As  would  naturally  be  ex- 
pected, certified  milk  with  its  small  number  of  bacteria  will  keep 
sweet  for  a  long  time.  The  theory  that  clean  milk  should  have  a 
long  keeping  quality  works  out  in  practice.  Instances  are  on  record 
where  certified  milk  has  been  taken  on  an  ocean  voyage  and  not  only 
brought  back  in  good  condition  but  kept  sweet  until  thirty  days  old. 
In  fact  it  is  now  a  common  practice  for  people  when  crossing  the 
water  or  taking  a  long  land  journey  with  infants  to  take  several 
cases  of  certified  milk  with  them.  They  are  then  reasonably  sure  of 
having  a  constant  supply  of  sweet  milk  for  several  days.  Some  pro- 
ducers who  guarantee  their  milk  have  offices  in  London  as  well  as 
in  this  country  so  that  a  supply  of  fresh  milk  can  be  secured  by  voy- 
agers going  in  either  direction.  This  has  been  a  great  convenience 
and  has  given  comfort  to  many  people.  Again,  a  number  of  certi- 
fied-milk  dairies  in  the  United  States  sent  exhibits  of  milk  to  the 
Paris  Exposition  in  1900.  The  milk  kept  perfectly  sweet  for  two 
weeks  and  in  some  instances  18  days  after  being  bottled  and  after 
a  summer  journey  of  3,000  to  4,000  miles.  Regular  delivery  bottles 
were  used,  the  only  extra  precaution  being  to  use  two  paper  caps 
instead  of  one,  and  to  cover  the  caps  witl^  parafin  so  as  to  exclude 
the  aif.  Of  course  the  milk  was  carefully  packed  in  ice  for  shipment, 
but  this  was  the  only  means  used  for  preservation. 

7s  Certified  Milk  Worth. -the  Extra  Cost? — In  view  of  the  ex- 
treme care  and  greater  expense  required  in  the  production  of  certi- 
fied milk,  the  question  is  sometimes  raised  as  to  whether  it  is  worth 
the  labor  and  pains  necessary  to  produce  it.  It  must  be  conceded 
that  pure  milk  is  of  vital  importance  in  the  feeding  of  infants.  The 
best  way  to  produce  it  is  by  the  methods  commonly  practiced  in  cer- 
tified-milk  plants' as  already  outlined  in  this  bulletin.  The  result  of 
feeding  such  milk  to  infants  and  children  in  our  cities,  as  shown  in 
the  decrease  in  the  death  rate,  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge. 
Further,  with  more  refined  ideas  of  living,  there  is  a  growing  de- 
mand for  milk  of  the  highest  quality  that  can  be  produced.  Natur- 
ally, with  the  careful  methods  used  in  its  production,  certified  milk 
costs  more  than  ordinary  market  milk,  and  the  price  charged  for  it 
is  correspondingly  higher.  In  spite  of  this  advanced  price,  however, 
a  number  of  certified  dairies  have  failed  to  make  a  profit. 

Certified  milk,  produced  under  the  direction  of  a  reliable  milk 
commission,  is  worth  more  than  ordinary  market  milk  for  several 
reasons:  (1)  It  is  free  from  disease-producing  bacteria,  and  all 
other  germs  axe  reduced  to  a  minimum.     (2)     It  is  free  from  high 


MILK  227 

acidity  and  pathogenic  germs  which  lead  to  stomach  derangements 
and  kindred  troubles.  (3)  The  customer  can  always  depend  upon 
his  milk  coming  from  the  same  farm,  the  same  herd  of  cows,  sub- 
jected to  the  same  treatment,  and  having  the  same  quality.  The  fat 
content  is  guaranteed  not  to  vary  outside  of  narrow  limits ;  hence  the 
milk  is  always  of  good  quality.  (4)  Cleanliness  and  cold  are  the 
only  preservatives  used.  (5)  It  is  a  safe  food  for  infants  and  people 
with  delicate  digestion.  (6)  It  is  the  natural  product  of  the  cow, 
and  has  not  been  subjected  to  any  treatment  which  affects  its  diges- 
tibility or  changes  its  character.  (7)  It  is  reasonably  free  from 
foreign  odors  and  objectionable  flavors. 

The  Future  of  the  Certified-Milk  Industry. — ^The  production 
and  sale  of  certified  milk  will  probably  never  amount  to  more  than 
a  small  fraction  of  the  total  milk  consumed.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  the  demand  for  this  class  of  milk  will  increase,  not  only  for  in- 
fants and  persons  of  delicate  health,  but  for  people  who  appreciate 
a  good  product  and  want  the  best.  There  is  over  a  score  of  cities  at 
the  present  time  each  of  which  is  supplied  with  certified  milk  from 
one  or  more  dairies,  and  it  is  believed  that  most  cities  of  a  population 
of  25,000  to  50,000  or  more  would  support  a  certified-milk  dairy  if 
the  product  were  properly  advertised  and  its  merits  generally  known 
to  the  public.  Physicians  assist  greatly  in  the  sale  of  certified  milk, 
and,  as  a  number  of  them  are  usually  members  of  the  milk  commis- 
sions in  the  various  cities,  they  are  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
conditions  under  which  the  milk  is  produced  and  freely  recommend 
its  use. —  (Dep.  Agr.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  104.) 

SYSTEMS  OF  SEPARATING  MILK, 

Four  systems  of  separation  are  in  common  use ;  the  shallow  pan, 
deep  setting,  dilution,  and  centrifugal. 

The  Shalloiv  Pan. — The  setting  of  milk  in  pans  or  crocks,  let- 
ting the  milk  stand  for  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours,  depending 
upon  the  temperature,  and  then  skimming  the  cream,  is  known  as 
the  shallow-pan  system.  This  is  the  oldest  method  of  separating 
cream'  from  milk,  and  varies  greatly  in  efficiency,  depending  very 
largely  on  how  quickly  the  milk  is  cooled  after  coming  from  the  cow 
and  how  low  a  temperature  is  secured  during  the  creaming  process. 
As  low  as  .4  per  cent  of  butter  fat  left  in  the  separated  milk  has  been 
secured  with  the  shallow  pan  when  the  milk  was  cooled  immediately 
after  being  milked  and  kept  at  a  low  temperature  during  the  cream- 
ing process.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  not  unusual  to  leave  as  high  as 
1  per  cent  of  butter  fat  in  the  skimmed  milk  when  the  milk  is  set 
in  a  warm  room.  Probably  .8  per  cent  is  a  fair  estimate  for  the  loss 
when  milk  is  separated  in  this  way. 

Deep-Setting  System. — The  separation  most  frequently  found 
in  use,  next  to  the  shallow  pan,  is  the  deep-setting  system.  The  es- 
sentials of  this  system  are  cans  six  to  eight  inches  in  diameter  and 
about  two  feet  long,  which  are  placed  in  cold  water.  Often  a  trench 
is  dug  in  a  spring  house  in  which  the  water  stands  at  the  proper 
height  and  is  continually  nmning  through  the  trench.  This  is  a 
very  effective  and  economical  method,  both  as  to  labor  and  expense 


228  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

of  construction.  It  is  not  practical  to  put  ice  in  such  a  trench,  how- 
ever, and  a  temperature  cannot  be  secured  below  that  of  the  spring. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  shallow-pan  system,  the  efficiency  of  this 
system  of  separation  depends  principally  upon  the  temperature  of 
the  milk.  Under  the  best  conditions,  milk  can  be  separated  with  this 
system  leaving  only  about  .3  per  cent  of  butter  fat  in  the  separated 
milk.    Under  favorable  conditions  .5  per  cent,  or  more,  will  be  left. 

The  Dilution  System. — Another  system  which,  fortunately,  is 
not  found  very  frequently,  is  known  as  the  dilution  system.  The  so- 
called  separators  which  are  sold  to  cream  milk  in  this  way  are  essen- 
tially tin  cans  of  varying  capacities  in  which  milk  and  water  are 
mixed.  Sometimes  tubes  are  run  through  them  in  different  direc- 
tions, helping  to  make  the  purchasers  believe  they  are  purchasing  a 
machine,  but  they  do  not  add  to  the  efficiency  of  the  system.  Usually 
these  tin  cans  have  been  sold  to  the  farmer  with  the  statement  that 
they  have  some  of  the  virtues  of  the  centrifugal  machine  and  are 
much  cheaper.  The  fact  is  they  do  not  have  in  the  remotest  sense 
the  characteristics  of  a  centrifugal  separator.  They  are  not  so  effec- 
tive, even,  as  the  shallow-pan  system.  Repeated  tests  have  shown  that 
they  leave  .7  per  cent  of  butter  fat  in  the  skim  milk  under  the  best 
conditions  and  often  leave  as  high  as  1.5  per  cent.  The  manufac- 
turers of  these  tin  cans  have  traded  upon  the  reputation  achieved  by 
the  centrifugal  machines,  by  calling  them  separators,  but  no  farmer 
should  buy  one  with  the  idea  that  he  is  securing  anj'^thing  but  a  tin 
can,  and  should  not  use  one,  or  the  same  method  with  home-made 
cans,  without  expecting  to  lose  even  more  butter  than  he  would  with 
the  pans. 

The  Centrifugal  System. — ^The  most  efficient  method  of  sepa- 
rating milk  yet  devised  is  the  centrifugal  machine.  This  is  a  ma- 
chine which  revolves  a  bowl  very  rapidly.  Milk  is  introduced  into 
the  bowl  at  the  center  while  the  bowl  is  revolving.  The  milk  is 
thrown  to  the  sides  of  the  bowl  with  a  great  deal  of  force.  The  sepa- 
rated milk  being  heavier  than  the  cream,  goes  to  the  outside,  the 
cream  staying  in  the  center.  Spouts  draw  off  the  separated  milk  and 
the  cream,  the  cream  spout  entering  the  center  of  the  bowl  and  the 
separated  milk  spout  entering  the  outer  part. 

This  system  involves  the  purchase  of  a  very  carefully  constructed 
machine,  which  must  of  necessity  cost  the  fanner  a  considerable 
amount  of  money,  more  than  would  be  expended  with  any  of  the 
other  methods  described,  and  he  should  expect  better  results.  Any  of 
the  standard  makes  of  machines  on  the  market  will  leave  as  little  as 
.02  per  cent  of  butter  fat  in  the  separated  milk  under  the  best  condi- 
tions, and  the  farmer  should  expect  to  secure  a  separation  averaging 
as  close  as  .05  per  cent. — (Va.  B.  186.) 

The  Hand  Separator. — The  following  is  a  summary  of  results  of 
a  trial  made  to  compare  the  efficiency  of  several  hand  separators: 

These  trials  show  very  little,  if  any,  difference  in  completeness 
of  skimming  and  the  total  amount  of  fat  recovered  in  the  cream  be- 
tween the  different  makes  of  separators  used. 


MILK  229 

With  one  exception,  all  the  separators  fulfilled  the  claims  of 
their  manufacturers  as  to  capacity  and  efficiency  of  skimming. 

All  the  separators  used  did  satisfactory  work  under  a  far  wider 
range  of  conditions  than  is  recommended  by  the  manufacturers. 

Considerable  difference  seemed  to  exist  between  the  various 
separators  as  to  substantialness  and  durability. 

There  is  a  wide  difference  in  the  ease  with  which  the  various 
separators  were  operated. 

The  cheaper  and  newer  machines  did  as  efficient  work  in  these 
trials  as  the  older  and  more  expensive  ones. 

There  is  no  difference  in  the  quality  of  cream  delivered  by  the 
various  machines. 

There  is  no  difference  in  the  churnability  of  cream  from  the 
separators  used  in  these  tests. 

These  trials  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  choice  of  a  hand 
separator  should  be  influenced  very  largely  by  its  first  cost  and  its 
apparent  durability. — (Pa.  B.  38.) 

Some  conditions  that  affect  the  skimming  efficiency  of  the  hand 
separator  are  the  following:  1,  smooth  running;  2,  speed;  3,  clean- 
ing of  separator;  4,  condition  of  milk;  5,  temperature  of  milk;  6,  rate 
of  inflow ;  7,  richness  of  cream. 

Smooth  Running. — No  separator  can  be  expected  to  do  efficient 
work  unless  it  runs  smoothly.  When  the  separator  is  in  operation  the 
milk,  flowing  into  the  bowl,  is  divided  into  three  layers,  namely 
cream,  skim  milk,  and  separator  slime.  If  the  bowl  revolves  smooth- 
ly the  cream  and  the  skim  milk,  thus  separated,  find  their  respective 
outlets.  If  the  machine  trembles  and  jars,  a  portion  of  the  cream 
and  skim  milk  are  again  mixed  by  the  vibration  of  the  bowl,  with 
the  result  that  a  relatively  large  amount  of  fat  goes  into  the  skim 
milk. 

Speed. — ^Every  machine  has  a  certain  speed  at  which  it  will  do 
its  most  efficient  work.  The  number  of  turns  which  the  crank  should 
make  per  minute  is  usually  indicated  on  the  crank.  If  the  speed  is 
reduced  below  that  indicated,  the  skimming  will  be  less  complete  and 
more  fat  is  lost  in  the  skim  milk.  It  is  not  advisable  to  run  the  ma- 
chine at  a  higher  speed  than  that  required,  as  there  is  danger  of  dam- 
aging the  separator  or  of  the  bowl  jumping  the  castings,  nor  does 
excessive  speed  increase  the  skimming  efficiency  of  the  separator. 

Cleaning  of  Separator. — It  seems  strange  that,  in  the  minds  of 
some  dairymen,  the  idea  prevails  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  thoroughly 
wash  the  separator  more  than  once  a  day,  or  once  in  two  or  three 
days.  The  same  men  would  rebel  at  the  suggestion  of  sitting  down 
at  the  table  and  eating  their  dinner  off  the  unwashed  breakfast 
dishes,  and  yet  the  principle  is  precisely  the  same.  An  investigation 
of  this  condition  showed  that  out  of  57  dairies  where  the  milk  is 
separated  mornings  and  evenings  35  washed  their  separators  after 
each  separation  and  22  washed  them  once  a  day  or  once  in  two  days. 
Even  where  the  bowl  is  flushed  with  warm  water  after  each  separa- 
tion there  remain  in  it  remnants  of  cream,  milk  and  separator  slime 
which  rapidly  undergo  decomposition.    When  the  warm  milk  of  the 


230  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

succeeding  milking  is  run  through  the  separator  the  cream  neces- 
sarily becomes  contaminated  with  the  bacteria  causing  this  decompo- 
sition, and  tainted  with  the  products  of  decay.  This  cream  is  both 
dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  consumer  and  unfit  to  be  made  into 
butter.  The  hygienic  and  sanitary  side  of  this  practice  is  sufficient 
to  condemn  it.  In  addition  to  this  the  use  of  unclean  separators 
also  causes  a  material  increase  in  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk. 
The  presence  of  these  remnants  of  milk  in  the  bowl  and  in  the  cream 
and  skim  milk  outlets  obstructs  the  free  passage  of  the  milk  and  hin- 
ders the  process  of  separation. 

Condition  of  Milk. — The  freshly  drawn  milk  is  in  the  best  con- 
dition for  effective  skimming.  It  has  the  proper  temperature,  the  fat 
is  in  solution  and  the  physical  condition  of  the  milk  is  such  as  to 
insure  a  high  degree  of  fluidity.  Sour,  curdled  milk  skims  with  dif- 
ficulty. Before  such  milk  is  run  through  the  separator  it  should  be 
poured  from  one  can  to  another  in  order  to  break  up  the  curd  as 
finely  as  possible.  Unless  this  is  done  it  will  cause  the  machine  to 
clog.  The  clogging  can  be  prevented  more  or  less  by  underfeeding 
the  machine.  It  cannot  be  expected,  however,  that  the  separation  of 
sour  and  curdled  milk  will  be  complete. 

Temperature  of  Milk. — The  warmer  the  milk  the  more  fluid  it 
becomes,  and  the  greater  the  freedom  with  which  the  fat  globules 
can  move  about.  The  more  fluid  the  milk  the  more  complete  is  the 
fteparation.  75  deg.  F.  is  about  the  minimum  temperature  at  which 
most  separators  will  skim  closely.  At  60  deg.  F.  there  is  a  decided 
loss  of  butter  fat  in  the  skim  milk,  no  matter  what  make  of  hand 
separator  may  be  used.  On  the  farm  the  best  results  are  obtained, 
where  the  milk  is  separated  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn.  It  has  then  an 
ideal  temperature  for  skimming.  If  the  milk  is  separated  but  once  a 
day,  the  cold  milk  should  be  warmed  up  before  it  is  run  through  the 
separator. 

Rate  of  Inflow. — ^Every  separator  is  built  to  take  care  of  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  milk.  It  has  a  certain  capacity.  The  capacities  of 
the  hand  separators  used  on  farms  range  from  250  to  900  pounds  of 
milk  per  hour.  When  the  machine  is  forced  beyond  its  capacity,  the 
milk  has  to  pass  through  the  bowl  so  fust  that  it  is  not  exposed  to  the 
centrifugal  force  long  enough  to  effect  a  complete  separation  of  the 
fat.  The  more  milk  that  is  run  through  the  separator  in  excess  of 
its  given  capacity,  the  greater  the  loss  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk.  It  is, 
therefore,  of  importance  that  the  operator  know  the  exact  capacity  of 
his  machine  and  then  govern  the  inlet  accordingly. 

Richness  of  Cream. — The  thickness  of  cream  obtained  from  cen- 
trifugal separators  is  regulated  by  the  cream  screw.  It  is  affected  too, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  by  most,  if  not  all  of  the  conditions  which 
influence  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk,  and  w^hich  have  been 
above  referred^to.  While  most  of  the  standard  makes  of  separators 
will  do  good  skimming  if  cream  is  produced  that  tests  from  20%  to 
50%  of  fat,  there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  behavior  of  dif- 
ferent machines.  Some  separators  skim  as  closely  when  50%  cream 
is  produced  as  when  set  for  30%.    Others  are  at  their  best  when  set 


Combination  Milk  Pail,  Can,  Strainer,  and  Stool. 
Dept.  of  Agr. 


Milking  Under  Clean  and  Samtarv  Cunuitioxs.     Dept.  of  Agr. 


MILK  235 

for  30%  cream  or  thereabout,  and  their  skimming  efficiency  de- 
creases as  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  cream  increases. 

Thus  the  use  of  the  hand  separator  in  the  place  of  the  gravity 
systems  of  creaming,  will  effect  a  saving  of  $3.50  to  $7.00  worth  of 
butter  fat  from  one  cow  in  one  year. 

With  the  separator  a  richer  cream  and  a  better  quality  of  cream 
and  skim  milk  can  be  produced  than  with  the  gravity  systems. 

Of  the  gravity  methods  the  deep  setting  system  is  the  least  ob- 
jectionable. It  produces  a  more  complete  separation  and  a  better 
quality  of  cream  than  either  the  shallow  pan  or  the  water  dilution 
systems. 

Any  neglect  to  thoroughly  clean  the  separator  after  each  sepa- 
ration reduces  the  skimming  efficiency  of  the  machine  and  lowers 
the  quality  of  the  cream  and  butter  produced.  Wash  the  separator 
after  each  separation. 

A  trembling  machine,  insufficient  speed,  sour,  curdled,  slimy,  or 
cold  milk,  and  over-feeding  the  separator  caused  a  loss  of  butter  fat 
in  the  skim  milk  amounting  to  from  8  to  12  pounds  of  butter  per 
cow  in  one  year. 

Other  things  being  equal,  high  speed  and  a  small  rate  of  inflow 
tend  to  produce  a  thick  cream.  Insufficient  speed,  a  trembling  ma- 
chine and  a  large  rate  of  inflow  result  in  a  thinner  cream. — (Ind. 
B.  116.) 

BABCOCK  TEST  FOR  BUTTER  FAT. 

How  to  Use  the  Babcock  Test. — Before  the  Babcock  test  was  in- 
vented, twenty-two  years  ago,  no  simple,  accurate  method  was  known 
by  which  the  farmer  could  measure  the  richness  of  the  milk  or  cream 
which  he  sold,  or  of  the  skim  milk  which  remained.  At  creameries 
and  cheese  factories,  each  patron  was  paid  in  proportion  to  the  weight 
of  milk  delivered.  It  was  then  commonly  supposed  that  100  pounds 
of  milk  from  one  cow  would  make  as  much  butter  or  cheese  as  an 
equal  weight  of  milk  from  any  other  cow.  Cows  were  valued  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  pounds  of  milk  each  produced. 

It  is  now  well  known  that  the  weight  of  butter  or  cheese  that 
can  be  obtained  from  a  given  quantity  of  milk  depends  to  a  great 
extent  upon  the  weight  of  fat  present  in  the  milk.  For  this  reason, 
milk  and  cream  are  now  both  weighed  and  tested  for  fat  by  the 
Babcock  test  at  most  factories,  and  patrons  are  paid  according  to  the 
test,  that  is,  according  to  the  weight  of  fat  delivered  by  each. 

The  relative  value  of  different  cows  in  a  herd  is  now  determined 
by  weighing  and  testing  the  milk  of  each.  Many  cows  produce  a 
profit  of  from  $25  to  $50  per  year,  but  in  almost  every  herd,  cows 
are  found  whose  milk  does  not  pay  for  the  feed  consumed  by  them. 
By  replacing  the  poorest  cows  with  better  ones,  the  herd  wnll  be  im- 
proved. 

In  separator  skim  milk  there  is  only  about  one-eighth  as  much 
fat  as  there  is  in  milk  skimmed  from  crocks  or  shallow  pans,  but 
even  separator  skim  milk  should  be  tested  for  fat  frequently  to  see 
if  the  separator  is  skimming  as  closely  as  it  should.  Ordinarily  sepa- 
rator skim  milk  tests  about  five-hundredths  (.05)  of  one  per  cent,  but 


234  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

if,  by  running  the  separator  too  slowly  or  separating  the  milk  when 
too  cold  or  for  other  reasons,  the  skim  milk  should  contain  .15  per 
cent  or  more  of  fat,  the  loss  may  amount  to  $1  or  $2  per  cow  per  year. 
This  amount  of  money  will  more  than  pay  for  the  entire  expense  of 
installing  and  operating  a  Babcock  test.  Although  the  fat  in  the 
skim  milk  is  not  waited  when  fed  to  pigs  or  calves,  yet  it  is  much 
more  profitable  to  sell  butter  fat  as  cream  or  butter  than  it  is  to  make 
veal  or  pork  out  of  it. 

The  three  important  uses  for  the  Babcock  test  on  the  farm  are : 
First,  cow  testing,  regularly  done,  in  order  to  improve  the  herd; 
second,  frequent  testing  milk  or  cream  before  it  is  sold,  to  determine 
if  the  testing  done  at  the  factory  is  correct ;  third,  occasional  testing 
of  skim  milk,  to  see  that  no  butter  fat  is  being  wasted. 

The  Babock  test  is  saving  many  times  its  cost  annually  on  many 
dairy  farms,  and  at  the  same  time  is  enabling  farmers  to  select  their 
best  cows  and  to  improve  their  herds  more  rapidly  than  can  be  done 
by  any  other  means.  There  should  be  a  Babcock  tester  regularly 
used,  on  every  dairy  farm. 

Material  Needed. — The  materials  and  apparatus  used  on  the 
farm  for  testing  milk  are:  (1)  Milk  scales;  (2)  weighing  pail;  (3) 
bottle  of  preserving  tablets;  (4)  bottle  of  sulphuric  acid;  (5)  hand 
Babcock  tester;  (6)  milk  test  bottles;  (7)  acid  cylinder;  (9)  pipette 
(17.6  cc.)  ;  (10)  thermometer;  (11)  record  book. 

Steps  in  the  Babcock  Test. — (1)  Mix  the  milk  thoroughly  and 
take  out  a  small  sample;  (2)  do  not  let  the  sample  evaporate  or 
curdle  before  testing;  (3)  fill  the  17.6  cc.  pipette  to  the  mark  with 
milk;  (4)  empty  the  pipette  without  loss  into  a  Babcock  test  bottle; 
(5) add  sulphuric  acid  from  the  measuring  cylinder  to  the  test  bottle; 
(6) mix  the  acid  and  milk  thoroughly  by  shaking  the  bottle;  (7) 
place  bottles  in  the  centrifuge,  cover,  and  whirl  5  minutes;  (8)  add 
hot  mater  and  whirl  again  twice,  one  minute  each  time;  (9)  read 
and  record  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle;  (10) 
empty  the  test  bottles  and  wash  thoroughly. 

Mixing  and  Sampling  Milk. — Provide  a  quart  or  more  of  milk, 
with  which  to  practice  sampling  and  testing.  Mix  it  thoroughly  by 
pouring  several  times  from  one  vessel  to  another,  or  by  stirring  vig- 
orously. Larger  quantities  of  milk  require  longer  stirring.  While 
the  milk  is  still  in  motion,  dip  out  a  half  teacupful  and  pour  this  at 
once  into  a  small,  clean,  dry  bottle.  Fill  the  bottle  nearly  full,  and 
stopper  tightly  to  prevent  evaporation.  Label  the  bottles  with  the 
name  of  the  cow  or  owner. 

The  small  sample  of  milk  taken  for  the  Babcock  test  must  con- 
tain exactly  the  same  proportion  of  fat  as  the  entire  contents  of  the 
pail  or  can.  If  milk  stands  quiet  for  even  a  few  minutes,  the  cream 
will  begin  to  rise,  and  the  top  layer  on  the  can  will  contain  more  fat 
than  the  rest  of  the  milk.  If  the  top  part  is  used  for  the  test,  it  will 
indicate  a  higher  per  cent  of  fat  than  is  present  in  the  entire  lot  of 
milk.  It  is  incorrect  to  take  a  sample  out  of  a  pail,  can  or  vat  of 
milk  for  testing  without  first  thoroughly  mixing  the  milk  by  stirring, 
or  pouring  it  from  one  vessel  to  another. 


MILK  235. 

Preserving  Samples. — If  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  milk  samples 
several  hours  or  days  before  testing,  a  preservative  should  be  added 
to  prevent  curdling,  and  the  bottles  kept  tightly  stoppered.  The 
preservative  most  commonly  used  is  corrosive  sublimate  (a  poison). 
This  is  sold  in  the  form  of  tablets,  in  boxes  containing  100  or  1,000. 
Each  tablet  also  contains  some  pink  coloring  matter,  so  that  every- 
one may  know  that  the  milk,  so  colored,  contains  poison,  is  unfit  to 
drink,  and  must  not  be  fed  to  stock.  One  small  preservative  tablet 
should  be  dropped  into  each  bottle  of  milk  and  shaken  until  dis- 
solved. The  box  containing  the  tablets  should  be  kept  out  of  the 
reach  of  children.  Borax  and  bichromate  of  potash  are  other  pre- 
servatives which  may  be  used  instead  of  the  tablets. 

Filling  the  Pipette. — The  milk  test  bottle  and  pipette  are  cleaned 
with  hot  water  and  washing  powder  or  soap,  if  necessary,  and  thor- 
oughly rinsed  with  clean  water  before  using.  For  the  Babcock  test 
17.6  cc.  of  milk  (18  grams)  is  measured  with  the  pipette  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  test  bottle  without  loss. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  cream  is  always  rising  in  milk, 
whether  it  can  be  seen  or  not.  Before  taking  any  milk  out  of  the 
small  sample  bottle  with  the  pipette  the  sample  bottle  should  be  well 
shaken,  so  as  to  mix  the  cream  all  through  the  milk.  If  lumps  of 
butter  fat  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  milk,  warm  the  bottle  and 
contents  to  about  100  degrees  and  shake  again.  Immediately  put 
the  narrow  tip  of  the  pipette  into  the  milk  (while  it  is  still  in  motion) 
and  with  the  mouth,  suck  the  air  out  until  the  milk  rises  in  the 
pipette,  above  the  mark  on  the  neck.  Quickly  place  the  forefinger 
over  the  upper  end  of  the  pipette,  before  the  milk  runs  down  below 
the  mark.  If  the  finger  is  dry  it  is  easy,  by  changing  the  pressure 
on  the  end  of  the  tube,  to  let  the  milk  run  down  slowly  and  to  stop 
it  exactly  at  the  mark. 

Filling  the  Test  Bottle. — The  tip  of  the  pipette  is  next  placed  in 
the  top  of  a  test  bottle,  held  in  an  inclined  position  and  the  milk  is 
allowed  to  run  down  one  side  of  the  neck  of  the  'bottle,  without  filling 
the  neck  completely,  or  preventing  the  escape  of  air.  In  this  way 
exactly  18  grams  (17.6  cc.)  of  milk  is  transferred  to  the  test  bottle 
without  loss.  It  is  well  for  a  beginner  to  practice  this  work  with 
the  pipette  filled  with  water  until  the  flow  can  be  readily  controlled 
with  the  forefinger.  If  at  any  time  a  portion  of  the  milk  containing 
preservative  is  drawn  into  the  mouth,  reject  it,  and  rinse  the  mouth 
vdth  clean  water.  After  the  samples  of  milk  have  been  placed  in 
the  test  bottles,  they  can  be  set  aside  for  a  day  or  a  week,  if  neces- 
sary, and  the  testmg  can  be  finished  at  any  time. 

Adding  the  Acid. — Sulphuric  acid  of  specific  gravity  1.82  is 
next  added  to  the  milk  in  the  test  bottle.  It  can  be  obtained  at  any 
drug  store  or  of  dealers  in  dairy  supplies.  The  acid  is  first  poured 
into  the  little  acid  cylinder  which  holds  just  17.5  cc.  when  filled  to 
the  mark.  The  cylinder  is  then  emptied  into  the  test  bottle,  which 
is  held  in  an  inclined  position  to  permit  escape  of  air,  and  avoid 
spilling  the  acid.  Since  this  acid  destroys  wood  and  metals,  the  bot- 
tle of  acid  and  the  little  measuring  cylinder  should  be  kept  standing 


236  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

on  a  brick  or  a  piece  of  sheet  lead.  Liquids  containing  sulphuric 
acid  should  not  be  thrown  where  live  stock  can  come  in  contact  with 
them,  but  can  be  safely  poured  into  an  earthen  jar  or  into  a  clay 
drain  tile  set  on  end  in  the  ground.  The  sulphuric  acid  bottle  should 
be  kept  stoppered  because  the  acid  readily  absorbs  moisture  from  the 
air  and  thus  becomes  weakened.  Always  add  acid  to  milk  in  the 
bottle,  never  add  milk  or  water  to  the  acid. 

Sulphuric  acid  will  quickly  eat  holes  in  the  clothing  and  cause 
blisters  on  the  skin,  and  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  not  to  spill 
it.  To  observe  its  effect,  put  a  drop  or  two  of  acid  on  each  of  two 
pieces  of  paper,  or  cotton  or  woolen  cloth.  With  a  little  water,  rinse 
the  acid  as  quickly  as  possible  off  one  piece,  and  not€  whether  it  is 
spotted  where  the  acid  fell.  Leave  the  other  piece  for  a  few  hours 
and  then  wash  it. 

When  handling  sulphuric  acid  wear  an  apron  and  have  a  sup- 
ply of  water  ready  for  washing  spilled  acid  off  of  the  clothing,  person 
or  furniture  quickly  in  case  of  an  accident.  After  thorough  wash- 
ing with  w^ater,  a  little  household  ammonia,  or  baking  soda  or  lime 
water  may  be  applied  and  washed  off  with  more  water.  Sulphuric- 
acid  tnust  not  he  measured  in  the  pipette  because  of  the  danger  of 
drawing  it  into  the  mouth. 

Mixing  the  Acid  and  Milk. — The  sulphuric  acid  in  the  test  bot- 
tle weighs  more  than  the  milk,  and  the  acid  goes  to  the  bottom  at 
once,  forming  a  clear  layer,  which  soon  becomes  brown  where  it 
touches  the  milk.  As  soon  as  the  acid  is  all  poured  in,  the  test  bottle 
should  be  held  by  the  neck  and  shaken  in  a  circle  so  as  to  mix  the 
acid  and  milk.  Keep  the  liquid  out  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  while 
shaking  it,  to  prevent  loss.  During  the  filling  and  mixing  point 
the  neck  of  the  bottle  away  from  the  face,  so  that  no  drop  of  acid 
may  be  thrown  into  the  eyes. 

As  the  shaking  is  continued,  the  mixture  turns  to  a  uniform 
brown  color  and  becomes  quite  hot.  Be  sure  to  mix  thoroughly. 
Write  the  number  of  the  sample  with  a  common  black  lead  pencil 
on  the  roughened  spot  on  the  side  of  the  test  bottle. 

With  the  same  precautions  as  before,  transfer  a  pipette  full  of 
milk  from  the  other  sample  bottle  to  a  second  test  bottle;  measure 
in  the  acid,  and  mix  by  shaking.  If  the  test  bottles  become  cold  after 
adding  acid  and  before  whirling,  they  should  be  warmed  again  by 
placing  in  water  at  about  160  degrees  for  about  15  minutes.  While 
the  bottles  are  hot  put  them  into  the  tester  and  whirl  them  as  di- 
rected below. 

Whirling  the  Bottles. — Having  placed  the  bottles  opposite  each 
other  in  the  whirling  machine  (called  a  centrifuge)  and  closed  the 
cover,  turn  the  handle  for  four  or  five  minutes  at  the  speed  indicated 
by  the  directions  furnished  with  the  machine.  Allow  it  to  stop  of  its 
own  accord. 

The  centrifuge  is  generally  enclosed  in  an  iron  box  so  that  if 
any  thing  should  break  while  the  machine  is  running,  no  one  is 
injured  by  the  flying  pieces.  The  cover  should  always  he  kept  closed 
while  the  machine  is  running.    The  wheels  will  turn  easier  and  last 


MILK  237 

longer,  if  they  are  oiled  daily  when  in  use.  The  bottles  travel  around 
the  circle  700  to  1,000  times  a  minute,  moving  about  40  miles  per 
hour.  The  machines  are  not  all  of  the  same  size  and  some  go  faster 
than  others.  A  weight  hung  by  a  string  22  inches  long  will  swing 
back  and  forth  about  80  times  per  minute,  or  about  70  times  if  the 
string  be  made  24  inches  long.  Such  a  pendulum,  once  adjusted  to 
the  right  length  vdih.  the  aid  of  a  watch,  is  a  help  in  running  the 
tester  at  the  right  speed.  In  large  factories  where  many  samples  are 
tested  the  centrifuges  are  run  by  steam  or  electric  power.  In  such 
cases  a  speed  indicator  is  used  to  make  sure  that  each  machine  runs 
at  the  proper  speed.  Running  faster  than  directed  is  likely  to  break 
the  bottles. 

The  cover  is  opened  when  motion  has  stopped,  and  a  small 
amount  of  hot,  soft  water  is  added  with  the  pipette  to  each  bottle, 
without  taking  it  out  of  the  pocket.  The  bottles  are  thus  filled  to  the 
bottom  of  the  neck,  and  the  machine  is  then  closed  and  run  at  full 
speed  for  another  minute.  More  hot  water  is  added  with  the  pipette, 
bringing  the  fat  up  into  the  neck,  between  the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  scale  of  figures,  and  the  machine  is  closed  and  run  another  min- 
ute or  two,  for  the  third  and  last  time. 

Some  operators  prefer  to  add  enough  water  after  the  first  whirl- 
ing to  bring  all  the  fat  up  into  the  neck  and  whirl  the  bottles  only 
two  times  in  all.  The  bottles  are  then  taken  out  of  the  machine  and 
the  per  cent  of  fat  is  read  from  the  neck  of  each  bottle,  while  still 
hot,  before  the  fat  solidifies.  To  prevent  the  bottles  coohng  they 
may  be  set  in  water  at  130  or  140  degrees  until  each  is  read. 

Reading  the  Per  Cent  of  Fat. — In  reading  the  per  cent  of  fat 
from  the  fat  column  in  the  neck  of  a  milk  test  bottle,  readings  are 
made  at  the  extreme  top  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  fat  column.  Sub- 
tracting the  smaller  of  these  figures  from  the  larger  gives  the  per 
cent  of  fat  in  the  milk.  By  the  aid  of  a  pair  of  dividers  the  subtrac- 
tion is  avoided,  and  the  per  cent  of  fat  is  read  directly  from  the  neck 
of  the  bottle. 

To  use  the  dividers  adjust  the  points  to  the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  fat  column  as  shown ;  and  then,  without  changing  the  distance 
between  them,  place  one  point  at  the  bottom  of  the  scale  of  figures, 
and  read  on  the  scale  the  position  of  the  other  f>oint.  This  gives  the 
per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk. 

Fat  solidifies  at  about  100  degrees.  Warming  the  fat  in  the 
neck  of  a  test  bottle  from  110  to  150  degrees  makes  it  expand  about 
1.5  per  cent  of  its  volume.  This  expansion  amounts  to  about  .05  per 
cent  fat  on  a  test  reading  3.5  per  cent  fat,  and  hence  is  too  small  to 
be  of  importance  in  milk  testing.  In  cream  testing  it  is  necessary  to 
regulate  the  temperature  with  care.  It  is  well  to  study  the  directions 
and  to  repeat  the  entire  process  of  sampling  and  testing  on  several 
days,  until  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  work. 

Calculating  Weight  of  Fat  in  Milk. — To  find  the  pounds  of  fat 
in  any  quantity  of  milk  it  is  necessary,  first,  to  weigh  the  milk ;  sec- 
ond, to  test  the  milk  by  the  Babcock  test  to  find  the  per  cent  of  fat; 
and,  third,  to  multiply  the  weight  of  the  milk  by  the  per  cent  of  fat 


238  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

in  the  milk.    For  practice,  one  learning  to  make  the  test  may  figure 
the  pounds  of  fat  in 

25  pounds  of  milk  testing  5.0%  fat.  Ans.  1.25  pounds  of  fat 

37  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.0%  fat.  Ans.  1.48  pounds  of  fat 

70  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.5%  fat.  Ans.  2.45  pounds  of  fat 

Cleaning  the  Test  Bottles. — Having  read  and  recorded  the  per 

cent  of  fat  from  each  test  bottle,  empty  all  of  the  bottles  while  stUl 

hot,  and  wash  them  thoroughly,  using  hot  water  and  soda,  washing 

powder,  or  soap,  if  necessary,  to  remove  all  of  the  fat.    Finally  rinse 

with  clean  water.    Small  specks  left  sticking  to  the  inside  of  the 

neck  can  be  removed  with  a  brush  such  as  is  sold  for  the  purpose  or 

with  a  bit  of  cloth  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  stick. 

The  Appearance  of  the  Fat  Column. — The  color  of  the  fat  col- 
umn at  the  end  of  the  test  should  be  light  brown.  If  acid  is  added 
when  the  milk  is  too  warm,  as  when  fresh  from  the  cow,  or  if  it  is 
too  strong,  or  if  too  much  is  used,  the  fat  column  may  be  very  dark, 
or  may  contain  black  particles  of  curd  which  interfere  with  accurate 
reading.  Incomplete  mixing  or  delay  in  mixing  acid  and  milk  may 
cause  similar  trouble.  In  such  cases  the  bottle  must  be  washed  and 
the  test  repeated.  The  milk  and  acid  should  be  at  about  70  degrees 
to  get  the  'best  results,  and  if  this  is  the  case  and  the  fat  is  still  black, 
a  little  less  acid  should  be  used  in  repeating  the  test.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  add  the  acid  from  the  little  measuring  cylinder  in  several  por- 
tions, shaking  well  after  each  addition.  If  the  acid  is  of  the  correct 
strength,  i.  e.,  about  90  per  cent  pure,  of  specific  gravity  1.82,  as 
usually  sold  for  use  in  the  Babcock  test,  no  trouble  will  be  had. 

■Sometimes  the  fat  column  contains  white  or  light  colored  par- 
ticles resembling  curd,  at  the  end  of  the  test,  and  in  such  cases  the 
acid  used  is  too  weak,  or  the  amount  used  is  too  small,  or  the  milk 
and  acid  are  too  cold  when  mixed,  as  msay  occur  in  the  winter  time. 
Hard  water  sometimes  causes  bubbles  of  foam  at  the  top  of  the  fat 
column.    To  avoid  this,  use  soft  water  in  testing. 

Sampling  and  Testing  Milk  of  Different  Cows. — In  comparing 
the  amounts  of  butter  fat  produced  by  different  cows,  it  is  necessary 
to  weigh  and  test  the  milk  regularly  throughout  the  season.  The 
testing  and  weighing  may  be  done  once  a  month,  twice  a  month, 
weekly,  or  daily.  Or  the  milk  may  be  weighed  daily,  and  tested  as 
often  as  convenient. 

Testing  Skim  Milk  by  the  Babcock  Test. — Wherever  cream  is 
sold  the  skim  milk  should  be  tested  for  fat  occasionally,  to  make  sure 
that  the  cream  separation  is  complete.  To  test  skim  milk,  collect 
the  entire  quantity  of  skim  milk  running  from  the  separator  in  a 
tub  or  barrel,  mix  it  well  by  stirring.  While  the  skim  milk  is  still 
in  motion,  measure  with  a  pipette  17.6  cc.  of  milk,  avoiding  the 
foam,  into  a  special  form  of  Babcock  test  bottle  called  a  skim  milk 
bottle.  Add  acid  and  whirl  at  full  speed  for  a  few  minutes  longer 
than  usual,  and  keep  the  bottles  hot,  since  it  is  hard  to  get  out  all  of 
the  fat  in  testing  skim  milk. 

The  ordinary  milk  test  bottle  reading  10  per  cent  on  the  scale 
pannot  he  used  for  testing  skim  milk,  l:^cause  the  column  of  fat 


MILK  239 

from  skim  milk  generally  fills  less  than  one  division  on  the  scale, 
and  therefore  cannot  be  read.  The  skim  milk  test  bottles  have  a 
double  neck,  with  a  wide  tube  for  pouring  in  the  milk  and  acid 
and  a  narrow  tube  in  which  the  fat  column  rises.  The  scale  reads 
up  to  one-fourth  or  one-half  of  one  per  cent. 

These  bottles  are  also  used  for  testing  buttermilk  and  whey. 
Only  about  three-fourths  of  a  cylinder  full  of  sulphuric  acid  should 
be  added  to  each  test  bottle  of  whey.  The  test  is  then  completed  in 
the  usual  way.— (111.  Circ.  of  Inf.  27.) 

BUTTER  MAKING  ON  THE  FARM. 

Ripening  the  Cream. — ^Up  to  the  point  of  ripening  the  cream 
the  dairyman  has  been  trying  to  keep  his  cream  as  free  as  j)ossible 
from  bacteria  and  to  check  the  growth  of  all  that  may  get  into  it, 
but  from  this  point  on  the  work  will  be  quite  diflterent  Cream 
should  be  perfectly  sweet,  and  if  cooled  properly  will  remain  so  for 
a  number  of  hours.  In  fact,  it  can  be  preserved  four  or  five  days  if 
kept  at  a  temperature  below  50°  F.  It  might  be  churned  in  this 
condition  and  a  quality  of  butter  made  that  is  in  demand  in  a  limited 
way,  but,  practically  speaking,  nearly  all  butter  used  in  this  country 
is  churned  from  sour  cream.  Sweet  cream  butter  to  most  users  tastes 
flat  and  insipid. 

The  Starter  and  Its  Use. — The  dairyman  may  think,  if  it  is 
necessary  to  sour  the  cream,  why  is  all  this  pains  taken  up  to  this 
point  to  keep  it  sweet.  The  trouble  with  ordinary  souring  is,  it  may 
not  be  the  desirable  kind.  It  must  be  handled  in  such  a  way  that 
desirable  flavors  will  be  developed  and  the  undesirable  ones  kept  in 
check.  This  can  only  be  done  by  starting  with  a  perfectly  sweet 
cream  and  afterwards  controlling  the  souring  process.  This  control 
is  secured  by  introducing  into  the  cream  what  is  known  as  a  starter. 
A  starter  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  nicely  soured  milk,  either 
whole  or  skimmed.  It  will  contain  those  kinds  of  bacteria  that  will 
develop  the  good  flavors  wanted  and  not  those  that  cause  putrefac- 
tion, gassy  fermentations,  and  similar  undesirable  changes.  To 
secure  a  stai*ter  containing  desirable  bacteria,  the  dairyman  has  sim- 
ply to  set  away  a  portion  of  skim  milk  as  it  comes  from  the  separator 
and  await  developments.  If  the  milk  is  kept  at  a  temperature  be- 
tween 70°  and  80°  F.,  it  should  sour  inside  of  twenty-four  hours  and 
form  a  solid  curd.  A  test  of  this  curd  shows  whether  or  not  the 
dairyman  has  kept  his  milk  clean.  If  the  taste  is  found  pleasant 
and  mildly  acid  and  the  curd  readily  breaks  up  when  poured  from 
one  vessel  to  another,  becoming  creamy,  showing  no  hard  lumps 
that  will  not  break  down,  he  has  a  good  starter.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  curd  is  stringj'  or  will  not  break  with  a  square,  sharp  cleavage, 
but  seems  to  be  granular,  or  if  a  clear  whey  is  formed  on  the  surface, 
it  shows  that  bacteria  of  a  harmful  species  are  present.  The  forma- 
tion of  this  curd  is  caused  by  the  development  of  acid  in  the  milk. 
If  the  souring  continues  too  long  and  too  much  acid  is  formed,  the 
starter  becomes  sharp  and  unfit  for  use.  After  a  certain  amount  of 
acid  is  formed  its  further  development  is  checked,  but  this  does  not 
occur  until  the  milk  is  too  sour  for  a  good  starter. 


240  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

The  starter  is  at  its  best  just  as  the  curd  becomes  firm,  and  the 
butter  miaker  should  plan  to  have  this  occur  at  the  time  he  wants 
it  to  put  into  the  cream.  A  glass  jar  is  the  best  vessel  in  which  to 
make  a  starter.  The  glass  surface,  being  smooth,  is  easily  cleaned, 
and  the  butter  maker  can  see  what  action  is  taking  place  w^hile  the 
milk  is  souring.  If  there  are  gas-producing  germs  in  the  milk,  little 
bubbles  of  gas  will  form  in  the  bottom  and  along  the  sides  of  the  jar. 
If  these  are  formed  the  starter  should  not  be  used,  as  gas  fermenta- 
tions always  indicate  impurity,  and  the  effects  of  the  starter  will  not 
be  good. 

The  amount  of  starter  that  should  be  used  in  the  cream  will 
vary  under  different  conditions.  Ordinarily,  if  one  is  churning  every 
day,  about  1  to  1%  gallons  of  starter  in  10  gallons  of  cream  is  the 
right  proportion.  If  it  is  necessary  to  hurry  the  process  of  souring, 
more  starter  can  be  used,  and  vice  versa.  The  temperature  at  which 
the  cream  is  set  will  influence  the  amount  of  starter  to  be  used.  If 
the  cream  is  cooled  to  about  60°  F.,  it  will  require  more  starter  than 
if  it  is  set  at  70°  F.  Unless  the  butter  maker  has  means  of  control- 
ling the  temperatures  quickly,  either  by  very  cold  w^ater  or  by  means 
of  ice,  it  is  best  to  have  the  cream  as  cold  as  well  water  will  make  it 
(which  will  usually  be  about  60°  F.)  when  the  starter  is  added.  If 
the  cream  is  to  be  held  for  the  next  eighteen  or  twenty  hours  at  this 
temperature,  the  amount  of  starter  to  be  added  can  be  determined 
by  the  butter  maker  after  two  or  three  trials.  Attempt  should  be 
made  to  add  just  enough  starter  to  have  the  cream  soured  properly 
at  churning  time.  No  absolute  rule  can  be  given  that  can  be  de- 
pended upon  for  this  work.  The  butter  maker  must  use  his  intelli- 
gence and  decrease  or  increase  the  amount  of  starter  and  raise  or 
lower  the  temperature  of  the  cream  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  be 
ripened  and  ready  for  churning  at  the  right  time. 

If  the  cream  is  not  to  be  churned  every  day,  but  must  be  held 
from  two  to  four  days  before  enough  is  secured  for  a  churning,  either 
of  two  ways  may  be  followed :  A  very  small  amount  of  starter  may 
be  added  to  the  first  batch  of  cream,  which  will  cause  the  gradual 
development  of  the  acidity,  or  the  cream  may  be  held  sweet  from 
two  to  four  milkings  and  then  the  starter  added  in  a  little  larger 
quantity,  with  a  view  to  having  the  ripening  completed  about  twelve 
to  eighteen  hours  after  the  last  batch  of  cream  is  added.  Here  again 
the  butter  maker  must  use  his  judgment  and  experiment  until  he 
finds  just  the  right  quantities  and  the  right  time  to  add  the  starter. 

Whole  milk  can  be  used  for  making  a  starter,  as  well  as  skim 
milk,  but  it  is  usually  considered  best  to  use  the  latter.  The  surface 
of  the  starter  should  be  skimmed  off  for  a  half-inch  or  so  in  depth 
and  thrown  away.  This  is  necessary  because  in  opening  the  jar  for 
examination  or  for  any  purpose  dust  may  have  entered  and  formed 
colonies  of  undesirable  bacteria  which  will  be  growing  on  the  sur- 
face but  have  not  reached  any  depth  into  the  milk.  When  whole 
milk  is  used  this  skimming  is  not  desirable  on  account  of  the  loss  of 
butter  fat  that  would  have  risen  to  the  surface. 


MILK  241 

It  is  sometimes  necessarj',  in  order  to  secure  a  good  starter,  to 
save  a  number  of  samples  of  milk  and  select  the  best  from  the  lot. 
When  an  exceptionally  good  starter  is  secured  it  can  be  propagated 
from  day  to  day  by  adding  a  small  portion  of  it  to  a  quantity  of 
sweet  skim  milk,  enough  milk  being  used  to  make  the  necessary 
amount  of  starter  for  the  cream  to  be  churned.  This  controls  the 
souring  of  the  milk  just  the  same  as  the  addition  of  starter  to  the 
cream  controls  the  souring  of  the  cream.  Where  one  is  churning 
every  day  this  is  a  very  good  method  for  carrying  forward  the 
starter.  In  fact,  it  may  be  used  when  but  two  or  three  churnings 
a  week  are  made  just  as  satisfactorily,  discarding  the  lots  on  the  days 
there  are  no  churnings. 

Under  factory  conditions,  where  mixed  milk  from  a  number  of 
herds  is  used,  it  is  always  necessary  to  heat  the  milk  intended  for 
the  starter  to  near  the  boiling  point  to  destroy  the  bacteria  that  it 
may  contain,  and  then  renew  the  germ  life  in  it  by  adding  a  portion 
of  a  well-ripened  starter,  but  under  farm  conditions  there  should  be 
no  necessity  for  this.  The  milk  should  be  so  clean  and  so  pure  that 
the  only  decomposition  which  takes  place  would  be  that  of  souring, 
and  it  wilt  usually  be  found  that  this  souring  gives  the  pleasant  acid 
taste  to  the  milk  that  is  desirable  in  the  butter. 

When  an  attempt  is  made  to  ripen  the  cream  without  the  ad- 
dition of  a  starter  the  results  are  not  usually  as  good.  An  example 
of  what  takes  place  in  cream  can  be  readily  seen  after  one  has  some 
experience  in  making  starters.  Very  often  one  sample  of  milk  will 
not  develop  the  desirable  flavors,  but  will  become  entirely  unfit  to  use 
in  the  cream  as  a  starter,  while  another  sample,  perhaps  taken  from 
the  same  day's  milking,  will  sour  with  a  fine  flavor.  The  cream 
contains  the  bacteria  that  developed  in  both  of  these  starters,  and 
each  kind  has  equal  chance  to  develop,  unless  a  large  quantity  of  the 
right  kind  is  introduced,  these  overcoming  the  undesirable  kind 
present  and  thus  controlling  the  changes  which  take  place.  This  is 
the  purpose  of  the  starter. 

During  the  last  few  hours  of  ripening  there  should  be  taken  into 
consideration  the  temperature  at  which  the  cream  must  be  churned. 
When  it  is  completely  ripe  or  has  reached  that  point  where  the  flavor 
is  fine  and  the  arom-a  good,  it  should  be  quickly  brought  to  the  tem- 
perature necessary  for  churning,  if  not  already  at  that  temperature. 
If  it  has  to  be  lowered  several  degrees,  it  should  stand  at  the  churn- 
ing temperature  for  a  period  of  three  or  four  hours  before  churning. 
This  becomes  necessary  because  the  butter  fat  is  a  poor  conductor  of 
heat  and  takes  longer  to  change  in  temperature  than  the  milk  serum. 
Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  fact  that  oils  and  fats  cool  very  slowly. 

During  the  process  of  ripening  the  cream  should  be  stirred  oc- 
casionally to  obtain  best  results.  Just  what  is  the  result  of  stirring 
is  not  entirely  known  or  why  it  is  necessary,  but  it  is  known  that 
cream  when  frequently  stirred  ripens  with  a  more  uniform  and  finer 
flavor  than  cream  which  is  ripened  ^^■ithout  stirring. 

Flavors  in  Cream. — In  speaking  of  flavors,  so  far  only  acid 
flavors  have  been   mentioned.     There  are  undoubtedly  desirable 


242  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

flavors  in  cream  that  do  not  come  from  the  development  of  acid. 
Just  what  these  are  is  not  known  at  the  present  time,  but  the  rich 
creamy  flavor,  or  as  it  is  sometimes  described,  the  nutty  flavor,  of  a 
fine  quality  of  cream  is  a  combination  of  acid  and  other  flavors.  The 
butter  maker  quickly  recognizes  this  fine  combination  of  flavors 
when  he  has  once  become  familiar  with  it,  and  always  looks  for  its 
development  in  his  cream. 

Onions,  leeks,  turnips,  and  all  similar  strongly  scented  plants 
impart  their  flavors  to  the  milk.  It  is  commonly  thought  that  the 
fine  clover  and  timothy  pastures  common  to  some  sections  give  a 
peculiarly  fine  flavor  to  milk.  Before  the  science  of  ripening  cream 
was  developed  to  its  present  stage  these  ideas  had  more  influence 
than  they  have  now.  Onions,  garlic,  and  plants  of  this  character 
still  are  very  troublesome  and  often  ruinous.  About  the  only  effect- 
ive way  to  combat  troubles  from  this  source  is  to  rid  the  pastures  of 
them,  which  is  easier  said  than  done.  Pasteurization  of  the  cream 
will  help  to  overcome  this  difficulty,  but  this  adds  to  the  expense. 

The  Acid  Test.- — The  only  standard  that  has  been  applied  in 
measuring  the  ripening  of  cream  is  the  determination  of  the  acid 
present.  The  acid  test,  as  it  is  called,  gives  a  fair  idea  of  the  quality 
and  stage  of  ripeness.  It  is  true,  however,  that  two  lots  of  cream 
may  have  exactly  the  same  amount  of  acid  and  one  of  them  be 
good  and  the  other  bad;  so,  after  all,  the  acid  test  is  not  infallible. 
There  is  no  step  in  the  whole  process  of  making  butter  where  the 
judgment  of  the  maker  is  so  much  needed  as  in  ripening  the  cream. 
He  must  cultivate  his  taste  for  the  desirable  flavors  and  must  knbw 
when  the  point  is  reached  where  further  ripening  must  be  checked. 
Neither  the  butter  maker  who  depends  entirely  upon  the  sense  of 
taste  and  smell,  nor  the  one  who  depends  entirely  upon  the  acid 
test,  will  get  the  best  results. 

Methods  of  learning  to  taste  and  smell,  or  judgment  in  their 
use,  can  not  be  given  in  a  book.  The  ability  must  be  developed 
through  experience.  The  acid  test,  however,  is  a  mathematical  cal- 
culation capable  of  exact  determination. 

The  Principle  and  Its  Application. — As  already  stated  the  meas- 
ure of  ripeness  of  cream  can  be  determined  in  a  general  way  by  the 
amount  of  acid  it  contains.  For  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
amount  of  acid,  different  methods  have  been  devised,  but  all  are 
based  on  the  principle  that  an  alkaline  substance  in  solution  will 
neutralize  an  acid  solution.  The  manipulation  of  the  different  tests 
is  practically  the  same  although  the  apparatus  differs  somewhat  in 
character.  In  every  instance  an  alkaline  solution  of  known  strength 
is  used.  This  is  added  to  a  definite  quantity  of  cream  until  it  exactly 
neutralizes  the  acid  in  the  cream.  The  amount  of  alkali  necessary 
to  do  this  measures  the  quantity  of  acid  present.  In  order  to  tell 
just  when  the  right  point  is  reached  and  all  of  the  acid  is  neutralized, 
a  coloring  matter,  called  an  indicator,  is  added,  which  is  pink  in  an 
alkaline  solution  and  colorless  in  an  acid  solution.  Sometimes  this 
coloring  matter  is  added  to  the  alkaline  substance  used  to  make  a 
test,  as  in  the  case  of  certain  alkaline  tablets.    As  the  solution  con- 


MILK  243 

taining  the  indicator  is  added  to  the  sour  cream  it  shows  no  color 
until  the  point  of  neutrality  is  reached.  At  this  point  color  gradually 
appears  and  becomes  permanent.  In  other  forms  of  the  test  it  is 
necessary  to  add  the  coloring  matter  or  indicator  to  the  cream  before 
beginning  the  test,  three  or  four  drops  being  sufficient  to  give  the 
proper  color  when  the  cream  becomes  alkaline. 

Fairington's  Alkaline  Test. — The  two  most  common  forms  of 
the  acid  test  are  known  as  Farrington's  alkaline  test  and  Mann's  acid 
test.  In  the  former  the  alkaline  substance  is  put  up  in  the  form 
of  tablets  of  a  uniform  strength ;  the  indicator  is  added  to  the  tablet 
and  gives  it  its  pink  color.  The  best  method  of  using  these  tablets  is 
described  as  follows : 

The  apparatus  required  is  a  100  cc.  cylinder,  a  17.6  cc.  pipette, 
and  a  white  porcelain  cup.  Clean,  soft  water  to  the  amount  of  97  cc. 
is  placed  in  the  cylinder  and  five  tablets  are  dissolved  in  it.  The 
cylinder  should  be  tightly  corked  and  laid  away  until  the  tablets 
are  entirely  dissolved.  If  tablets  and  water  are  put  in  the  cylinder  in 
the  evening  they  should  be  ready  for  use  the  next  morning.  In  mak- 
ing the  test,  take  the  17.6  cc.  pipette,  measure  that  quantity  of  cream 
and  place  it  in  the  clean  cup.  Rinse  out  the  pipette  with  a  small 
quantity  of  clean  water  and  add  the  rinsings  to  the  cream  in  the  cup. 
Pour  a  few  cubic  centimeters  of  the  tablet  solution  into  this  cream, 
giving  the  cup  a  rotary  motion  with  the  hand  so  as  to  thoroughly 
mix  the  solution  with  the  cream.  Add  a  few  drops  at  a  time  until 
a  slight  pinkish  color  appears  and  remains  permanent.  The  amount 
of*  alkali  used  can  then  be  read  off  on  the  cylinder.  The  number  so 
obtained  represents  the  per  cent  of  acid  actually  in  the  cream. 

In  making  tests  of  this  kind,  in  order  to  have  results  that  will 
be  uniform,  exactly  the  same  shade  of  pink,  as  near  as  it  is  possible 
to  detenuine  w^ith  the  eye,  should  be  observed  each  time.  There  are 
various  other  methods  for  using  the  tablet  test,  but  the  one  given  is 
the  simplest  and  gives  a  direct  result  which  needs  no  further  compu- 
tation. 

Mann's  Acid  Test. — In  using  Mann's  acid  test  the  alkaline  solu- 
tion is  procured  in  the  form  of  a  solution  of  known  strength.  This 
solution,  added  to  the  cream  by  means  of  a  burette,  determines  very 
readily  the  acidity  of  the  cream.  In  using  this  test  a  few  drops  of 
indicator  will  have  to  be  added  to  the  cream  before  the  alkali  solu- 
tion is  added.  The  amount  of  solution  is  read  directly  from  the 
scale  on  the  burette.  This  does  not  give  the  percentage  of  acid  in  the 
cream,  as  in  the  case  of  the  tablet  test,  but  gives  a  relative  factor, 
which  has  to  be  worked  out  by  the  following  formula  in  order  to  re- 
duce to  percentage:  Multiply  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of 
alkaline  solution  required  to  produce  the  pink  color  by  0.9  and  divide 
the  result  by  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  cream  used  in  mak- 
ing the  test.  The  result  is  the  per  cent  of  acid  in  the  cream.  For 
the  mathematical  explanation  of  this  formula  and  a  more  extended 
description  of  the  acid  test,  the  reader  is  referred  to  publications  on 
the  subject  of  testing. 


244  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

In  order  to  secure  uniform  results,  the  butter  maker  should  see 
that  his  cream  runs  practically  uniform  from  day  to  day  in  butter 
fat,  and  develops  about  the  same  amount  of  acid  for  each  churning. 
The  degree  to  which  the  ripening  should  be  developed  will  depend 
largely  on  the  demands  of  the  local  market  where  the  butter  is  sold. 

The  Churn. — No  other  utensil  in  connection  with  dairying  has 
received  as  much  attention  from  inventors  as  the  churn.  Most  of 
the  efforts  along  this  line  have  been  to  get  a  churn  that  would  anni- 
hilate time.  The  thirty  to  forty  minutes  spent  in  churning  has 
seemed  a  prodigious  waste  to  the  hustling  inventor.  The  one-minute 
churn  has  been  the  goal.  In  round  numbers  there  have  been  more 
patents  issued  by  the  Patent  Office  on  churns  than  on  any  other  one 
thing. 

A  careful  analysis  of  the  junk  in  the  attic  or  storehouse  of  the 
average  dairyman  wall  reveal  one  or  more  relics  of  this  kind,  due  to 
the  persuasive  powers  of  an  agent  who  had  convinced  him  that  he 
was  foolish  in  spending  so  much  time  at  the  churn.  In  spite  of  all 
this  activity  for  an  improved  article,  the  greater  number  of  churns 
in  use  today  are  either  the  old-fashioned  dasher  churn  or  the  equally 
old  revolving  barrel  or  box  churn  or  its  later  modification,  the  com- 
bined churn  and  worker.  Of  these  types  the  barrel  churn  is  by  far 
the  best.  Practically  all  factory  churns  in  this  country  are  modifica- 
tions of  it.  This  form  has  stood  the  test  of  time,  and,  until  some 
genius  gets  up  an  entirely  new  method  of  making  butter,  it  will  be 
used  to  the  exclusion  of  all  the  claptrap  quick-churning  machines 
ever  invented. 

Barrel  Churn  the  Best. — Taking  the  barrel  churn  as  best  for  the 
farm  butter  maker,  he  should  know  how  to  get  the  most  out  of  it. 
In  this  form  of  chum  the  concussion  of  the  cream  necessary  to  do 
the  churning  is  secured  by  the  fall  of  the  cream  as  the  churn  is  re- 
volved. The  faster  the  churn  is  revolved  the  greater  number  of  con- 
cussions per  minute  will  be  secured.  But  if  the  churn  is  whirled  so 
fast  that  the  centrifugal  force  created  holds  the  cream  from  falling 
no  churning  will  take  place. 

Cleaning  the  Churn. — Churns  are  usually  made  of  wood,  and 
their  care  is  an  important  factor.  When  ready  to  clean,  the  churn 
should  be  rinsed  out  with  cold  water  to  remove  all  buttermilk,  salt, 
etc. ;  it  should  then  be  partially  filled  with  boiling  water,  the  lid  put 
on  and  fastened  loosely,  so  steam  can  escape,  the  draining  plug  with- 
drawn, and  the  churn  whirled.  The  pressure  on  the  inside  caused 
by  the  creation  of  steam  from  the  hot  water  will  force  water  into 
every  nook  and  crevice  of  the  churn.  After  a  few  revolutions  the 
water  should  be  drawn  off  and  another  lot,  boiling  hot,  added,  and 
the  whirling  repeated.  Empty  this  out  and  let  the  churn  stand  so  it 
will  drain  a  few  minutes,  and  then  turn  the  opening  up  and  lot  it 
dry.  The  heat  in  the  wood  will  dry  it  out  rapidly,  and  there  will  be 
no  chance  for  mold  to  grow.  An  occasional  rinsing  out  with  lime 
water  will  help  to  keep  a  churn  sweet. 

All  other  wooden  dairy  utensils  should  be  rinsed,  scalded,  and 
dried  with  the  same  care. 


MILK  245 

Churning. — The  process  of  churning  is  the  gathering  into  a 
mass  of  the  butter  fat  in  the  cream.  The  butter  fat  exists  in  the 
cream  in  minute  globules,  each  independent  of  the  others,  and  any 
agitation  tends  to  bring  them  together,  the  force  of  the  impact  caus- 
ing them  to  adhere  to  each  other.  As  the  agitation  is  continued  these 
small  particles  of  butter  grow  larger  by  addition  of  other  particles 
until  a  stage  is  reached  where  they  become  visible  to  the  eye,  and  if 
the  churning  is  continued  long  enough  all  will  be  united  in  one 
lump  of  butter  in  the  churn. 

Temperature. — The  time  that  it  takes  to  chum  depends  largely, 
on  the  temperature  of  the  cream  at  the  beginning.  If  the  cream  is 
quite  warm,  the  butter  will  come  very  quickly ;  if  it  is  too  cold,  the 
cnurning  may  have  to  be  prolonged,  in  some  instances  for  hours, 
before  the  butter  granules  will  become  large  enough  to  free  them- 
selves from  the  buttermilk.  The  temperature  at  the  beginning  should 
be  regulated  accordingly.  It  is  usually  considered  that  about  thirty  to 
thirty-five  minutes'  churning  should  brin^  the  butter.  With  differ- 
ent seasons  of  the  year  the  temperatures  will  have  to  be  varied  some- 
what, in  order  to  have  the  butter  come  in  this  length  of  time.  It  is 
necessary  in  hot  weather  to  churn  at  a  temperature  as  low  as  50°  or 
55°  F.,  while  in  the  winter  months,  when  the  cows  are  on  dry  feed 
ond  the  weather  is  cold,  it  is  often  necessary  to  raise  the  churning 
temperature  to  60°  or  65°  F.  Cases  have  been  known  where  under 
some  peculiar  feed  condition  the  temperature  had  to  be  raised  to  as 
high  as  80°  F.,  in  order  to  make  the  butter  gather  at  all.  Trouble 
of  this  kind  rarely  ever  occurs  when  the  cows  have  succulent  feed  in 
winter,  such  as  silage  or  roots.  Occasionally  some  peculiar  fermenta- 
tion takes  place  in  the  cream,  causing  difficult  churning,  but  this  is 
a  result  of  carelessness  somewhere,  and  can  he  remedied  by  a  thor- 
ough cleaning  up  of  the  premises. 

Washing  and  Salting  the  Butter. — It  is  important  to  know  at 
just  what  point  to  stop  churning.  For  best  results  in  freeing  the 
granules  from  the  buttermilk  and  incorporating  the  salt  it  is  consid- 
ered that  the  butter  granules  should  be  about  the  size  of  grains  of 
wheat,  possibly  a  little  larger.  The  chum  is  then  stopped,  and  the 
buttermilk  allowed  to  drain.  After  the  butteraiilk  is  well  drained 
from  the  butter  granules  an  amount  of  water  about  equal  in  volume 
and  of  the  same  temperature  as  the  buttermilk  should  be  added,  and 
the  churn  given  four  or  five  revolutions,  slowly,  so  that  the  water  will 
come  in  contact  with  every  particle  of  butter  and  wash  out  the  re- 
mainmg  buttermilk. 

As  soon  as  the  wash  water  has  drained  well  from  the  butter  gran- 
ules, salt  should  be  added.  The  amount  of  salt  used  will  depend  en- 
tirely on  the  demands  of  the  consumer.  Usually  about  1  ounce  of 
salt  for  each  pound  of  butter  will  be  necessary.  If  the  ordinary  bar- 
rel chum  is  used,  which  is  perhaps  the  best  form  made,  the  salt  may 
be  added  in  the  chum.  By  giving  the  churn  a  few  revolutions  the 
salt  will  be  quite  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  butter.  It  should 
stand  in  this  condition  for  a  few  minutes,  until  the  salt  becomes  more 
or  less  dissolved,  before  the  working  of  the  butter  is  begun. 


246  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Working  the  Butter. — For  working  the  butter  some  form  of 
table  worker  is  best  to  use.  The  butter  bowl  and  paddle  never  give 
as  good  results  because  the  butter  will  almost  invariably  be  greasy, 
owing  to  the  sliding  motion  of  the  paddle  over  the  butter.  The  table 
workers  commonly  used  are  of  two  kinds — one  having  a  stationary 
bed  and  a  roller,  either  corrugated  or  smooth,  arranged  so  that  it  can 
be  passed  back  and  forth  over  the  surface  of  the  butter;  the  other 
having  a  movable  bed,  revolving  on  a  center,  usually  under  two  cor- 
rugated rollers.  Both  of  these  forms  will  do  good  work  if  the  opera- 
tor understands  their  use. 

Suggestions  as  to  Working. — If  the  salt  and  butter  have  been 
mixed  in  the  churn  the  butter  can  be  placed  on  the  working  table  and 
the  working  begun  at  once.  After  the  butter  has  been  pressed  out 
with  the  roller  it  should  be  divided  in  the  center,  one  part  being  laid 
over  onto  the  other  and  the  rollers  passed  over  again.  The  process 
should  be  repeated  until  the  butter  assumes  what  is  termed  a  waxy 
condition.  If  the  working  is  continued  for  too  long  a  time  the  butter 
will  become  salvy,  having  the  appearance  of  lard,  and  will  lose  its 
granular  structure,  becoming  weak-bodied.  The  firmness  of  the 
butter  must  be  taken  into  account  in  determining  how  long  it  should 
be  worked.  Usually  the  firmer  the  butter  the  more  working  it  will 
stand  and  the  more  time  it  will  need  to  thoroughly  incorporate  the 
salt  and  bring  out  the  waxy  condition. 

Testing  Saltiness  While  Working. — During  the  process  of 
working,  the  butter  should  be  tested  frequently  to  determine  its  salti- 
ness, and  if  by  mistake  too  much  salt  has  been  added  it  can  readily 
be  removed  from  the  butter  by  pouring  a  little  cold  water  over  it  as 
the  working  continues.  The  water  washes  out  the  excess  of  salt.  If 
the  butter  should  contain  too  little  salt,  more  can  readily  be  added 
during  the  process  of  working.  It  is  best  practice  to  about  half  finish 
the  working  and  then  let  the  butter  stand  for  about  twenty  minutes 
or  half  an  hour  before  completing.  This  gives  the  salt  an  additional 
chance  to  dissolve,  and  there  is  less  liability  of  mottles  in  the  finished 
product. 

The  Remedy  for  Mottles. — If  after  standing  a  few  hours  the 
butter  is  found  to  show  a  mottled  appearance,  this  can  be  overcome 
by  putting  it  on  the  worker  and  giving  it  an  additional  working. 
The  mottled  appearance  indicates  that  some  step  in  the  working  of 
the  butter  has  not  been  thoroughly  done.  It  is  due  to  an  uneven  dis- 
tribution of  salt,  and  possibly  to  the  presence  of  casein  that  has  not 
been  washed  from  the  butter,  the  action  of  the  salt  on  the  casein 
forming  lighter  spots  in  the  butter.  The  best  remedy  for  mottles  is 
to  thoroughly  wash  the  butter  when  it  is  in  granular  form  before  the 
salt  is  added,  and  then  to  work  it  until  it  has  reached  the  waxy  condi- 
tion alluded  to. 

Water  Content  of  Butter. — If  the  dairj^man  is  using  the  com- 
bined churn  and  worker,  the  principles  of  working  remain  practically 
the  same.  The  butter  must  be  watched  to  determine  just  when  it 
has  been  worked  enough  and  to  determine  its  condition  in  regard  to 
the  salt  it  contains.    If  butter  is  worked  in  the  presence  of  water  it 


MILK  247 

has  a  tendency  to  take  up  water  and  increase  the  bulk  of  butter 
made.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  water  is  allowed  to  drain  thoroughly 
from  the  butter  as  it  is  being  worked,  the  tendency  is  to  have  drier, 
firmer-bodied  butter.  The  water  content  will  vary  from  6  or  8  per 
cent  up  to  as  high  as  14  or  15  per  cent,  depending  upon  the  method 
the  operator  uses  in  working  and  on  the  temperature  of  the  butter 
when  it  is  churned  and  worked.  If  butter  is  churned  so  warm  that 
it  comes  very  soft,  the  granules  contain  larger  quantities  of  water, 
and  in  this  soft  condition  it  can  not  be  worked  as  much  as  a  firmer 
butter.  The  presence  of  this  moisture,  together  with  the  smaller 
amount  of  working,  results  in  retaining  the  moisture  in  large  drops, 
and  the  butter  will  have  a  wet  or  sloppy  appearance.  Firm  butter 
worked  in  the  presence  of  water  will  take  up  the  water  in  minute 
drops,  giving  the  butter  a  drier  appearance. 

These  steps  in  working  butter,  like  other  operations,  demand  the 
exercise  of  judgment  in  the  person  who  is  doing  the  work,  and  one 
must  experiment  with  conditions  which  surround  him  and  find  just 
what  method  is  best  to  pursue.  Butter  will  stand  considerable  work- 
ing if  rollers  are  used  that  do  not  slide  over  the  surface,  making  it 
smeary. 

Care  of  Utensils. — The  worker,  paddles,  and  prints  that  come  in 
contact  with  the  butter  need  special  preparation  before  the  work  ig 
begun.  They  should  first  be  thoroughly  scalded,  and  the  scalding 
should  continue  long  enough  to  make  the  surface  of  the  wood  hot, 
after  which  it  should  immediately  be  rinsed  with  cold  water.  This 
operation  opens  up  the  pores  of  the  wood  and  then  causes  them  to 
contract  and  form  a  smooth  surface  to  which  the  butter  will  not 
stick.  It  also  thoroughly  wets  the  surface,  which  probably  has  a 
tendency  to  prevent  the  butter  sticking. 

Packing  Butter. — The  size  and  style  of  package  to  be  used  in 
packing  butter  will  depend  entirely  on  the  market  conditions  where 
the  butter  is  sold.  While  great  stress  has  been  laid  on  the  quality  of 
butter  made,  it  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  method  by  which 
it  is  packed  and  the  neatness  with  which  it  appears  on  the  market 
have  practically  as  much  to  do  with  its  sale  as  has  its  quality.  In  fact 
many  buyers  will  select  a  neat  package  of  butter  in  preference  to  one 
that  is  put  up  in  a  slovenly  manner,  even  though  the  quality  may  not 
be  as  good.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  average  man  or  woman 
will  judge  an  article  of  food  as  much  by  its  appearance  as  by  its  gen- 
eral qualities.  An  unattractive  article  does  not  appeal  to  the  sense 
of  taste.  It  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  say  that  a  package  of  any 
kind  must  be  neat  and  clean  in  appearance,  but  a  large  portion  of  the 
farm  butter  that  com^  into  market  shows  that  a  great  many  makers 
do  not  realize  the  importance  of  this  part  of  their  work.  Many  lots 
of  othenvise  good  butter  are  sold  every  day  at  a  discount  because  of 
the  slovenly  methods  of  packing.  The  demands  of  the  market  on 
which  the  butter  is  sold  should  be  carefully  studied,  and  the  package 
made  of  a  size  and  form  that  will  meet  those  demands. 

Butter  in  Tubs. — If  the  butter  is  to  be  put  up  in  tubs,  the  packing 
should  be  so  done  that  the  butter  will  be  solid  throughout  its  entire 


248  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

mass.  Too  frequently  the  butter  is  thrown  in  without  sufficient  pack- 
ing, and  large  holes  will  appear  in  the  body  of  the  butter.  While 
these  may  not  affect  the  quality  they  affect  the  appearance.  If  a 
parchment  paper  lining  is  used  in  the  tub  it  should  be  put  in  smooth 
and  the  top  should  be  turned  neatly  over  the  edge  of  the  butter. 
Coverings  that  are  put  on  the  top,  whether  circles  of  parchment  or 
cloth  made  for  the  purpose,  should  exactly  fit  the  top  of  the  package. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  tub  does  not  show  finger  marks  or  other 
dirty  spots. 

Butter  in  Small  Packages. — It  is  becoming  more  common  for 
the  markets  to  demand  that  butter  be  packed  in  small  packages,  as 
pound  prints  or  squares.  Butter  put  up  in  this  form  should  be  neatly 
wrapped  in  parchment  paper.  It  is  an  excellent  idea  for  the  dairy- 
man to  have  his  name  or  label  printed  on  the  parchment.  This  helps 
to  establish  the  identity  of  the  goods,  which,  if  properly  made,  should 
aid  the  dairyman  in  finding  a  permanent  market  for  them.  Wooden 
packages  of  almost  any  size  can  be  secured  for  packing  the  prints. 
These  should  be  used,  particularly  if  it  is  necessary  to  ship  the  butter 
to  market.  For  local  distribution,  light  crates  or  boxes  which  will  fit 
the  prints  and  prevent  them  from  getting  out  of  shape  in  hauling 
should  be  used. 

Refrigerator  Boxes. — In  the  summer  months  it  is  a  hard  matter 
to  transport  butter  from  the  dairy  to  the  market,  and  keep  the  prints 
in  shape,  unless  the  dairyman  has  ice  for  this  purpose.  Light  refrig- 
erator boxes  are  manufactured  which  can  be  used  to  great  advantage, 
as  their  use  will  keep  the  butter  hard  and  firm,  and  enable  the  maker 
to  deliver  it  in  that  condition  to  his  customers  in  the  hottest  weather. 
No  one  likes  to  buy  a  parcel  of  butter  that  is  so  soft  that  it  can  hardly 
be  handled,  and  the  good  dairyman  will  not  attempt  to  place  butter 
on  the  market  in  that  condition. 

Marketing  the  Butter. — The  markets  which  are  accessible  to  the 
farm  butter  maker  are  of  course  dependent  largely  on  local  condi- 
tions. Almost  any  fair-sized  town  will  furnish  a  local  market  for  a 
quantity  of  first-class  butter. 

Selling  Direct  to  Consumers. — ^Usually  in  these  places  a  pre- 
mium above  the  average  market  price  can  be  secured  by  selling  the 
butter  to  private  customers  who  have  regard  for  quality  in  products 
of  this  nature.  This  method  of  marketing  of  course  involves  more 
labor,  but  if  the  time  can  be  spared  for  delivery  it  will  give  greater 
returns  than  any  other  method.  It  also  enables  the  maker  to  estab- 
lish a  reputation  for  his  goods  such  as  he  can  not  secure  if  he  is  com- 
pelled to  place  his  butter  with  the  general  mass  of  butter  that  comes 
to  the  stores.  If  the  dairyman  attempts  to  build  up  a  market  of  this 
kind  he  must  be  sure  that  he  can  always  supply  regularly  those  with 
whom  he  is  dealing.  If  he  can  not  do  this  misunderstandings  and 
disappointment  are  liable  to  occur. 

If  the  maker  is  compelled  to  take  his  butter  to  stores,  he  usually 
has  to  take  the  average  price  given  for  butter  regardless  of  quality. 
A.  few  storekeepers  will  recognize  certain  lines  of  butter  as  being 
superior  to  others  and  will  pay  more  for  them,  but  usually  not  as 


Milk  Cans  Exposed  to  Dirt  and  Flies.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


A  Milk  House  P'avorable  for  Dirt  and  Odors.    Deft,  of  Agr.  1909. 


MILK  251 

much  as  can  be  obtained  by  private  marketing.  In  most  localities, 
particularly  during  the  summer  months,  the  markets  are  flooded  with 
farm  butter  and  the  prices  are  very  unsatisfactory.  The  maker  who 
is  depending  on  the  stores  for  the  sale  of  his  butter  usually  has  to 
accept  the  current  price,  while  if  he  has  worked  up  a  private  trade  the 
chances  are  that  he  has  a  market  that  will  give  a  uniform  price 
throughout  the  year,  which  is  a  great  advantage.  There  is  little  op- 
portunity for  the  farm  butter  maker  to  ship  his  butter  to  distant 
markets,  unless  he  is  acquainted  with  the  dealers  or  brokers  who  are 
to  handle  his  product. 

Patronizing  Creameries  vs.  Making  Butter. — Should  the  dairy- 
man be  compelled  to  take  the  average  store  price  for  his  butter,  he 
can  generally  do  better  by  selling  his  milk  or  cream  to  a  creamery,  if 
there  be  one  in  easy  reach,  as  the  price  for  farm  dairy  butter  is 
usually  lower  than  the  quotations  for  butter  fat.  In  sections  where 
creameries  abound  it  is  a  question  whether  or  not  the  dairyman  can 
afford  to  make  his  own  butter  and  spend  the  time  looking  for  a  good 
market  in  which  to  sell  it.  By  the  time  he  has  added  to  the  cost  of 
his  butter  fat  the  work  and  worry  connected  with  the  making  of  the 
butter,  which  is  too  frequently  done  by  the  housewife,  the  amount 
actually  saved  is  very  small,  and  even  though  it  is  gain  in  dollars 
and  cents  it  may  not  be  worth  the  time  and  labor  expended.  Only 
on  dairy  farms  where  there  is  ample  help  to  do  the  work  can  there  be 
profit  in  making  the  butter  at  home. 

Storing  or  Holding  for  Market. — The  amount  of  butter  that  the 
farm  dairyman  can  store  or  hold  for  any  length  of  time  for  market 
is  necessarily  limited.  The  old  methods  of  packing  butter  down  in 
brine  or  salt,  such  as  were  followed  by  our  grandparents,  has  prac- 
tically no  place  in  modem  methods  of  dairying.  Cold  storage  such 
as  the  dairyman  would  probably  have  is  not  suitable  for  keeping  but- 
ter any  length  of  time,  because  such  storage  is  not  cold  enough  to 
answer  the  purpose.  Modem  storehouses  for  butter  have  tempera- 
tures from  5°  to  10°  below  zero.  It  is  now  considered  that  anything 
above  that  temperature  is  not  cold  enough  to  properly  preserve  the 
butter  and  check  the  development  of  bad  flavors.  These  tempera- 
tures, of  course,  are  out  of  the  reach  of  the  dairyman.  If  ice  is  at 
hand  and  a  good  refrigerator  or  cooling  room  is  available  the  butter 
may  be  stored  for  a  short,  period  with  more  or  less  success.  The  tem- 
perature of  a  good  ice-storage  room  would  probably  not  be  below 
40°  or  45°  F.  unless  special  and  expensive  construction  is  made.  It 
is  sometimes  necessary  for  a  dairyman  to  keep  the  butter  until  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  has  accumulated  for  profitable  shipment.  When  this 
is  done  the  butter  should  be  packed  in  the  ordinary  way  and  kept  as 
cold  as  possible  until  delivered  to  the  market. 

Rooms  that  are  used  for  purposes  of  storing  butter  should  be  dry 
and  free  from  mold.  Too  frequently  ice-storage  rooms  are  just  the 
reverse;  they  are  excessively  moist,  which  condition  is  favorable  to 
the  production  of  mold.  Butter  placed  in  a  room  of  this  character 
becomes  quite  moldy  after  a  few  days,  which  of  course  destroys  its 


252  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

highest  value  as  a  product  on  the  market.  It  is  possible  to  construct 
rooms  so  that  the  circulation  of  air  in  them  will  be  dry. 

The  interior  of  rooms  of  this  character  should  be  either  white- 
washed or  painted  with  a  good  paint  and  shellac.  From  the  sanitary- 
standpoint  the  whitewash  is  better,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  destroy 
mold  growths  and  keep  the  air  pure  and  sweet.  A  room  of  this  kind 
used  for  butter  should  not  be  used  for  other  products  of  any  kind, 
unless  it  be  milk  or  cream.  It  is  usually  not  a  profitable  undertaking 
for  a  dairyman  to  hold  his  butter  in  anticipation  of  higher  prices. 
The  butter  is  never  so  good  as  when  it  is  fresh,  and  in  that  condition 
will  give  the  best  satisfaction  to  the  consumer  and  in  the  long  run 
will  make  more  money  for  the  dairyman.  If  any  attempt  is  made  to 
furnish  a  customer  with  butter  that  is  "off"  in  flavor  it  always  results 
disastrously  to  the  dairyman.  He  can  not  afford  to  do  anything  that 
will  tend  to  discredit  his  work  or  make  the  customer  feel  that  he 
could  do  better  elsewhere. — (Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  241.) 

Renovated  or  Process  Butter. — Oleomargarine  is  no  longer  a 
novelty  to  Americans;  its  composition  and  method  of  manufacture 
have  become  matters  of  common  knowledge.  Renovated  or  process 
butter,  on  the  other  hand,  having  been  introduced  more  recently,  and 
being  retailed  usually  without  other  designation  than  the  general  one 
of  butter,  is  as  yet  not  so  well  known  to  the  general  public.  All 
grades  of  it — good,  indifferent,  and  bad — are  met  with  in  our  mar- 
kets. The  better  grades  of  it  are  made  from  miscellaneous  assort- 
ments of  country  butter,  mainly  farmers'  rolls,  produced  by  individ- 
ual farmers  remote  from  creameries  and  sold  or  exchanged  at  the 
country  stores,  this  material  being  treated  or  processed,  as  the  term  is, 
while  still  fresh  or  relatively  so.  The  poorer  grades  result  from  the 
treatment  of  inferior  raw  material ;  for  example,  the  aforesaid  coun- 
try butter,  or  any  other  kind  of  butter,  which,  by  too  long  keeping, 
by  abuse  in  regard  to  temperature,  or  hy  unfavorable  surroundings, 
has  suffered  great  deterioration.  Experience  has  shown  that  only  a 
poor  article  of  renovated  butter  can  be  produced  from  rancid  stock. 

How  Renovated  or  Process  Butter  Is  Made. — The  process  may 
be  briefly  outlined  as  follows :  Melting  of  the  butter  and  settling  of 
the  curd  and  brine,  skimming  off  of  froth  and  scum,  drawing  off  and 
discarding  of  the  curd  and  brine,  blowing  of  air  through  the  molten 
fat  to  remove  faulty  odors,  mixing  of  milk  very  thoroughly  with  the 
molten  fat,  rapid  cooling  and  granulating  of  this  mixture  by  running 
it  into  ice-cold  water,  draining  and  ripening  of  the  granulated  mass 
for  a  number  of  hours,  salting  and  working  out  of  the  excess  of  milk, 
packing  or  making  into  prints. 

By  this  process,  when  used  upon  comparatively  fresh  raw  mate- 
rial, butters  of  low  grade  are  materially  improved,  the  farmer's  reve- 
nue is  increased,  values  are  enhanced — in  short,  a  good  thing  is  done. 
Harm  begins  only  when  the  renovated  is  sold  for  the  genuine  (that 
is,  the  original)  article,  for  they  are  not  the  same  thing.  While  the 
fats  in  the  two  are  practically  the  same  chemically,  the  nitrogenous 
portions  are  not.  Moreover,  since  the  article  known  now  and  for  ages 
past  as  butter  is  an  article  the  last  step  in  whose  manufacture  is  the 


MILK  263 

churning  of  cream,  it  is  evident  that  the  product  of  an  elaborate  sub- 
sequent process,  a  process  entirely  foreign  to  the  manufacture  of 
butter,  should  be  designated  by  a  distinctive  name. 

How  to  Distinguish  Genuine  Butter  from  Renovated,  and  Both 
from  Oleomargarine. — Several  of  the  States  have  already  enacted 
laws  requiring  the  distinctive  branding  or  labeling  of  the  new  product 
when  offered  for  sale,  and  as  a  consequence  chemists  have,  during  the 
last  year  or  two,  devoted  considerable  study  to  methods  for  distin- 
guishing between  the  genuine  and  the  renovated  article.  One  of  the 
results  of  such  study  is  the  method  of  Hess  and  Doolittle,  which  is 
based  upon  the  difference  in  the  relative  proportions  of  albumin  and 
so-called  casein,  as  well  as  the  different  properties  of  the  latter,  exist- 
ing in  the  two  products.  But  as  this  is  distinctly  a  laboratory  method, 
quite  inapplicable  in  the  household,  it  will  not  be  dwelt  upon  here. 

Another  useful  method,  of  the  nature  of  a  preliminary  test,  is 
that  of  microscopic  examination  by  polarized  light,  with  and  with- 
out the  selenite  plate ;  but  for  the  reason  just  stated,  this,  too,  will  be 
passed  with  a  bare  mention.  So  also  with  .various  chemical  tests  and 
the  regular  chemical  analysis  of  the  fats. 

Household  Tests. — Another  important  means  employed  in  dis- 
tin^ishing  between  genuine  and  renovated  butter  is  the  boiling  test. 
This  test  was  first  mentioned  in  scientific  literature  by  Dr.  Henry 
Leffmann,  who  states  that  it  was  shown  to  him  by  a  Mr.  Morris,  a 
detective  in  oleomargarine  prosecutions.  It  has  been  in  use  about  ten 
years,  and  was  originally  used  only  for  the  detection  of  oleomar- 
garine ;  but  after  the  advent  of  renovated  butter  the  test  was  found 
to  serve  almost  equally  well  in  distinguishing  this  product  from  gen- 
uine butter.  Therefore,  this  test  distinguishes  between  genuine  but- 
ter on  the  one  hand  and  oleomargarine  and  renovated  butter  on  the 
other;  and,  fortunately,  it  is  so  simple  of  execution  that  it  can  be  em- 
ployed in  any  kitchen  almost  as  well  as  in  the  laboratory,  and  re- 
quires no  special  skill  on  the  part  of  the  operator.  It  consists  merely 
in  boiling  briskly  a  small  portion  of  the  sample  and  observing  its 
behavior  the  while. 

In  the  kitchen  the  test  may  be  conducted  as  follows:  Using  as 
the  source  of  heat  an  ordinary  kerosene  lamp,  turned  low  and  with 
chimney  off,  melt  the  sample  to  be  tested  (a  piece  the  size  of  a  small 
chestnut)  in  an  ordinary  tablespoon,  hastening  the  process  by 
stirring  with  a  splinter  of  wood  (for  example,  a  match).  Then,  in- 
creasing the  heat,  bring  to  as  brisk  a  boil  as  possible,  and  after  the 
boiling  has  begun,  stir  the  contents  of  the  spoon  thoroughly,  not  neg- 
lecting the  outer  edges,  two  or  three  times  at  intervals  during  the 
boiling — always  shortly  before  the  boiling  ceases.  In  the  laboratory 
a  test  tube,  a  spoon,  or  sometimes  a  small  tin  dish,  is  used  in  making 
this  test.  From  the  la>st-named  utensils  the  test  is  often  called  the 
"spoon  test,"  and  sometimes  the  "pan  test." 

A  gas  flame,  if  available,  can  be  used  perhaps  more  conveniently 
than  a  kerosene  lamp.  Oleomargarine  and  renovated  butter  boil 
noisily,  sputtering  (more  or  less)  like  a  mixture  of  grease  and  water 
when  boiled,  and  produce  no  foam^  or  but  very  little.    Renovated 


254  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

butter  produces  usually  a  very  small  amount.  Genuine  butter  boils 
usually  with  less  noise,  and  produces  an  abundance  of  foam.  The 
difference  in  regard  to  foam  is  very  marked,  as  a  rule.  Rarely,  a 
butter  is  found  which  yields  an  uncertain  result ;  such  a  butter  should 
receive  the  benefit  of  the  doubt. — (Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  131.) 

FOOD   PRESERVATIVES  AND  BUTTER  INCREASERS. 

The  subject  of  the  preservation  of  articles  of  food  against  decay 
is  one  of  no  little  importance.  Decay  or  fermentations  is  known  to 
be  due  to  the  action  of  living  germs  or  ferments.  If  in  any  way 
these  germs  can  be  destroyed  or  their  development  prevented,  without 
any  change  in  the  food  product  itself,  it  seems  possible  that  food 
might  be  preserved  almost  indefinitely.  Two  conditions  that  are 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  growth  and  multiplication  of  these  germs 
are  a  moderate  temperature  and  moisture.  The  methods  most  gen- 
erally used  for  the  preservation  of  food  aim  to  destroy  these  germs  by 
depriving  them  either  temporarily  or  permanently  of  one  or  the 
other  of  these  conditions.    These  methods  may  be  grouped  as  follows : 

1st.  Those  depending  upon  the  use  of  heat  for  the  destruction 
of  the  germs  and  subsequent  sealing  to  exclude  other  germs.  This 
principle  is  illustrated  in  the  process  of  canning  fruits  and  vegetables. 

2d.  Those  depending  upon  the  use  of  cold  to  prevent  the  mul- 
tiplication of  the  germs  for  lack  of  sufficient  heat.  An  example  of 
this  is  found  in  our  extensive  systems  of  cold  storage. 

3d.  Those  in  which  the  food  product  is  dried  in  order  that 
the  germs  present  may  not  multiply  for  lack  of  sufficient  moisture. 
The  production  of  evaporated  fruits  illustrates  this  principle. 

Where  it  is  impossible  to  employ  any  of  the  above  methods,  or 
where  their  use  might  injure  or  destroy  some  desirable  quality  of  the 
food,  resource  is  often  had  to  the  direct  addition  to  the  food  of  some 
substance  that  is  detrimental  to  germ  life.  The  familiar  process  of 
preserving  meats,  especially  pork,  by  salting,  illustrates  the  class. 
There  seems  to  be  little  or  no  objection  to  the  use  of  foods  preserved 
by  any  of  the  first  three  general  methods,  nor  to  this  last  provided 
that  the  substance  added  has  itself  no  bad  physiological  effect.  Be- 
sides common  salt  the  following  substances  are  often  used:  Borax, 
boric  acid,  salicylic  acid,  benzoic  acid,  sulphate  of  soda,  saltpeter  and 
formalin.  There  is  no  doubt  that  they  possess  the  power  of  arresting 
the  action  of  germs,  but  there  is  some  question  about  the  advisability 
of  the  continued  use  of  foods  containing  them.  Inasmuch  as  there 
is  some  prejudice  on  the  part  of  dealers  and  consumers  against  their 
use,  frequent  attempts  are  made  to  introduce  preparations  of  these 
substances  under  new  forms  and  names. 

Some  butter  increasers  contain  acids  which  curdle  the  casein. 
This  is  shown  in  the  souring  of  milk  itself  when  lactic  acid  is  formed 
from  the  milk  sugar;  or  by  adding  vinegar  or  other  acids  to  milk. 
Hence  it  is  plain  what  the  effects  of  an  acid  Increaser  would  be. 
The  acetic  acid  would  curdle  the  casein  which  would  become  mixed 
with  the  fat,  and  yield  a  product  that  would  be  neither  good  butter 
nor  poor  cheese.  This  incorporated  casein  furnishes  a  medium  for 
the  growth  and  multiplication  of  millions  of  organisms.    It  is  to  re- 


MILK  255 

move  this  casein  and  so  get  rid  of  these  germs  that  butter  is  so  care- 
fully washed. 

While  the  food  preservatives  may  have  some  valuable  uses, 
as  keeping  milk  samples  for  composite  tests,  there  is  absolutely  no 
excuse  for  Butter  Increasers  in  an  honest  community.  They  are 
fraudulent  in  that  they  pretend  to  teach  the  producer  how  he  can 
get  more  butter  from  cream  than  there  is  in  it.  They  promote  dis- 
honesty by  throwing  in  the  way  of  an  unscrupulous  producer  a 
means  of  defrauding  his  customers;  and  worse  than  all,  the  use  of 
these  Increasers  is  an  attempt  to  put  on  the  market  a  product  which 
not  only  cheats  the  producer  but  may  possibly  endanger  the  health 
of  the  consumer.— (N.  Y.  Cornell  B.  118.) 

CHEESE   MAKING   ON   THE   FARM. 

How  to  Make  Farm,  Dairy  Cheese. — The  ordinary  process  by 
which  our  American  cheese  is  made  in  factories  is  not  applicable  to 
the  farm  dairy,  because  it  takes  too  much  time,  and  is  so  complicated 
that  it  requires  years  of  practice  to  become  sufficiently  familiar  with 
the  varying  conditions  in  which  milk  comes  to  the  vat.  The  various 
changes  that  take  place  in  milk  and  which  are  troublesome  in  mak- 
ing cheese  nearly  all  develop  in  the  night's  milk  kept  over  until  the 
following  morning.  So  if  milk  is  made  into  cheese  immediately 
after  it  is  drawn,  no  difficulty  need  be  experienced.  By  employing 
a  simple  and  short  method  of  manufacture,  anyone  at  all  accustomed 
to  handling  milk  can,  with  the  appliances  found  in  any  well-regu- 
lated farm  home,  make  uniformly  a  good  cheese. 

Details  of  Manufacture. — The  best  time  to  make  farm  dairy 
cheese  is  immediately  after  milking.  First  pour  the  milk  from  one 
vessel  to  another  in  some  locality  where  the  air  is  pure  and  fresh, 
raising  the  vessel  well  so  that  the  air  can  pass  through  the  milk  as  it 
is  poured  out  and  carry  off  the  animal  heat  and  odor.  Then  pour 
the  milk  into  the  vat,  or,  if  no  regular  vat  is  at  hand,  use  a  large 
wash  boiler. 

Coloring. — If  it  is  desired  to  have  more  than  the  natural  color, 
so  that  the  cheese  will  look  rich,  add  about  a  teaspoonful  of  cheese 
color  to  16  gallons  of  milk.  To  do  this  properly  take  a  large  dipper 
half  full  of  milk,  mix  in  the  color  thoroughly,  and  stir  the  whole 
into  the  vat  of  milk. 

Rennet. — Now  add  rennet  extract  at  the  rate  of  1  ounce  to  100 
pounds,  or  12  gallons,  of  milk.  Mix  the  extract  with  half  a  dipper  of 
cold  water  and  then  pour  into  the  milk.  Rennet  tablets  may  be  used 
instead  of  the  extract,  one  small  tablet  for  every  5  gallons  of  milk, 
or  one  large  tablet  for  25  gallons.  Small  tablets  are  about  the  size  of 
a  dime;  large  tablets  are  about  as  large  as  a  silver  quarter  of  a  dol- 
lar. Dissolve  the  tablets  required  in  a  small  quantity  of  cold  water, 
then  pour  into  the  milk.  The  rennet  extract  or  the  tablets  may  be 
procured  from  any  dairy  supply  house  and  at  many  drug  stores. 

Temperature. — Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  have  the  milk 
at  a  temperature  below  86°F.  nor  above  90°  when  the  rennet  ''» 
put  in. 


256  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Curdling. — After  the  rennet  is  put  into  the  milk,  stir  gently  two 
or  three  minutes,  then  let  stand  until  the  curd  is  firm  enough  to  cut. 
The  milk  should  begin  to  curdle  in  from  ten  to  twelve  minutes.  To 
ascertain  when  the  curd  is  ready  for  cutting,  push  the  forefinger  into 
the  milk  at  an  angle  of  45°  until  the  thumb  touches  the  milk ;  make 
a  slight  notch  in  the  curd  with  the  thumb,  then  gently  raise  the 
finger;  if  the  curd  breaks  clean  across  the  finger  without  any  flakes 
remaining  on  it,  the  curd  is  ready  for  cutting.  A  little  practice  will 
soon  enable  the  operator  to  tell  the  best  time  to  cut. 

Cutting. — rFor  cutting,  regular  cheese  knives  are  best,  one  with 
horizontal  blades  and  one  with  perpendicular  blades.  In  case  it  is 
intended  to  make  only  a  few  cheeses,  a  wire  toaster  may  be  used,  the 
wires  only  about  a  half  an  inch  apart.  First  cut  lengthwise,  then 
crosswise  of  the  vat  or  boiler,  until  the  curd  is  cut  into  tubes  about 
the  size  of  small  kernels  of  corn. 

Cooking. — After  cutting,  stir  the  curd  gently  for  about  three 
minutes,  then  heat  slowly  to  98°  or  100° F.,  constantly  stirring  gent- 
ly while  the  curd  is  being  heated.  Keep  the  curd  at  this  tempera- 
ture for  about  forty  minutes.  To  tell  when  the  curd  is  sufficiently 
cooked,  take  a  handful  and  press  it  gently,  hold  for  a  moment,  then 
open  the  hand,  and  if  the  curd  falls  apart  it  is  firm  enough.  As  soon 
as  the  curd  is  sufficiently  cooked,  draw  off  the  whey.  Then  the  curd 
is  ready  to  put  into  the  cheese  mold,  or  hoop. 

Molding. — Fill  the  mold  by  taking  a  double  handful  of  curd  at 
a  time  and  pressing  in  gently  until  the  mold  is  full  and  well  rounded 
up.  Regular  Gouda  molds  are  best,  but  any  tin  or  wooden  receptacle 
will  answer  if  small  holes  are  made  in  it  to  allow  the  whey  to  escape. 
The  cheese  should  be  from  8  to  10  inches  in  diameter  and  about  3 
inches  thick.  Then  take  the  cheese  out  of  the  mold  and  turn  it  up- 
side down  and  replace  it.  Put  on  the  cover  and  put  the  cheese  to 
press. 

Pressing. — The  press  may  be  a  simple  lever  and  weight  de- 
scribed as  follows:  The  lever  should  be  about  12  feet  long;  a  broken 
w^agon  tongue  answers  the  purpose  very  well.  Set  a  strong  box,  on 
which  the  mold  may  be  placed,  about  3  feet  from  a  wall,  post,  or  tree ; 
on  the  latter  nail  a  slat  and  under  it  put  one  end  of  the  lever.  Put 
a  circular  board  about  6  inches  in  diameter  upon  the  mold  and  on 
this  rest  the  stick  or  lever.  A  pail  containing  a  few  cobblestones 
wall  answer  for  the  weight.  Do  not  apply  full  pressure  at  first,  but  let 
the  weight  hang  about  halfway  betw^een  the  mold  and  the  outer  end 
of  the  stick.  Let  the  cheese  remain  a  few  hours  in  the  press ;  then 
take  out  and  dress. 

Dressing. — To  dress  a  cheese,  first  put  it  in  warm  water  for  a 
few  moments  and  then  wipe  dry  and  rub  smooth.  Take  a  piece  of 
linen  cloth  about  6  inches  wide  and  long  enough  to  go  around  the 
cheese  and  lap  over  a  few  inches.  Wrap  the  oloth  smoothly  around 
the  cheese,  folding  the  edges  down  carefully  over  the  sides ;  then  put 
a  circular  cap  of  cloth  of  suitable  size  on  each  side.  Replace  the 
cheese  in  the  mold,  with  the  bandage  or  dress  all  smooth,  and  put  it 
under  the  press,  moving  the  pail  to  the  end  of  the  stick.    Leave  the 


MILK  257 

cheese  in  the  press  for  about  twenty  hours;  then  take  it  out  and 
salt  it. 

Salting. — The  cheese  may  be  either  dry  salted  or  brine  salted. 
Brine  salting  is  the  better  way.  Make  a  solution  of  salt  and  water 
as  strong  as  it  can  possibly  be  made;  put  the  cheese  into  this  brine 
and  sprinkle  some  salt  on  the  surface  which  is  exposed  as  it  floats. 
Leave  the  cheese  in  brine  for  two  and  a  half  days,  turning  it  over 
every  twelve  hours.  For  dry  salting  rub  salt  onto  the  cheese,  and  all 
over  it,  twice  a  day  for  three  or  four  days. 

Curing. — Next,  put  the  cheese  on  a  shelf  in  the  cellar  for  cur- 
ing. It  must  be  turned  and  rubbed  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  every 
day  for  a  week  or  two;  after  that  twice  a  week  will  suffice.  While 
curing,  cheese  should  occasionally  be  wiped  with  a  cloth  dampened 
in  warm  water,  and  if  it  gets  a  rough  rind  smooth  it  by  using  a  brush 
and  warm  water.  The  temperature  best  adapted  for  curing  is  from 
55°  to  65 °F.,  and  the  air  should  be  as  moist  as  possible.  A  cellar 
with  a  suitable  and  even  temperature  and  not  too  dry  is  therefore  a 
good  place  for  curing.  The  cheese  will  be  ready  for  use  in  from  two 
to  four  months.  The  lighter  the  cheese  is  salted  the  sooner  it  will  be 
ready  for  use,  and  the  more  the  curd  is  cooked  the  slower  it  will  be  in 
ripening  and  the  longer  it  will  keep.  Cheese  made  as  here  described 
is  more  like  the  Dutch  Gouda  than  any  other  of  the  standard  vari- 
eties. (From  a  circular  issued  from  the  Minnesota  Dairy  School; 
Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  166.) 

Notes  for  Home  Cheese  Making. — A  good  vat — one  that  can  be 
kept  clean  and  sweet  and  large  enough  to  hold  whatever  milk  is  to  be 
used  at  one  time.  A  press ;  for  the  product  from  five  to  eight  cows,  a 
simple  lever  with  weights.  Accompanying  the  press  must  be  hoops ;  a 
good  size  is  10  inches  in  diameter  and  8  inches  deep,  made  of  heavy 
tin,  edges  strong  and  no  top  or  bottom.  A  drainer  or  vessel  with  per- 
forated bottom,  in  which  the  curd  is  drained ;  a  large  basket  will  do, 
lined  with  strainer  cloth.  A  dozen  cloths  a  yard  square.  A  ther- 
mometer. A  curd  knife  or  knives.  These  come  in  pairs,  one  to  cut 
horizontally  and  one  vertically;  but  a  long,  slim  knife  will  do,  or 
a  strong  piece  of  galvanized  wire  netting,  or  even  a  strong  strip  of 
tin.  A  suitable  room  for  curing,  with  a  few  smooth,  wide  shelves  on 
which  to  cure  the  cheese. 

Rennet. — Use  about  one  tablespoonful  of  rennet  extract  for  3 
gallons  of  milk.  If  the  curd  is  over  one-half  hour  in  coming,  in- 
crease the  quantity  of  rennet ;  if  less,  decrease  it.  Rennet  tablets  may 
be  used. 

Preparation  of  the  Curd. — Warm  the  milk  to  85°  F.,  add  the 
rennet  and  mix  thoroughly,  then  cover  and  let  stand  at  this  tempera- 
ture for  about  one-half  hour,  or  until  the  curd  will  break,  leaving  the 
whey  clear.  Then  cut  each  way,  leaving  it  in  columns  about  1  mch 
square.  Now  let  it  stand  until  the  whey  rises  an  inch  on  top  of  the 
curd,  then  warm  the  whole  gradually,  taking  two  or  three  hours  to 
reach  98°F.,  lifting  and  stirring  and  breaking  it  gently  with  the 
hand  all  the  time  until  the  pieces  are  about  uie  size  of  grains  of 
corn.    Be  very  careful  not  to  crush  the  curd,  as  that  will  cause  the 


258  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

cream  or  fat  to  escape  with  the  whey.  Then  let  stand  at  this  tem- 
perature, stirring  it  occasionally  to  keep  from  packing,  until  the  curd 
is  so  firm  that  when  squeezed  gently  in  the  hand  and  the  hand 
opened,  it  will  separate  into  particles  again.  The  whey  should  have 
a  slightly  acid  taste.  Then  dip  the  curd  into  a  basket  lined  with 
cloth,  to  cool  and  drain. 

Salt. — Salt  the  curd  after  it  is  drained,  using  4  ounces  of  salt  to 
10  pounds  of  curd,  mixed  in  carefully  but  thoroughly;  or  salt  by 
brine  bath  or  rubbing,  after  pressing. 

Pressure. — The  pressure  must  be  gentle  at  first  or  the  milk  fat 
will  run  out,  thus  leaving  a  poor  cheese.  Increase  the  pressure  grad- 
ually, and  in  a  few  hours  take  the  cheese  out,  turn  it,  rearrange  the 
bandage,  and  press  as  before. 

Curing. — This  is  a  very  important  part  of  cheese  making.  The 
room  for  curing  (and  it  may  be  in  a  basement  or  cellar  if  the  condi- 
tions are  right)  should  be,  first  of  all,  capable  of  being  kept  at  an 
even  and  medium  temperature.  From  50°  to  60  °F.  is  now  regarded 
as  the  best  for  domestic  purposes,  although  the  time  in  curing  may 
be  somewhat  lengthened  thereby.  The  cooler  the  room,  the  slower 
the  curing.  If  the  room  at  any  time  gets  much  warmer  than  65°, 
even  for  a  short  period,  the  cheese  is  likely  to  be  permanently  in- 
jured. The  room  should  be  fairly  dry,  but  not  too  dry,  and,  while 
being  well  ventilated,  should  be  free  from  currents  of  air.  If  too 
dry  or  subjected  to  dry  currents,  the  cheese  will  lose  weight  and  be 
apt  to  crack.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  out  all  flies.  The 
bandage  should  be  greased  and  rubbed  and  the  cheese  turned  over  on 
the  shelf  every  day  or  two  for  a  month ;  later  this  need  be  done  only 
once  or  twice  a  week.  If  the  cheese  should  crack,  paste  strips  of 
cheesecloth  or  stout  paper  over  the  openings. — (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B. 
166.) 

Pot  Cheese. — A  toothsome  and  nutritious  article  of  food  is  made 
from  sour  skimmed  milk  or  buttermilk  by  allowing  the  casein  to 
coagulate  by  the  action  of  acid  already  naturally  formed,  and  then 
expelling  the  water  by  the  aid  of  heat.  A  considerable  number  of 
products,  locally  distinct  and  different  in  the  degree  of  dryness  of 
the  curd,  are  made  in  this  way.  The  general  process  of  manufacture 
is  to  take  sour  buttermilk,  or  skimmed  milk  which  has  coagulated, 
heat  it  gently  from  85°  to  125°F.,  according  to  circumstances,  and 
drain  off  the  whey  through  a  cloth  strainer.  Then  reduce  the  tex- 
ture of  the  resulting  curd  by  kneading  with  the  hands  or  a  pestle ; 
salt  is  added,  and  the  product  is  improved  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  cream  or  butter.  Some  persons  consider  it  an  improve- 
ment to  season  by  the  use  of  one  of  the  more  common  spioes,  as  nut- 
meg, caraway,  etc.  It  is  largely  made  only  for  domestic  consump- 
tion, but  in  most  cities  and  villages,  especially  during  the  summer 
months,  there  is  a  considerable  demand  for  fresh  cheese  of  this  sort, 
and  its  manufacture  is  often  a  source  of  revenue  to  factories  suitably 
located.  It  is  usually  sold  and  eaten  in  a  fresh  state,  but  it  may  be 
subjected  to  certain  curing  processes,  which  quite  materially  change 
its  character  and  which  vary  widely  in  different  localities.     This 


MILK  259 

simple  kind  of  cheese  is  also  called  Dutch  cheese,  cottage  cheese,  and 
schmierka^e. 

Neufchatel  Cheese. — ^This  cheese  was  originally  a  French  make 
of  soft  molded  cheese.  In  this  country  the  process  of  manufacture 
has  been  considerably  changed,  so  that  the  cheese  as  now  manufac- 
tured represents  a  somewhat  different  type,  that  is  ready  for  use  as 
soon  as  made. 

Fresh  milk  is  set  at  85°Fahr.,  with  sufficient  rennet  to  cause 
a  thorough  coagulation  in  24  to  36  hours.  The  curd  is  then  placed 
in  cheese-cloth  bags  and  allowed  to  drain  for  some  12  to  24  hours. 
The  draining  is  assisted  by  the  application  of  light  pressure.  When 
the  curd  is  dry  enough  it  is  pressed  into  cylindrical  shapes  l%x3 
inches,  and  salted  from  the  outside.  It  is  then  allowed  to  drain  for 
several  hours,  and  is  placed  in  a  ripening  room  where  in  a  few  weeks 
it  becomes  covered  with  white  and  blue  mold.  The  cheese  is  then 
placed  in  a  cellar  for  further  ripening,  and  when  red  spots  appear  on 
the  outside  it  is  wrapped  in  paper  and  tinfoil  and  marketed. 

American  Method  of  Manufacture. — Fresh  sweet  milk  is  heated 
to  r65°  Fahr.  for  10  minutes  and  then  cooled  immediately  to  72° 
Fahr.  Until  very  recently,  the  milk  used  was  not  pasteurized,  but 
the  great  difficulty  in  securing  reliable  milk,  together  with  the  ad- 
vantages of  pasteurization  and  the  use  of  a  commercial  starter,  have 
made  the  heating  method  very  popular. 

In  large  factories  the  cheese  is  made  in  large  vats,  but  on  the 
farm  it  can  be  made  in  smaller  quantities  in  shotgun-cans  holding 
about  30  pounds  of  milk.  After  the  milk  is  cooled  to  72°  Fahr.,  a 
small  amount  of  commercial  starter  is  added  and  enough  rennet  to 
insure  a  thorough  coagulation  in  18  hours.  Usually  about  1  c.c.  of 
commercial  starter  and  V2  c.c.  of  rennet  extract  is  sufficient  to  30 
pounds  of  milk  if  the  temperature  is  maintained  at  72°  Fahr.  As 
soon  as  the  milk  is  firmly  coagulated  it  is  placed  on  a  cotton  covered 
strainer-rack  or  in  cotton  bags  to  drain.  The  acidity  of  the  exuding 
whey  at  this  time  should  not  be  over  .3%  or  the  flavor  of  the  cheese 
will  be  too  acid.  The  draining  process  requires  several  hours  and 
should  be  kept  up  until  all  free  whey  has  escaped.  Light  pressure 
such  as  can  be  obtained  in  a  small  cheesepress  aids  materially  in  ex- 
pelling the  whey.  During  the  draining  process  the  curd  on  the  outer 
surface  of  the  strainer  should  be  stirred  occasionally  to  insure  even 
drj'ing.  As  soon  as  the  curd  is  sufficiently  dry,  salt  is  added  at  the 
rate  of  2^/4  ounces  to  10  pounds  of  curd.  At  this  time  the  acidity  of 
the  whey  should  be  not  over  .5%.  The  cheese  should  then  be  pressed 
for  a  short  time  to  expel  excess  whey.  It  is  then  kneaded  by  hand 
and  finally  pressed  into  small  cylindrical  shapes  l%x2%  inches, 
weighing  one-fourth  pound  each.  These  are  wrapped  in  parchment 
paper  and  tinfoil,  and  are  then  ready  for  market. 

Qualities  of  Neufchatel  Cheese. — Neufchatel  cheese  should  have 
a  distinct,  mild,  clean  flavor  resembling  will-ripened  cream.  The 
texture  should  be  fairly  dry,  yet  smooth  and  entirely  free  from 
lumps.  There  should  be  no  leaking  whey,  and  each  cheese  should  be 
neatly  wrapped.    The  cheese  will  usually  keep  in  good  condition  for 


260  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

two  weeks  if  kept  in  a  cold  place.  From  100  pounds  of  milk  about 
22  pounds  of  Neufchatel  cheese  can  be  made,  which  sells  for  20  to 
40  cents  per  pound,  depending  on  its  quality  and  the  manner  of 
marketing. 

Precautions  to  Observe  in  Making  Neufchatel  Cheese. — The 
making  of  Neufchatel  cheese  is  easy  and  very  profitable,  but  in  order 
to  secure  a  uniformly  good  product  each  day  strict  attention  must  be 
given  to  the  control  of  temperature,  acidity  and  moisture.  High 
temperature,  too  much  rennet,  too  much  acid,  too  rapid  drying  and 
uneven  drying  all  cause  lumpy  texture.  It  is  very  important  that  the 
curd  be  properly  coagulated  before  being  placed  in  the  draining 
process.  If  it  is  too  soft  or  breaks  up  too  much  in  being  transferred 
from  the  can  to  the  strainer,  uneven  drying  usually  results. — (N.  Y. 
Cornell  B.  270.) 

Club  Cheese. — This  is  one  of  the  most  common  varieties  of 
fancy  cheese,  being  manufactured  most  extensively  in  Canada,  New 
York  and  Michigan.  For  those  persons  who  desire  a  pronounced 
flavor  and  taste,  together  with  a  smooth  soft  texture  in  cheese,  the 
club  variety  answers  the  purpose  better  than  any  other.  One  im- 
portant quality  in  club  cheese  is  that  it  can  be  spread  easily  on  bis- 
cuits or  bread,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  used  on  almost  every  occasion 
when  cheese  is  served. 

Method  of  Manufacture. — The  method  of  making  club  cheese 
is  very  simple  and  yet  it  requires  considerable  skill  to  manufacture 
a  uniformly  good  product  from  day  to  day.  The  most  important 
factor  is  the  use  of  suitable  raw  material,  viz.,  cheddar  cheese  and 
butter  of  good  quality.  The  amount  of  each  of  these  constituents  to 
be  used  is  determined  by  the  quality  of  the  cheese  used  and  the  keep- 
ing quality  desired  in  the  club  cheese. 

The  method  consists  in  simply  grinding  up  some  well-ripened 
cheddar  cheese  of  good  flavor  in  a  meat  mincing  machine  and  adding 
a  certain  amount  of  good  butter  to  increase  the  softness  and  richness 
of  the  cheese.  If  a  fairly  strong  flavored  cheese  is  desired,  cheese  six 
months  to  one  year  old  should  be  used,  while  if  a  milder  taste  is  pre- 
ferred, cheese  about  three  months  old  is  better.  If  the  cheese  to  be 
ground  up  is  dry  in  texture,  it  will  require  more  butter  to  make  it 
smooth  than  would  be  required  by  a  softer  cheese  containing  more 
moisture.  Generally  speaking,  for  home  use  and  for  reasonably 
quick  consumption  1  pound  butter  to  8  pounds  cheese  make  very 
desirable  proportions.  The  mixture  of  cheese  and  butter  is  usually 
run  through  the  mincing  machine  a  second  time  and  then  kneaded 
by  hand  to  remove  all  possibility  of  lumpiness.  In  large  factories 
a  machine  is  used  for  this  purpose.  Occasionally  a  small  amount  of 
mustard  or  brandy  is  added  to  suit  the  taste  of  consumers. 

How  Club  Cheese  is  Marketed. — Club  cheese  is  usually  packed  in 
^lass  or  wrapped  in  tinfoil.  M^hen  jars  are  used  they  should  be  of  a 
size  that  can  be  conveniently  used  on  the  dinner-table,  or  for  picnics, 
lunches,  etc. 

In  packing,  the  jars  are  first  smeared  on  the  inside  with  melted 
butter  to  prevent  air-spaces  between  the  cheese  and  the  glass  where 


MILK  261 

mold  might  grow.  The  Jars  are  filled  to  within  one-quarter  inch 
of  the  top,  covered  with  plain  tinfoil,  and  then  with  a  tightly  fitting 
cover.  When  desired  in  smaller  quantities,  the  cheese  can  be  more 
profitably  put  up  in  small  packages,  wrapped  first  in  oiled  paper 
and  then  in  tinfoil.  Olub  cheese  usually  retails  for  about  40  cents 
per  pound.  When  stored  in  a  cool  place  it  will  keep  for  some  time. — 
(N.  Y.  Cornell  B.  270.) 

PUBLICATIONS  QUOTED  FROM  AND  CONSULTED. 

The  Babcock  Test. — Univ.  Wis.  A.  E.  S.  Cir.  of  Information 
No.  27;  Pa.  B.  12;  Mo.  Cir.  41;  N.  H.  B.  114;  N.  Y.,  Geneva,  B. 
178;  Minn.  B.  19;  Pa.  B.  33;  Ag.  Dept.,  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  58. 

Bacteria  in  Milk.— Cornell  Univ.  A.  E.  S.  B.  803;  la.  B.  59; 
U.  S.  Ag.  Dept.  A.  E.  B.  25;  111.  B.  91;  la.  B.  59;  Del.  B.  43;  K  J. 
B.  152;  N.  Y.,  Cornell,  B.  203;  Conn.  B.  37,  42;  N.  Y.,  Cornell,  B. 
197;  Mass.  B.  110;  Manitoba  Ag.  Col.  B.  3;  Conn.  B.  26;  Mich.  B. 
33,  42,  23,  29;  Conn.  B.  51;  Dept.  Ag.  F.  B.  161;  Del.  B.  71;  Conn. 
B.  25;  N.  Y.,  Cornell,  B.  195;  Conn.  B.  59;  Wash.  B.  12;  Va.  B. 
194;  Md.  B.  102;  Va.  B.  Ill;  Dept.  Ag.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  92;  N.  Y., 
Cornell,  B.  178;  N.  Dak.  B.  21;  Nebr.  B.  87;  Dept.  Ag.  Bu.  An.  Ind. 
Cir.  171,  B.  126,  B.  117. 

Butter  and  Butter-Making.— €olo.  A.  B.  S.  B.  163;  Wis.  B. 
132;  Nev.  B.  42;  Md.  B.  135;  Kans.  B.  138;  N.  H.  B.  141;  Utah  B. 
73 ;  Hawaii  Press  B.  31 ;  N.  Y.,  Geneva,  B.  263 ;  111.  Cir.  131 ;  Ark. 
Cir.  6;  111.  B.  139;  N.  Y.,  Cornell,  B.  281;  Conn.  B.  65;  Ag.  Dept. 
Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  114,  Cir.  56,  161 ;  Wis.  B.  152,  154,  Cir.  14;  Mich. 
Tech.  B.  1,  2;  S.  C.  B.  125;  la.  B.  76,  97,  80,  71. 

Butter  Cultures  and  Starters.— Mich.  A.  E.  S.  B.  246;  Pa.  B. 
44;  Mich.  Cir.  7;  N.  Y.,  Cornell,  Cir.  10;  Wis.  Cir.  2;  Ore.  B.  83; 
Ark.  Cir.  6. 

Camembert  Cheese. — Conn.  A.  E.  S.  B.  46,  58;  Dept.  Ag.  Bu. 
An.  Ind.  B.  98,  115,  71,  82. 

Cheddar  Cheese.—^.  Y.,  Cornell  Univ.,  A.  E.  S.  B.  257,  Cir. 
3;  Dept.  Ag.  F.  B.  166,  257,  122;  Nev.  B.  18;  Ont.  Ag.  Col.  20th  An. 
Rept.;  Ont.  Dept.  Ag.  B.  183;  Dept.  Ag.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  15;  N.  Y., 
Geneva,  B.  219. 

Fancy  Cheeses.— 'N.  Y.,  Cornell  Univ.,  A.  E.  S.  B.  270;  Ag. 
Dept.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  146. 

Feeding  the  Dairy  Cow. — U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.  F.  B.  55 ;  Minn.  B. 
71,  79,  67;  R.  I.  B.  80;  N.  II.  B.  18,  20,  120;  N.  Y.  State  B. 
120;  Dept.  Ag.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  Cir.  114,  170;  Del.  An.  Rept.  1902; 
111.  Cir.  151;  Mont.  Cir.  10;  Va.  B.  170;  N.  Y.,  Cornell,  B.  222, 
169,  173;  N.  Y.,  Cornell,  B.  213,  152;  Wis.  B.  130,  142;  Miss.  B. 
141;  Pa.  B.  70;  Colo.  B.  125;  Ky.  B.  141;  N.  H.  B.  147,  149,  133; 
Wash.  B.  48;  Minn.  B.  36,  27;  Pa.  B.  50;  la.  B.  86;  Wis.  B.  103; 
Ind.  Cir.  20;  N.  H.  B.  4;  Ind.  Cir.  26;  Calif.  B.  132;  N.  Y.  State  B. 
197;  Mass.  B.  53,  45;  Ind.  Cir.  26;  Mass.  B.  94;  S.  C.  B.  131;  Mich. 
B.  193;  N.  J.  B.  189,  156,  204;  La.  B.  110;  Mass.  B.  118;  N.  Y., 
Cornell,  B.  183;  N.  M.  B.  17;  Nev.  B.  64,  26;  Ag.  Dept.  Bu.  An. 
Ind.  B.  74;  111.  B.  43;  Minn.  B.  26;  Kans.  B.  103;  Conn.  B.  43; 
Pa.  B.  80;  Tenn.  B.  83;  Va.  B.  169;  Mo.  B.  56,  58;  W.  Va.  B.  106; 


262  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Va.  B.  156;  Mass.  B.  39;  N.  Y.  State  B.  197;  Pa.  B.  52;  N.  Y. 
Cornell,  B.  243,  242;  Pa.  B.  28;  Nebr.  B.-76;  Mass.  B.  38;  Conn.  B 
63;  Va.  B.  148;  Tex.  B.  47;  Minn.  B.  80;  Fla.  B.  92;  S.  C.  B.  123 
111.  B.  101 ;  Mich.  B.  240 ;  N.  H.  B.  8, 14 ;  Mo.  B.  8 ;  Ore.  B.  85 ;  Tenn 
B.  80;  Cornell  Reading  Course  No.  8;  Kans.  Cir.  18;  Kans.  B.  125 
Colo.  B.  87-90;  N.  J.  B.  174;  Tenn.  Vol.  5,  No.  3;  111.  Cir.  152 
Minn.  B.  26;  Conn.  B.  34;  S.  C.  B.  66;  N.  H.  B.  2;  S.  C.  B.  117 
Kans.  B.  125;  Conn.  B.  29;  N.  H.  B.  20,  120,  16;  Tenn.  Vol.  17 
No.  4;  Utah  B.  68;  N.  H.  B.  17;  S.  C.  B.  67;  N.  H.  B.  127,  4,  16 
Mo.  B.  5;  111.  Cir.  103;  111.  B.  146;  Mich.  B.  242,  234;  Ohio  B.  155 
Ala.  B.  114,  123;  Minn.  B.  106;  R.  I.  B.  77;  Mo.  Cir.  44. 

Composition  of  Milk.—U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  F.  B.  363 ;  N.  H.  B. 
103;  Mo.  B.  37;  N.  H.  B.  126;  III.  B.  74;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bu.  An. 
Ind.  B.  Ill,  134;  N.  H.  B.  103, 132;  S.  Dak.  B.  73;  Wis.  B.  156,  195. 

Cow  Testing.— Wis.  A.  E.  S.  B.  144,  131,  172;  111.  Cir.  118, 
76,  113,  134;  Nebr.  B.  101;  Ohio  Cir.  67;  111.  Cir.  76;  Wis.  Cir.  9. 

Dairy  Management. — Wis.  A.  E.  S.  B.  167 ;  Minn.  B.  124 ;  111. 
Cir.  103,  93;  111.  Cir.  134. 

Milking  Machines.— Wis.  A.  E.  S.  B.  167;  Tenn.  B.  80;  Wis. 
B.  173;  Wis.  Cir.  111. 

Moisture  in  Cheese  and  Cheese  Curing. — N.  Y.,  Geneva,  A.  E. 
S.  B.  207,  203;  Mich.  Special  B.  21;  N.  Y.,  Geneva,  B.  236,  237, 
203,  183,  184,  214,  234,  233;  la.  B.  57;  Wis.  B.  101;  Ag.  Dept.  Bu. 
An.  Ind.  B.  122,  85;  Wis.  Cir.  20;  Ag.  Dept.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B. 
62   123. 

Milk  Testing.— Uniy.  Wis.  A.  E.  S.  Cir.  of  Inf.  27;  Mo.  Cir. 
41;  N.  H.  B.  114;  N.  Y.,  Geneva,  B.  178;  Minn.  B.  19;  Idaho  B. 
63 ;  Pa.  B.  33 ;  Ag.  Dept.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  58 ;  Pa.  B.  12. 

Production  of  Milk.—Va..  A.  E.  S.  B.  185;  Ind.  B.  89;  111. 
B.  147,  120,  92;  Ag.  Dept.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  Cir.  170. 

Separators.— Furdue  Univ.  A.  E.  S.  B.  116;  U.  S.  Ag.  Dept. 
F.  B.  201;  Conn.  B.  40;  Mo.  B.  94;  Kans.  B.  137;  Oreg.  B.^89;  Pa. 
B.  27;  Del.  B.  17;  Conn.  An.  Rept.  1893;  Ind.  B.  44;  Pa.  B.  38; 
Va.  B.  186;  N.  Y.,  Cornell,  B.  171,  151. 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE. 

SHORTHORNS. 

THIS  is  one  of  the  heaviest  of  the  beef  breeds.  Mature  bulls  in 
show  shape  often  attain  a  weight  of  2,700  pounds  and  cows 
2,000  pounds.  However,  these  extreme  weights,  without  the 
highest  quality  are  objectionable.  The  color  is  more  variable 
than  that  of  any  other  breed;  it  may  be  red  or  white,  or  a  mixture 
of  these  colors,  the  colors  popularly  used  to  describe  the  breed  thus 
being  red,  white,  and  roan.  Roan  is,  indeed,  the  one  distinctive 
Shorthorn  color  never  produced  except  by  the  presence  of  the  blood 
of  this  breed.  A  typical  Shorthorn  head  will  afford  a  man  weeks  of 
study  in  'bovine  character.  The  indications  of  a  good  feeder  are  also 
present.  In  passing,  note  the  short  horn,  curving  gracefully  forward 
and  occasionally  drooping,  waxy  and  white  in  color  with  black  tips. 
The  neck  shows  strength  and  sexual  power,  and  is  joined  to  a  rather 
upright  shoulder  by  a  smooth  and  full  shoulder  vein.  Passing  to  the 
body,  note  the  heavy  flesh  and  the  spread  of  back  and  loin.  In  the 
hind  quarters  especially  Shorthorn  characteristics  are  present.  In- 
deed, the  breed  has  the  reputation  of  carrying  the  best  hind  quarter 
of  any.  Legs  are  of  moderate  length,  with  a  bone  of  medium  fine- 
ness and  plenty  of  strength. 

Three  groups  of  Shorthorn  cattle  have  been  evolved  during  the 
last  century.  During  the  first  fifty  years,  the  Booth  and  Bates  fam- 
ilies were  developed  and  the  opposition  between  them  was  as  great 
as  between  different  breeds.  The  Booth  cattle  were  famous  for  their 
fleshing  qualities.  Bates  cattle  were  famous  for  both  milk  and  beef 
production.  They  grazed  well  and  possessed  high  quality  and  much 
style.  Later  the  development  of  the  Scotch  sorts,  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Cruickshanks,  brought  forth  animals  of  a  blocky,  short-legged 
type,  with  much  scale  and  substance,  excellent  fattening  powers, 
good  constitution,  quality,  and  early  maturity.  The  tendency  dur- 
ing the  past  thirty  years  has  'been  to  combine  the  blood  of  the  old 
strains. 

As  a  breed,  its  popularity  and  wide  dissemination  have  given 
rise  to  variation  in  types  that  has  resulted  in  many  a  show-ring  dis- 
pute; but  we  have,  to  offset  this,  the  wonderfvil  adaptability  of  the 
breed,  its  seeming  universal  usefulness,  and  its  value  in  crossing  with 
almost  every  other.  Shorthorn  blood  was  the  first  to  be  used  on  the 
native  cattle  of  the  Plains,  and  exercises  a  very  great  influence  on  the 
range  cattle  of  the  present  time. 

An  estimate  of  150,000  as  the  number  of  living  registered 
Shorthorns  in  the  United  States  is  approximately  correct.  Of  these, 
it  is  stated  tliat  5%  are  on  the  range  and  95%  in  the  hands  of  the 

263 


264  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

small  farmer,  the  strong  feature  of  the  breed  being  its  adaptability  to 
the  requirements  of  diversified  farming. 

HEREFORDS. 

In  weight,  Herefords  are  about  equal  with  the  Shorthorns.  The 
extreme  weights  to  which  Shorthorn  bulls  frequently  attain  are  rare, 
but,  generally  speaking,  there  is  practically  no  difference  between 
the  two  breeds. 

Hereford  color  is  easily  recognized.  That  most  favored  is  a  rich 
medium  red  with  white  markings.  Note  the  extent  of  white;  head 
and  face,  top  of  neck,  dewlap,  brisket,  belly,  front  feet,  hind  legs 
below  hocks,  and  brush  of  tail  are  usually  white.  This  arrangement 
is  not  absolute.  A  streak  may  be  present  on  the  middle  of  the  back, 
and  the  white  may  extend  over  a  very  much  larger  area,  even  to  the 
extent  of  making  a  spotted  effect.  Ears  are  usually  red  or  spotted, 
rarely  solid  color ;  red  spots  often  are  present  on  the  head,  especially 
around  the  eyes.  The  red  may  vary  from  a  light  yellow  red  to  dark, 
almost  black  in  some  animals.  Time  was  when  the  face  was  gray,  or 
mottled,  in  some  animals  and  spotted  in  others.  Even  an  occasional 
white  animal  was  met  with.  The  advent  of  a  spotted  calf  in  a  herd 
is  therefore  no  indication  of  impurity. 

In  the  Hereford  the  width  and  lowness  of  the  form  is  extreme. 
Close  to  the  ground,  broad,  blocky,  deep,  nicely  rounded,  and  stylish, 
the  Hereford  is  typical.  The  head  is  a  splendid  feeder's  pattern — 
broad,  short,  and  full  of  character,  with  a  capacious  mouth  and  large 
nostrils,  showing  good  digestion  and  strong  constitution.  The  muzzle 
is  light  in  color,  without  spots.  The  horn  is  white,  somewhat  coarser 
and  considerably  longer  than  that  of  the  Shorthorn,  has  longer 
cui'ves,  sometimes  being  nearly  straight,  and  usually  has  a  drooping 
tendency,  especially  in  the  best-bred  cattle.  In  cows  and  steers  it  is 
often  elevated,  but  this  is  rare  in  bulls. 

The  head  is  set  closely  to  the  body — a  noteworthy  point  of  econ- 
omy. The  neck  is  cheap  meat;  therefore,  eliminate  the  neck  if  you 
can.  The  development  of  the  fore  quarters,  "or  fore  hand,"  the  width 
of  chest  and  heart  girth  have  been  objects  of  special  care  by  Hereford 
breeders.  Accompanying  these  will  be  the  strong  constitution  that 
has  given  the  Hereford  his  hold  on  the  range.  Back,  loin,  and  ribs 
earrv  a  tremendous  amount  of  flesh  of  fine  quality.  The  Hereford 
hind  quarter  has  been  somewhat  differently  developed  from  that  of 
the  Snorthom  and  has  been  remarkably  improved  during  the  last 
twenty-five  years.  The  square-cut,  packed-in-a-box  appearance  that 
the  Shorthorn  presents  is  missing  here.  The  hips  are  not  quite  so 
wide  nor  prominent  as  in  the  Shorthorn,  generally  a  little  smoother, 
the  rump  wide  and  well  filled,  and,  instead  of  a  straight  quarter  be- 
hind, we  see  a  slightly  bul^ng  one,  more  so  than  in  the  Shorthorn, 
but  less  than  in  the  Angus, 

As  a  breed,  their  long  specialization  for  beef  production  has 
operated  to  give  them  a  less  general  distribution  than  the  Short- 
horns; but  the  strength  of  the  breed  lies  in  this  very  fact.  Its  value 
for  grazing  purposes  and  for  prime  beef  production  commands  atten- 
tion. 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  265 

Though  among  the  first  breeds  to  be  introduced,  Herefords  were 
little  known  in  the  United  States  until  the  opening  of  the  range 
country.  The  impetus  which  this  gave  the  cattle  trade  brought  them 
into  prominence,  and,  beginning  about  the  year  1880,  a  rapid 
growth  has  put  the  white  faces  second  in  point  of  numbers  in  this 
country  and  almost  supreme  on  the  range. 

ABERDEEN-ANGUS 

Examining  an  Angus  bull  for  the  first  time,  we  shall  notice 
first  his  black  color.  He  is  all  black,  the  only  white  allowed  being 
a  little  on  the  underline  behind  thetiavel.  Some  white  on  the  udder 
is  not  objectionable,  as  it  is  thought  to  be  usually  present  with  the 
best  milkers,  but  white  is  not  wanted  on  the  cod.  Occasionally  red 
calves  are  dropped,  showing  a  tendency  to  revert  to  the  animals  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  when  mixed  colors  were  comparatively  com- 
mon. Having  observed  the  color,  we  note  an  entire  absence  of  horns. 
Not  even  scurs  are  allowed. 

Going  more  into  detail,  note  next  the  fonn.  This  presents  a 
considerable  variation  from  the  ones  previously  discussed,  and  is 
very  typical  of  the  breed.  While  the  requirements  of  a  first-class 
beef  animal  demand  a  rounded  form,  here  we  find  this  carried  to  an 
extreme,  and  the  barrel  shape  is  a  characteristic  that  the  Angus 
claims  peculiar  to  itself.  Viewed  from  anj'-  direction,  this  marked 
rotundity  is  prominent ;  and  one  notices,  too,  how  low-set  the  animal 
is,  his  great  style,  quality,  compactness,  and  symmetry.  In  the 
feeder  we  find  all  the  indications  of  a  good  beef-making  machine  and 
in  the  finished  animal  every  requirement  of  a  market  topper.  We 
see  short  legs,  and  neat,  fine  bone,  and  most  particularly  the  wonder- 
ful smoothness  which  even  the  most  extreme  forcing  is  hardly  able 
to  mar. 

The  head  is  very  characteristic.  Short,  wide,  clean  cut,  with  a 
muzzle  whose  capacious  mouth  and  large  nostrils  denote  excellent 
feeding  qualities  and  strong  powers  of  constitution ;  surmounted  with 
a  tufted  poll  that  is  sharp  and  higher  in  the  female  than  in  the  male. 

Note  the  tremendous  width  of  chest,  with  legs  set  weU  outside 
the  body,  the  spring  of  rib,  the  deep  heavy  flesh.  Observe  the  com- 
pactness, how  closely  the  ribs  are  joined  to  the  hind  quarters.  In 
the  hind  quarters  we  fail  to  find  the  hook  bones.  They  are  there, 
but  so  well  concealed  by  smooth  flesh  that  frequently  the  most  care- 
ful handling  fails  to  locate  them.  Here  we  find  still  other  Angus 
characteristics.  The  tail  is  set  a  little  farther  forward  than  in  the 
Shorthorn.  The  buttocks  are  more  rounded,  but  the  quarter  carries 
a  large  amount  of  flesh  well  down  to  the  hocks. 

Individuals  of  this  breed  do  not  attain  the  great  weights  of  the 
Shorthorns,  mature  bulls  rarely  weighing  over  2,200  pounds,  and 
cows  averaging  perhaps  1,600  pounds  in  show  condition.  But  early 
maturity  enables  them  to  attain  marketable  weights  in  an  extremely 
short  time.  Angus  bulls  are  strongly  prepotent,  getting  calves  of 
great  uniformity,  from  75  to  90  per  cent  of  which  from  horned 
cows  are  polled. 


266  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

The  milking  qualities  of  Angus  cows  have  been  considerably 
neglected,  and  all  the  powers  of  the  breed  have  been  directed  to  the 
production  of  prime  beef. 

The  first  importation  of  Angus  cattle  into  the  United  States  was 
that  of  three  bulls  brought  over  in  1873  for  use  on  the  native  cows 
of  Kansas  and  Indian  Territory.  The  offspring  of  these  bulls  at- 
tracted much  attention,  and  subsequent  importations  soon  made 
the  breed  well  known.  Their  footing  on  the  range  has  always  been 
secure,  but  the  popularity  of  the  breed  for  the  production  of  baby 
beef  keeps  most  of  them  east  of  the  Missouri. 

GALLOWAYS. 

Many  judges  have  found  Galloway  and  Angus  so  much  alike 
that  the  one  was  mistaken  for  the  other.  This  has  been  carried  lo 
such  a  point  that  claims  were  made  at  one  time  that  there  was  no 
difference  between  them.  In  appearance  their  common  color  makes 
identification  difficult,  but  as  to  a  common  origin,  if  such  was  the 
case,  it  was  so  far  back  in  bovine  mythology  that  its  effect  was  long 
since  lost  owing  to  differences  in  climate,  environment,  management, 
and  standards  of  breeding. 

We  find  the  Galloway  ranking  with  the  Angus  in  size.  In  form 
the  beef  rectangle  presents  itself — ^broad,  deep,  and  symmetrical. 
Possessed  of  ample  bone,  very  hardy  and  an  ideal  hustler,  the  Gallo- 
way has  endeared  himself  to  cattle  raisers  in  rigorous  climates  and 
high  altitudes.  His  coat  is  especially  characteristic,  with  a  thick 
hide  and  a  mossy  coat  of  long,  wavy  hair,  in  fact,  a  sort  of  double 
coat,  a  close  mat  of  short  hair  being  found  under  the  long  one. 
Black,  tinged  with  brown,  is  the  prevailing  color,  but  a  tendency  to 
reversion  to  the  old  stock  of  mixed  colors  may  be  present. 

Like  the  Angus,  Galloway  bulls  are  good  dehorners,  and  strong- 
ly prepotent,  from  75  per  cent  to  90  per  cent  of  their  calves  from 
horned  cows  being  without  horns.  On  the  range  and  in  the  feed  lot 
Galloways  are  of  great  value,  and  their  hides  are  made  into  robes  of 
great  beauty.  Among  the  more  outstanding  merits  of  this  breed  are 
their  great  hardiness,  prepotency,  excellence  for  the  blocSi,  and  fine 
hides.— (Dep.  Ag.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  34.) 

POLLED  HEREFORDS. 

In  1898  Gen.  W.  W.  Guthrie,  of  Atchison,  Kans.,  showed  a 
group  of  cattle  at  the  Trans-Mississippi  Exposition  at  Omaha  that 
attracted  much  attention.  These  cattle  had  Hereford  characteristics, 
miinus  the  horn,  and  General  Guthrie  called  them  'Tolled  Kansans." 
They  had  been  produced  by  crossing  Hereford  bulls  on  "muley" 
cows,  inbreeding  being  avoided  by  resort  again  to  Hereford  stock. 
The  bull  shown  was  said  to  get  a  good  percentage  of  hornless  calves. 
Since  then  the  interest  has  grown,  the  name  Polled  Hereford  has 
been  adopted,  and  recently  the  American  Polled  Hereford  Cattle 
Club  was  organized,  with  headquarters  in  Des  Moines,  Iowa ;  Warren 
Gammon,  secretary. 

The  polled  variation  is  not  so  common  among  Herefords  as 
among  Shorthorns,  and  this  imposes  a  considerable  disadvantage  on 
one  who  attempts  to  fix  it ;  but  there  are  occasional  registered  Her©- 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  269 

fords  that  have  never  developed  horns.  An  effort  is  now  being  made 
to  collect  these  animals  into  one  herd  and  thereby  form  the  nucleus 
for  more  extended  operations.  Such  work  is  commendable  and  will 
be  watched  with  interest. —  (Dep.  Agr.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  34.) 

BREEDING. 

Producers  of  beef  cattle  divide  quite  naturally  into  two  classes. 
First  there  is  that  class  comprising  the  small  minority  engaged  large- 
ly in  the  production  of  pedigreed  animals  to  be  offered  for  sale  for 
purposes  of  improvement.  There  are  a  few  undoubtedly  who  own 
pure  bred  animals,  but  have  not  been  keeping  the  registration  up. 
On  the  other  hand  this  list  must  include  some  who  own  but  a  single 
recorded  animal,  namely,  a  bull.  The  fact  that  these  men  own  re- 
corded stock  is  evidence  enough  that  they  are  interested  in  live  stock 
improvement,  and  are  familiar  with  and  are  practicing  good  methods 
of  live  stock  breeding. 

The  second  class  comprising  by  far  the  great  majority  of  stock 
owners  is  the  one  in  whose  hands  the  inferior  stock  are  to  be  found. 
Because  this  last  class  comprises  such  an  overwhelming  majority  of 
stock  owners,  and  because  it  produces  nearly  all  the  animals  and 
animal  products  marketed,  its  influence  in  determining  the  character 
and  reputation  of  meat  and  milk  products  is  very  far  reaching.  It  is 
in  the  hands  of  some  of  this  class  that  the  scrub  and  animal  of  badly 
mixed  breeding  are  to  be  found.  After  the  few  breeders  of  pure  bred 
animals  have  expended  large  sums  of  money  for  good  foundation 
stocks,  and  offered  good  young  pure  bred  males  at  moderate  prices,  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  they  are  extremely  slow  of  sale.  The  ordinary 
producer  of  meats  and  milk  (not  breeder),  seems  determined  not  to 
pay  more  than  about  meat  prices  for  males  to  infuse  improved  blood 
in  his  herd,  and  the  breeder  cannot  make  a  living  producing  them 
at  such  prices.  Failing  to  secure  improved  males  at  these  low  prices, 
many  producers  fall  back  on  the  grade  or  even  the  scrub,  and  fre- 
quently combine  with  this  in-breeding,  especially  where  the  males 
are  chosen  within  the  herd.  The  greatest,  and  most  pressing  needs  of 
today,  in  live  stock  improvement,  are  more  breeders,  more  good  males, 
and  more  men  willing  to  pay  remunerative  prices  for  them,  and 
cease  admixing  blood,  and  using  grade  and  scrub  sires. 

Inferiority  of  the  Common  Stocks. — The  chief  fault  of  the  com- 
mon cattle  found  today,  is  their  lack  of  (quality  and  uniformity ;  this 
is  not  due  so  much  to  the  lack  of  infusion  of  good  blood,  as  to  the 
indiscriminate  admixture  of  the  blood  of  breeds  of  both  beef  and 
dairy  types.  It  is  not  necessary  to  attempt  to  present  and  establish 
proof  of  this  assertion,  as  every  live  stock  producer  can  secure  abun- 
dant evidence  for  himself  in  a  short  time  by  simply  exercising  the 
faculty  of  observation.  In  traveling  about  the  country  by  wagon 
road  or  rail,  note  the  number  of  animals  in  each  herd  seen,  also  the 
variation  in  type,  form,  and  more  particularly,  color.  Except  for  the 
herds  of  the  few  growers  of  pure  bred,  or  high  grade  cattle,  the  com- 
mon bunches  will  be  found  to  include  a  great  variety  of  color  and 
types.  In  some  herds  red,  white,  black,  brindle,  and  all  conceivable 
combinations  of  these  colors  are  to  be  found ;  at  the  same  time  some 


270  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

individuals  will  conform  in  a  measure  to  strictly  beef  form,  others 
quite  markedly  to  dairy  form,  with  all  OTadations  between  these  two. 
The  indications  of  blood,  as  seen  in  color,  will  undoubtedly  attract 
the  attention  of  the  casual  observer  more  readily  than  other  features. 
In  other  words,  the  presence  and  admixture  of  so  many  colors  in 
common  herds  indicates  that  Shorthorn,  Holstein,  Jersey  and  less 
frequently  Hereford  and  Ayrshire  blood  has  been  freely  admixed. 
The  seriousness  of  this  lack  of  uniformity  in  breeding,  quality,  color, 
form,  etc.,  is  not  fully  appreciated.  For  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years, 
with  one  or  two  exceptions,  the  Chicago  market  has  been  topped  by 
a  certain  breed  of  cattle  sold  in  car  load  lots.  The  reasons  for  this 
are  found  in  the  word  uniformity.  They  have  been  uniform  in  size, 
color,  fonn,  finish,  and  quality;  in  fact,  as  much  alike  as  so  many 
peas ;  you  see  one  and  you  see  them  all.  This  prime  requisite  of  uni- 
formity can  never  be  secured  through  mixed  breeding.  The  man 
who  offers  for  sale  nineteen  good  steers  and  one  inferior  one  bearing 
undesirable  color,  is  at  a  great  disadvantage ;  the  scrub  steer  is  ever 
under  the  nose  of  the  prospective  purchaser,  and  offers  him  a  strong 
pretext  for  lowering  his  bid. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  best  cattle  fed  today,  by  good  feeders, 
are  secured  from  western  stockyards ;  the  feeders  of  these  cattle  claim 
that  it  is  difficult  to  secure  feeding  cattle  of  good  quality  and  uni- 
formity at  home ;  one  has  to  purchase  the  culls  along  with  the  good 
ones  in  order  to  get  any.  Close  inspection  of  consignments  of  cattle 
is  not  necessary  to  convince  one  of  their  lack  of  breeding ;  the  drover 
who  picks  up  a  few  market  cattle  here  and  there,  until  a  load  or  two 
is  made  up  for  shipment,  is  the  man  who  gathers  together  the  motley 
combination  representing  the  large  aggregate ;  the  man  who  breeds, 
buys  and  feeds  a  good  car  or  more  of  steers  usually  markets  them 
himself. 

Some  Causes  of  Lack  of  Breeding  in  Cattle. — The  indiscrimin- 
ate admixture  of  the  blood  of  the  various  breeds  has  been  one  of  the 
most  direct  causes  of  the  production  of  inferior  stocks.  This  has  not 
been  restricted  to  the  breeds  within  the  beef  and  dairy  classes,  but 
includes  admixture  of  the  blood  of  the  two  classes.  With  the  rise 
in  prices  of  dairy  products  the  common  cows  have  been  bred  to 
dairy  bulls;  with  depreciated  values  for  dairy  products,  these  same 
cows  and  their  female  progeny  have  been  bred  back  to  beef  sires,  and 
so  on.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  plenty  of  instances  where  herds 
possessed  of  cows  of  a  small  type,  producing  a  small  flow  of  rich  milk, 
have  been  bred  to  a  bull  of  a  larger  breed  noted  for  heavy  milk  flow, 
and  vice  versa.  There  are  too  many  animals  in  our  yards  today 
saved  from  bulls  bred  to  females  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  freshen 
them  again. 

The  lack  of  good  breeding  among  our  cattle  today  is  not  due  to 
lack  of  introduction  of  good  blood  at  an  early  date. 

Live  Stock  Improvement  Not  Difficult. — Questions  of  breeding 
are  generally  regarded  as  being  obscure,  intricate  and  extremely 
difficult,  except  to  those  skilled  in  the  art  through  long  years  of  train- 
ing.   It  is  true  that  we  are  obliged  to  look  back  upon  the  achieve- 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  271 

ments  of  the  master  breeders  of  history  with  feelings  akin  to  rever- 
ence, for  their  tasks  of  type  founding,  breed  forming  and  breed  im- 
provement were  difficult,  requiring  a  whole  lifetime  in  some  in- 
stances to  gain  the  mastery,  and  in  others  two  whole  generations  to 
attain  the  highest  success.  But  the  initial  step  in  live  stock  breeding 
for  improvement  confronting  us  today,  is  an  exceedingly  simple  one ; 
we  do  not  need  to  undertake  the  estaiblishment  of  new  types  or 
breeds,  as  there  are  plenty  now  in  existence  to  choose  from,  which, 
judiciously  chosen  will  respond  favorably  to  the  conditions  to  which 
they  are  adapted.  The  first  step  in  the  line  of  live  stock  improve- 
ment must  come  from  the  cessation  of  the  practice  of  admixing  the 
blood  of  the  various  breeds,  and  of  using  grade  and  scrub  sires. 

Plan  for  Live  Stock  Improvement. — Before  introducing  the 
plan  of  live  stock  improvement,  known  as  up-grading,  it  should  be 
the  ambition  of  every  man  owning  live  stock  to  eventually  get  into 
some  line  of  pure-bred  live  stock  breeding.  The  plan  that  would 
naturally  be  suggested  for  the  improvement  of  the  common  stocks 
of  the  country,  is  that  known  as  up-grading,  which  consists  in  in- 
grafting the  characteristics  of  a  superior  breed  upon  animals  of  com- 
mon, or  mixed  breeding  for  the  purpose  of  improving  them.  This 
improvement  is  due  to  the  superior  quality  of  the  males  used,  and 
chiefly  their  prepotency,  or  power  of  transmitting  accurately  these 
qualities  to  their  offspring.  This  plan  differs  from  cross  breeding, 
in  that  pure  blood  is  used  on  the  sire's  side,  and  females  of  mixed 
blood,  or  no  blood,  on  the  dam's  side.  Thus  we  have  the  prepotency 
cx)ncentrated  in  the  bull,  and  the  very  opposite  in  the  females,  as  the 
more  mixed  the  breeding,  the  less  stable  are  the  inherent  character- 
istics of  the  individual,  and  therefore  the  less  resistant  to  improve- 
ment. It  would  be  absolutely  impractical  to  advise  all  owners  of 
common  cattle  to  send  their  stocks  to  the  block  and  purchase  pure 
bred  foundation  stocks ;  only  a  few  could  do  this  for  the  following 
reasons:  First,  if  the  great  majority  now  possessed  of  common 
stocks  were  to  simultaneously  seek  to  purchase  pure  bred  foundation 
stocks,  they  could  not  get  them,  they  are  not  in  existence,  for  only 
about  one  per  cent  of  the  cattle  in  the  United  States  are  possessed  of 
pedigrees.  Second,  the  finances  of  a  great  many  holders  of  common 
stock  are  not  such  as  to  allow  them  to  make  extensive  purchases  of 
pedigreed  animals,  and  replacement  is  out  of  the  question,  as  it 
would  require  the  returns  from  the  sale  of  three  or  four  common 
animals  to  purchase  one  pedigreed  one.  Third,  it  is  highly  desir- 
able for  breeders  to  grow  into  any  line  of  pure  breeding  rather  than 
to  buy  into  it  suddenly,  and  take  up  a  work  in  which  experience 
is  necessary. 

In  general,  then,  it  is  necessary  for  the  majority  of  holders  of 
common  stock  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  animals  on  hand,  with  a 
view  to  improving  them.  Let  us  suppose  the  case  of  a  herd  of  com- 
mon, or  mixed  cattle  of  say  eighteen  head,  and  apply  a  plan  of  im- 
provement. The  first  thing  for  the  owner  of  this  herd  to  do,  is  to 
decide  upon  some  one  line  of  production,  either  beef  or  dairy,  and 
then  stand  by  the  resolution.    Without  this  he  cannot  improve  his 


272  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

herd,  for  the  animals  of  mixed  breeding  are  largely  the  result  of 
frequent  change  of  purpose.  Suppose  in  this  case,  that  the  owner 
has  decided  to  go  into  the  dairy  business;  that  being  the  case,  the 
next  thing  to  do  will  be  to  look  over  the  herd  of  eighteen,  and  decide 
which  ones  are  so  possessed  of  dairy  type  and  characteristics,  as  to 
warrant  their  being  used  in  the  business.  They  can  be  divided  into 
three  classes,  such  as  best,  medium  and  inferior,  from  a  dairy  stand- 
point. Then,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  it  will  be  found  to  be  a  decided 
advantage  to  send  the  six  inferior  ones  to  the  block  and  use  the  re- 
maining twelve  for  the  foundation  herd.  Having  selected  the  fe- 
males to  be  retained,  the  next  and  one  of  the  most  important  steps 
is  to  decide  upon  the  breed  to  be  used  in  improvement.  In  this, 
adaptability  of  the  breed  to  the  conditions,  and  the  question  of  per- 
sonal preference,  are  the  two  important  factors;  the  decision  of  this 
question  is  also  an  important  factor,  for  a  change  of  mind  after  the 
work  has  begun,  and  the  use  of  other  blood,  is  more  apt  to  result  in 
retrogression  for  a  time,  than  improvement.  Having  decided  upon 
the  breed  to  be  used  for  improvement,  suppose  it  is  the  Holstein, 
then  purchase  the  best  Holstein  bull  that  the  pocketbook  will  alloAv. 
Mate  this  bull  with  the  twelve  selected  cows,  and  use  him  for  two 
seasons,  after  which  his  progeny  w^ill  be  old  enough  to  breed.  At  this 
point  secure  another  Holstein  bull,  a  better  one  than  the  first  if  possi- 
ble; follow  him  with  others  of  the  same  breed,  indefinitely.  Let  it 
be  Holstein  bull  after  Holstein  bull,  nothing  but  Holstein  bulls.  We 
have  cited  the  Holstein  merely  for  the  purpose  of  this  illustration. 
The  same  plan  must  be  used,  no  matter  what  the  breed  is. 

We  may  expect,  after  a  few  top-crosses  in  upgrading,  that  the 
progeny  will  resemble  the  type  of  sires  used  in  improvement,  quite 
closely,  both  as  to  form  and  general  characteristics ;  in  fact,  so  much 
so  that  the  high  grade  may  eventually  equal  the  pure  blood  improver 
from  a  standpoint  of  utility  in  meat  or  milk  making,  as  the  case 
may  be.  There  is  some  question  as  to  the  number  of  crosses  that 
must  be  produced  before  this  high  standard  of  excellence  will  be  se- 
cured in  the  grade.  This  will  be  somew^hat  dependent  on  the  dura- 
tion of  the  purity  of  the  improving  blood,  the  prepotency  of  the  indi- 
vidual sires,  and  the  plasticity  of  the  common  females.  Instances 
are  on  record  where  ideal  high  grades  have  resulted  from  the  third 
cross ;  in  general,  one  would  be  safe  in  counting  on  at  least  the  fifth. 
We  must  not,  however,  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  while  a  high  grade 
may  eventually  equal  the  improving  breed  from  a  standpoint  of 
meat  or  milk  making,  that  it  can  never  be  possessed  of  a  pedigree, 
nor  equal  the  full  bloods  from  a  standpoint  of  prepotency  in  breed- 
ing, this  is  the  chief  argument  used  against  grade  sires. 

The  Grade  Sire. — Attention  has  been  directed  to  the  fact  that 
high  grade  animals  may  be  eventually  produced  capable  of  equalling 
those  of  the  pure  breed  used  in  their  improvement,  insofar  as  meat 
or  milk  production  are  concerned,  but  at  the  same  time  they  can 
never  equal  them  in  prepotency  nor  become  possessed  of  pedigrees, 
except  in  rare  instances.  So  far  as  external  form  and  indications  of 
quality  are  concerned,  a  high  grade  sire  may  look  equally  as  good 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  273 

as  a  pure  bred  one,  and  still  this  is  no  justification  for  his  use. 
Though  an  animal  may  be  an  exceptionally  good  individual,  if  he 
is  lacking  in  prepotency,  as  the  grade  derived  from  mixed  blood  on 
the  dam's  side  is  sure  to  be,  his  offspring  cannot  equal  those  of  the 
pure  male.  And  so  in  actual  practice,  except  in  rare  instances,  grade 
sires  fail  to  produce  offspring  possessed  of  the  marked  uniformity 
and  quality  of  those  from  the  pure  bred  male.  Attention  just  here  is 
called  to  the  fact  that  the  quality  of  prepotency  more  markedly 
manifest  in  the  breeds  of  most  ancient  origin  has  been  developed 
through  centuries ;  one  must  not  expect  to  develop  it  in  high  grades 
in  one  decade.  It  would  be  useless  to  say  that  no  grade  sires  should 
be  used  at  all,  for  of  the  bulls  that  are  needed,  as  indicated  by  the 
last  state  census,  only  a  portion  of  the  number  could  possibly  be 
made  up  of  pure  breds,  as  they  are  not  to  be  had.  Therefore,  the 
only  rational  thing  to  advocate  is  the  utilization  of  all  pure  bred 
bulls  to  their  fullest  extent,  the  use  of  the  fewest  possible  high  grade 
sires  for  the  present,  the  use  of  the  best  of  this  class  and  the  replace- 
ment of  these  by  pedigreed  animals  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Occa- 
sionally, in  purchasing,  a  man  hesitates  between  two  sires,  the  one 
a  grade,  the  other  a  pure  bred;  the  former  perhaps  about  as  good 
as  the  latter  in  individuality,  judging  from  appearances.  On  this 
basis,  the  purchaser  secures  the  grade  because  it  is  at  least  one-half 
cheaper,  but  in  considering  the  final  results  we  should  not  lose  sight 
of  the  fact  that  the  superiority  of  a  crop  of  ten  calves  from  a  pure 
bred  sire  is  almost  sure  to  be  so  much  greater  than  the  same  number 
from  a  high  grade,  that  the  difference  in  the  purchase  price  of  the 
two  sires  may  be  more  than  made  up  in  a  single  season. 

Discarding  the  So-Called  Aged  Bull. — In  general,  it  can  scarce- 
ly be  said  of  a  bull,  that  he  has  reached  full  maturity  until  four 
years  of  age,  though  this  perfect  stage  of  development  is  commonly 
regarded  as  being  attained  at  a  somewhat  earlier  age  among  some 
breeds.  It  has  been  a  common  practice  for  years,  among  farmers, 
to  send  the  three  or  four  years  old  bulls  to  the  block,  largely  because 
there  is  no  sale  for  them  as  breeders.  The  general  rule  among  pros- 
pective purchasers  is  to  search  for  nothing  but  young  bulls,  yearlings 
or  less,  with  the  idea  that  they  will  grow  into  money  for  them,  if  they 
can  dispose  of  them  before  maturity.  It  is  a  false  economy  to  pur- 
chase on  this  basis  solely  and  take  more  or  less  chance  on  a  young, 
untried  animal  when  the  actual  results  from  a  mature  animal  may 
be  ascertained.  There  are  two  principal  reasons  why  sires  are  usually 
sent  to  the  block  at  three  or  four  years  of  age.  First,  it  is  claimed 
that  their  dispositions  do  not  mellow  with  age,  and  second,  they 
become  too  large,  heavy  and  clumsy,  and  it  may  tend  to  impotency. 
In  answer  to  the  first  of  these  objections,  we  believe  that  except  for 
the  inheritance  of  mean,  treacherous  dispositions,  bulls  in  general  re- 
turn on  the  points  of  their  horns  only  that  which  is  dealt  out  to 
them  on  the  points  of  the  fork,  or  in  other  words,  the  bull  responds 
to  the  character  of  the  treatment  and  management  given  him. 
^lature  bulls  should  not  have  a  tendency  towards  impotency  if  prop- 
erly fed,  managed  and  exercised,  but  because  of  the  fact  that  the  bull 


274  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

is  isolated,  he  is  frequently  neglected  to  a  greater  extent  than  any 
other  animal  on  the  farm.  Too  many  bulls  are  fed  irregularly  and 
improperly,  and  confined  constantly  for  long  periods  in  small  dark 
filthy  box  stalls;  these  conditions  are  not  conducive  to  good  breeding 
qualities. 

There  are  some  decided  advantages  in  purchasing  mature  bulls. 
One  of  the  greatest  of  these  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  buyer  can 
ascertain  something  relative  to  the  character  of  their  get ;  this  is  most 
important  to  the  breeder  of  dairy  stock.  Another  advantage  arises 
from  the  fact  that  there  is  always  more  or  less  uncertainty  regarding 
the  future  development  of  the  bull  calf,  while  this  factor  is  entirely 
eliminated  in  the  purchase  of  a  mature  sire.  It  is  also  not  unreason- 
able to  conclude  that  a  mature  sire  will  beget  more  vigorous  off- 
spring, especially  because  the  young  ones  are  frequently  used  to  ex- 
cess. Three  and  four  year  old  bulls  can  generally  be  secured  at 
very  reasonable  prices.  Some  of  the  best  show  cattle  were  sired  by 
bulls  far  past  the  mature  stage.  The  expert  breeder  appreciates  the 
value  of  mature  sires. 

Evil  Effects  of  Breeding  Immature  Females. — During  the  past 
decade  or  two,  there  has  been  a  growing  tendency  to  breed  heifers 
at  an  early  age;  this  is  particularly  true  among  the  dairy  breeds. 
The  men  who  advocate  and  practice  the  breeding  of  heifers  so  as  to 
produce  calves  under  or  at  about  twenty  months  of  age,  are  extremely 
numerous.  In  fact,  the  practice  has  been  carried  to  such  an  extreme 
that  in  many  localities  mature  oows  of  some  of  the  dairy  breeds  can- 
not be  found  bearing  the  same  size  that  these  types  did  twenty  years 
ago.  This  practice  is  supported  chiefly  on  the  following  grounds, 
viz. :  First,  that  the  earlier  a  heifer  is  made  to  produce,  the  sooner 
she  begins  to  make  some  financial  return  for  her  keep,  and  second, 
the  capabilities  of  the  dairy  cow  can  be  increased  if  stimulated  at  an 
early  age.  There  are  those  who  claim  not  to  object  to  lack  of  size 
in  dairy  cows,  and  also  that  the  smaller  cows  are  more  profitable,  but 
this  latter  claim  has  not  yet  been  proven.  The  relative  value  of  small 
versus  large  dairy  cows  as  economic  producers  has  not  been  deter- 
mined, though  much  discussed.  It  is  a  notable  fact,  however,  that 
the  world's  record  makers  and  the  majority  of  the  cows  entered  in 
the  various  advanced  registry  associations,  are,  in  general,  consider- 
ably above  the  average  as  to  size.  It  is  also  a  notable  fact  that  the 
twenty-five  Jersey  cows  entered  in  the  dairy  cow  demonstration  at 
St.  Louis  in  1904,  were  large  cows,  the  average  weight  for  the  twenty- 
five  at  the  beginning  of  the  test  was  911.2  pounds,  and  at  the  close 
983  pounds.  These  figures  place  them  considerably  above  the  aver- 
age of  the  cows  of  this  breed  in  general  use  in  many  dairy  sections 
today.  These  cows  were  used  in  a  test  where  comparative  economic 
production  was  one  of  the  main  features.  Some  expert  dairy 
breeders  are  inclining  more  and  more  to  the  belief  that  heifers 
should  be  allowed  greater  maturity  before  dropping  the  first  calves 
and  are  also  permitting  them  to  lay  on  more  flesh  than  has  been 
thought  to  be  safe;  these  men  are  demonstrating  the  accuracy  of 
their  theories  in  the  results  produced.    While  it  is  clearly  apparent 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  275 

that  immature  breeding  has  reduced  the  size  of  many  of  our  dairy 
cattle,  it  has  not  been  proven  that  diminished  constitutional  vigor 
has  accompanied  this  loss  of  size,  though  many  hold  to  that  view. 
It  is  rational  to  assume  that  in  unduly  immature  breeding  some  of 
the  physiological  laws  of  nature  must  be  violated,  and  this  cannot 
occur  without  being  followed  by  some  evil  results.  No  fixed  age  can 
be  given  for  the  breeding  of  heifers,  it  should  be  dependent  on  the 
rapidity  and  character  of  the  development  of  the  individual. 

Cross-Breeding. — A  cross-bred  is  the  progeny  of  two  distinct 
breeds.  Though  there  has  been  an  indiscriminate  mixing  up  of  the 
blood  of  various  breeds,  cross-breeding  in  its  strictest  sense  is  not 
prevalent,  owing  to  the  small  number  of  pure  bred  females  in  exist- 
ence. The  grades  of  the  various  breeds,  however,  are  crossed  fre- 
quently. The  practice  has  been  stimulated  by  sudden  and  somewhat 
prolonged  fluctuations  in  market  values;  a  depressed  dairy  market 
leads  to  more  or  less  crossing  of  beef  blood  upon  dairy  types  and 
vice  versa;  an  increased  price  for  the  longer  and  coarser  staples  of 
wool  always  causes  more  or  less  crossing  of  coarse  wools  upon 
fine  wools  or  the  reverse,  as  the  case  may  be.  No  breeder  can  make 
such  radical  changes  as  these,  frequently,  for  every  time  he  alters  his 
breeding  operations  so  radically  in  trying  to  meet  market  fluctua- 
tions, he  introduces  factors  leading  to  the  final  deterioration  of  his 
breeding  stocks.  It  is  much  safer  to  choose  some  definite  line  of  pro- 
duction, and  stand  by  that  through  the  temporary  ups  and  downs 
of  the  market;  the  men  who  have  done  this  have  made  a  success  of 
animal  breeding.  It  would  not  be  sensible  to  say  that  no  changes 
should  be  made  in  one's  breeding  operations;  if  a  man  is  sure  he  has 
made  a  mistake,  the  only  rational  thing  to  do  is  to  make  a  change, 
but  these  should  not  be  made  often,  as  they  are  usually  attended  by 
some  loss.  The  progeny  from  some  first  crosses  have  shown  highly  de- 
sirable results  and  while  cross-breeding  is  more  justifiable  in  the  pro- 
duction of  market  animals,  it  cannot  be  employed  continuously  in 
the  production  of  breeding  stocks.  From  the  breeders'  standpoint, 
each  succeeding  cross  becomes  less  and  less  satisfactory.  Cross-breed- 
ing is  more  justifiable  among  those  classes  of  animals  such  as  swine, 
which  reproduce  quickly  and  abundantly,  and  mature  early,  for  in 
such  cases  it  is  easily  possible  to  return  to  the  original  types  for 
breeding  animals.  While  it  must  be  admitted  that  cross-breeding 
has  rendered  valuable  service,  in  the  form  of  single  out  crosses  in 
the  formation  of  new  breeds  and  types,  still,  it  should  not  be  prac- 
ticed among  cattle  on  the  ordinary  farm,  for  three  reasons,  viz. :  (1) 
It  would  tend  to  destroy  the  identity  of  breeds;  (2)  The  results  are 
in  many  cases  uncertain,  and  (3)  It  might  render  pure  bred  females 
less  capable  of  breeding  true  to  type. 

In-and-in  Breeding. — Because  of  the  fact  that  the  several  terms 
used  in  connection  with  the  breeding  of  variously  related  animals 
are  not  always  properly  used,  or  understood,  it  may  be  well  to  define 
them.  (1)  In-and-in  breeding  implies  the  mating  of  animals  closely 
related,  for  a  number  of  successive  generations;  it  includes  close 
relationships  and  continuous  repetition.     (2)  In-breeding  implies 


276  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

the  mating  of  related  animals  in  a  single  instance,  or  at  intervals 
among  the  generations,  without  much  regard  for  the  closeness  of  the 
relationship.  (3)  Close  breeding  merely  implies  that  closeness  of  re- 
lationship existed  between  the  animals  mated.  (4)  Line  breeding 
implies  the  breeding  of  animals  within  the  members  of  one  family, 
or  one  or  more  related  families.  It  is  virtually  a  continuation  of 
in-and-in  breeding,  the  relationships  being  less  close. 

It  is  astonishing  the  extent  to  which  in-and-in  breeding  and  in- 
breeding are  allowed  among  the  common  stocks  of  the  country,  and 
this  too,  by  some  persons  who  realize  fully  the  seriousness  of  the 
practice.  It  arises,  of  course,  from  the  selection  of  sires  from  among 
the  offspring  of  the  herd ;  in  some  cases,  it  may  be  due  to  a  lack  of 
means  to  make  a  suitable  purchase,  but  in  general,  it  is  due  to  care- 
lessness or  indifference.  When  in-and-in  'breeding  is  carried  too 
far  the  following  evils  are  likely  to  result,  viz. :  loss  of  size,  delicacy 
of  constitution,  innpaired  reproductice  powers,  and  in  fact  general 
deterioration. 

The  practice  of  in-and-in  breeding,  and  in-breeding,  should  not 
be  denounced  entirely,  for  they  may  become  useful  factors  when  em- 
ployed by  those  skilled  in  the  art  of  breeding ;  they  must  almost  nec- 
essarily be  used  in  the  formation  of  new  breeds,  where  it  is  the  aim 
to  fix  new  characters  in  animals,  and  secure  uniformity  and  perma- 
nence in  the  transmission  of  the  same.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
improver  of  common  stocks  has  no  occasion  to  resort  to  close  breed- 
ing. He  is  not  going  to  become  a  former  of  new  breeds  or  types  but 
is  going  to  improve  his  common  stocks  through  up-grading,  in  which 
he  will  rely  solely  on  the  prepotency  of  the  sires  chosen  to  w^ork  the 
transformations  by  which  each  succeeding  generation  will  be  brought 
more  near  to  his  own  standard  of  excellence. 

Prepotency. — What  is  prepotency?  Strictly  speaking,  prepo- 
tency is  the  superior  power  which  one  parent  has  over  the  other  in 
determining  the  character  of  the  off-spring.  But  the  term  is  more 
commonly  used  to  indicate  that  power  which  an  animal  has  to  trans- 
mit its  own  qualities.  If  a  pure  male  were  to  beget  progeny  from  fe- 
males of  the  same  breed,  w^hich  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  male 
parent,  this  result  would  be  a  stronger  evidence  of  prepotency  in  the 
male,  than  a  similar  result  produced  by  mating  him  with  females  of 
mixed  breeding,  since  the  resistance  to  modification  in  the  progeny 
of  the  females  in  the  first  instance,  would  be  stronger  than  resistance 
to  the  same  in  females  in  the  second  instance.  This  quality  in  a  sire 
is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  stimulating  rapid  improvement 
in  any  process  of  upgrading.  It  is  more  important  in  the  sire  than 
the  dam,  as  the  effect  on  the  sire's  side  is  more  far  reaching.  Prob- 
ably one  of  the  most  difficult  things  in  animal  breeding  is  to  deter- 
mine whether  a  sire  is  possessed  of  prepotency  or  not.  It  is  conceded 
by  some,  that  prepotency  is  the  result  of  certain  lines  of  breeding, 
and  that  certain  visible  characteristics  must  accompany  it.  The  fol- 
lowing are  some  influences  tending  to  produce  prepotency,  viz. :  (1) 
duration  of  purity  of  breeding  without  admixture  of  alien  blood; 
(2)  uniformity  of  type  and  results  from  animals  in  pedigree;  (3) 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  277 

inherent  vigor  of  type,  race  or  individual;  (4)  line  breeding.  To 
illustrate  the  first  point;  it  is  well  known  that  it  matters  little  with 
what  breed  or  type  a  Holstein  bull  is  mated,  the  offspring  is  almost 
sure  to  resemble  me  sire  markedly  in  characteristics,  and  particularly 
in  color;  it  is  doubtful  if  any  breed  of  cattle  has  been  bred  pure 
for  a  longer  period  than  the  Holstein,  and  the  inherent  vigor  of  the 
breed  is  indisputable.  The  ability  of  the  Hereford,  also,  to  transmit 
uniformly  its  characteristic  color  markings,  especially  the  white  face, 
is  an  evidence  of  prepotency,  the  result  of  a  long  period  of  pure 
breeding.  In  selecting  a  prepotent  sire,  it  is  well  to  study  the  pedi- 
gree and  ascertain  as  far  as  possible  what  is  known  relative  to  tho 
l^erformanoe  of  the  ancestrj'^  as  breeders,  for  an  animal  the  progeny 
of  prepotent  ancestry,  is  certainly  likely  to  be  more  prepotent  than 
an  animal  whose  ancestors  have  not  been  prepotent. 

BREEDERS  SHOULD  CO-OPERATE. 

It  would  seem  highly  desirable  that  some  forms  of  co-operation, 
in  breeding  methods,  should  be  established  by  communities,  such  for 
instance  as  the  joint  ownership  and  use  of  males  by  several  parties 
ratiier  than  one.  In  theory  this  proposition  sounds  well,  but  in  ac- 
tual practice  it  has  not  worked  satisfactorily  in  the  majority  of  in- 
stances, as  illustrated  by  the  universally  undesirable  results  from  tho 
formation  of  stock  companies  in  the  ownership  of  stallions.  In  this 
instance,  however,  it  is  only  fair  to  venture  the  assertion  that  the 
initial  troubles  among  these  companies  is  generally  the  fault  of  the 
organizer  or  promoter,  the  seller  of  males,  who  unloads  something  on 
the  company  that  does  not  prove  satisfactory.  One  cannot  conceive 
of  any  logical  reasons  why  several  men  in  a  community  could  not 
form  a  co-partnership  in  the  ownership  and  use  of  good  sires.  If 
such  a  plan  could  be  followed,  the  good  influences  of  superior  sires 
would  become  more  far  reaching  and  fewer  males  in  all  would  be 
needed  than  in  the  ease  of  individual  ownershij).  At  present  pedi- 
greed males  are  usually  introduced  into  a  community  by  individ!uals. 
These  men  usually  possess  small  herds  and  the  one  sire  could  be  used 
upon  a  number  of  other  herds  providing  the  neighboring  owners 
could  but  see  the  advantage  to  be  gained  thereby.  But  at  present  the 
man  who  introduces  a  good  male  and  offers  his  services  at  a  reason- 
able price,  does  not  greatly  benefit  his  community,  as  the  prevailing 
practice  is  to  patronize  the  sire  offered  at  the  smallest  fee,  and  this 
is  always  the  grade  or  scrub.  The  scrub  is  likely  to  flourish  and  con- 
tinue to  be  used  until  such  time  as  national  or  state  legislation  places 
a  i)rohibitive  tax  on  him.  The  fonn  of  co-operation  discussed  would 
be  particularly  suited  to  thickly  settled  communities  where  the  farms 
and  holdings  of  cattle  are  small,  and  consequently  close  together. 
In  general,  it  is  the  men  with  the  smaller  holdings  of  cattle  who 
resort  most  to  mixed  breeding,  and  who  are  in  greatest  need  of  good 
sires. 

It  is  highly  desirable  for  the  various  breeders  in  a  community 
to  co-operate  in  other  ways  in  addition  to  that  just  referred  to.  Great 
advantages  would  accrue  from  unity  of  purpose  and  methods  in 
breeding.    One  of  tho  great  difliculties  existing  today  is  found  in  the 


278  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

fact  that  the  blood  of  altogether  too  many  breeds  of  a  given  species  is 
to  be  found  in  each  community;  this  facilitates  the  admixture  of 
the  blood  of  various  breeds.  There  is  really  no  occasion  for  the  use 
of  so  many  breeds;  in  fact  there  are  some  notable  disadvantages. 
There  is  no  disputing  the  fact  that  individual  likes  and  dislikes  vary 
greatly,  but  it  nevertheless  seems  to  be  the  case,  that  if  one  man  in- 
troduces a  certain  breed,  his  nearest  neighbor  will  at  once  introduce 
another,  apparently  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  have  something 
different,  whereas,  if  they  were  both  using  the  same  blood  it  would 
work  to  their  mutual  advantage. 

Probably  it  would  not  be  wise  to  advocate  a  single  breed  of 
cattle,  for  instance,  for  each  community,  but  it  would  unquestion- 
ably be  wise  to  limit  the  breeds  to  those  only  which  are  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  conditions  of  each  community  and  the  lines  of  produc- 
tion therein  pursued.  The  greatest  success  that  has  been  achieved 
in  the  history  of  animal  breeding  has  occurred  where  there  were  har- 
monious community  interests,  and  but  one  principal  line  of  breeding. 
Examples  are  numerous,  for  instance,  Jerseys  only  have  been  bred 
on  the  Isle  of  Jersey,  Holsteins  in  Holland,  and  all  the  leading 
breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep  in  England  and  Scotland  were  each  devel- 
oped largely  within  one  or  more  counties  or  shires,  to  the  almost  total 
exclusion  of  other  breeds  of  the  same  species.  When  a  given  com- 
munity is  specializing  in  the  production  of  some  one  or  two  breeds  of 
cattle,  it  soon  becomes  noted  for  these  breeds,  and  prospective  pur- 
chasers are  attracted  thereby  to  the  mutual  interest  of  all  those  co- 
operating in  the  work. 

There  is  a  great  lack  of  proper  organization  among  stockmen 
today.  It  is  true  that  a  state  live  stock  breeders'  organization  exists, 
and  also  that  there  are  a  number  of  breeders'  associations,  and  one  or 
two  county  live  stock  organizations.  It  would  seem  highly  desirable 
for  most  counties  and  perhaps  some  townships,  to  organize  live  stock 
breeders'  organizations.  It  would  seem  possible  through  such  or- 
ganizations, to  bring  the  live  stock  breeders  into  closer  touch  with  one 
another,  and  thereby  present  favorable  opportunities  for  the  discus- 
sion and  adoption  of  methods  of  breeding  best  suited  to  the  interests 
of  the  community. — (Mich.  B.  241.) 

GRADES    OP    FEEDING    CATTLE. 

There  are  six  fairly  w^ell  defined  grades  of  feeding  cattle  recog- 
nized in  the  cattle  markets.  They  are  known  as  (1)  Fancy,  (2) 
Choice,  (3)  Good,  (4)  Medium  (5)  Common,  (6)  Inferior. 

Grade  1.  Fancy  Feeders. — Animals  of  this  grade  contain  nearly 
one  hundred  per  cent  of  the  blood  of  the  improved  beef  breeds.  The 
dams  are  high  grade  cows  and  the  sires  are  registered. 

While  there  may  be  a  slight  lack  of  uniformity  in  size  of  this 
grade  of  steers,  they  possess  the  quality  and  conformation  that  ac- 
company the  typical  beef-bred  steer.  It  is  also  true  that  age,  as  well 
as  quality,  conformation,  and  condition,  is  characteristic  of  the 
various  grades  of  feeding  cattle.  Usually  when  the  better  grades  of 
feeding  cattle  are  selected  for  feeding  they  are  comparatively  young. 
To  maJke  this  point  more  clear  it  may  be  said  that  it  would  be  impos* 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF.  CATTLE  279 

sible  to  secure  a  two-year-old  inferior  feeder,  as  inferior  steers  of  this 
age  would  possess  neither  the  weight  nor  the  flesh  demanded  in  the 
feeder  class.  As  a  rule,  we  may  classify  as  feeders,  steers  weighing 
900  pounds  or  more  that  are  eighteen  months  old  or  older,  and  that 
are  fleshy  enough  so  as  not  to  render  an  extended  period  of  low 
feeding  necessary.  Manifestly  the  slower  maturing,  lower  grades 
will  always  be  the  older  animals  when  feeding  weights  are  attained. 

The  individual  steers  comprising  this  fancy  grade  possess  out- 
standing quality.  They  are  the  kind  from  which  car-load  show  cat- 
tle are  produced.  Those  who  have  attempted  to  collect  such  a  group 
of  cattle  know  how  very  scarce  they  are.  Such  feeding  cattle  are 
very  seldom  seen  in  any  of  our  feeding-cattle  markets,  for  when  such 
a  bunch  is  known  to  be  for  sale  it  is  usually  eagerly  sought,  hence  it 
is  unnecessary  to  ship  them  to  the  market  to  find  a  buyer. 

Grade  Q.  Choice  Feeders. — The  steers  in  this  group  are  unques- 
tionably choice.  They  possess  large  frames  and  perhaps  average  six 
months  older  than  the  fancy  selected  grade,  though  still  younger 
than  grades  4,  5,  and  6.  Owing  to  their  more  advanced  age  and  the 
appearance  of  being  more  growthy,  thL«  grade  of  steers  is  frequently 
selected  by  experienced  feeders  as  the  best  calculated  to  produce  the 
largest  and  most  rapid  gains  of  any  in  the  market.  They  are  the 
heaviest  cattle  and  perhaps,  everything  considered,  carry  slightly 
more  flesh  than  the  others,  although  grades  1  and  2  are  similar  in  this 
regard.  They  are  high-grade  steers,  uniform  as  to  size,  color,  and 
conformation.  Fed  to  a  finish,  steers  of  such  quality  ought  to  pro- 
duce prime  steers  of  sufficient  merit  to  sell  at  the  top  on  any  ordinary 
market. 

Grade  3.  Good  Feeders. — The  quality  and  finish  so  manifest  in 
the  choice  and  fancy  grades  are  not  so  much  in  evidence  in  this 
group,  although  it  is  easy  to  see  that  beef  blood  still  predominates. 
While  these  cattle  possess  a  strong  infusion  of  beef  blood,  they  do  not 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  ideal  feeder  in  type  or  conformation. 
They  are  inclined  to  be  upstanding,  while  some  of  the  steers  are 
rather  plain  in  their  rumps.  They  lack  that  attractive  uniformity 
that  characterizes  grades  1  and  2.  As  to  condition  they  are  hardly 
as  fleshy  as  the  grades  already  described.  It  should  not  be  gathered 
from  what  has  been  said  that  these  are  an  undesirable  grade  of  feed- 
ing cattle,  for  they  are  not.  In  fact,  cattle  of  their  quality  are  not 
at  all  plentiful  in  the  markets  of  our  country,  and  can  only  be  pro- 
duced by  the  use  of  bulls  of  some  of  the  beef  breeds. 

Grade  4-  Medium  Feeders. — ^Undoubtedly  the  most  noticeable 
characteristic  of  this  grade  is  its  lack  of  uniformity  in  color.  This 
suggests  their  probable  mixed  breeding.  The  lack  of  uniformity  is 
not  by  any  means  the  main  difference  between  this  and  the  better 
grades.  A  closer  study  reveals  a  coarseness  and  angularity  not  at  all 
characteristic  of  those  of  better  quality.  There  is  a  plain,  old  style 
appearance  about  them  that  is  very  evident.  The  cattle  appear  to  be 
close  to  three  years  old.  Experienced  feeders  would  select  now  and 
again  a  steer  from  this  grade  that  would  be  expected  to  make  large 


280  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

gains,  and  occasionally  one  that  would  finish  quite  smooth,  but  the 
majority  would  always  remain  rather  coarse,  rough,  and  paunchy. 

Grade  5.  Common  Feeders. — This  group  shows  but  a  very  small 
percentage  of  beef  blood.  Native  and  unimproved  blood  predomi- 
nates. There  is  no  uniformity  in  color  and  every  steer  shows  a  lack 
of  both  quality  and  conformation.  The  steers  are  rather  coarse  boned 
and  large  headed,  and  are  plain  throughout.  They  do  not  all  have 
similar  faults,  but  all  are  noticeably  deficient  in  some  particular. 
They  are  the  kind  that  result  from  the  somewhat  common  practice 
of  indiscriminate  breeding  and  the  too  common  practice  of  breeding 
from  inferior  grade  bulls. 

Grade  6.  Inferior  Feeders. — There  are  so  many  standards  by 
■which  feeding  cattle  might  be  designated  as  inferior  that  it  is  well 
to  be  explicit  in  specifying  the  standard  employed  in  the  selection 
of  the  cattle  comprising  this  grade.  It  is  not  that  they  should  be 
steers  carrying  a  high  percentage  of  dairy  blood,  although  steers  in 
this  group  are  undoubtedly  strongly  dairy  bred.  Nor  is  it  that  they 
should  be  beef-bred  steers  of  faulty  conformation  and  lacking  in 
constitution.  An  effort  is  made  to  select  cattle  inferior  in  quality 
and  conformation  from  the  standpoint  of  beef  breeding,  that  is, 
those  possessing  very  little,  if  any,  of  the  blood  of  any  of  the  improved 
beef  breeds.  This  is  a  more  difficult  task  than  would  seem  to  those 
who  have  not  attempted  it.  The  majority  of  this  grade  are  selected 
from  grass  cattle  shipped  to  the  Chicago  market.  They  show  no  evi- 
dences of  beef  blood  and  every  evidence  of  being  scrubs. — (111. 
B.  90.) 

BEEF  AND  BEEP  PRODUCTION. 

Demand  for  Baby  Beef. — The  packers  report  that  they  have 
never  been  able  to  supply  the  demand  for  baby  beef,  and  that  there 
is  no  likelihood  of  the  market  ever  becoming  oversupplied,  even 
though  stockmen  generally  should  go  to  producing  it.  The  best 
demand  and  the  highest  prices  are  in  the  months  of  April,  May,  and 
June.  During  these  months  butchers  want  light  cuts,  and  they  find 
less  waste  in  baby  beef  than  in  that  from  larger  cattle.  After  July  1 
the  price  for  baby  beef  has  a  tendency  to  become  lower,  as  light 
grass-fed  cattle  compete.  The  best  prices  are  obtained  for  well-fat- 
tened calves  weighing  from  600  to  1000  pounds.  Calves  either  above 
or  below  these  weights  do  not  top  the  market.  The  age  should  be 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  months. 

Care  in  Feeding  for  Baby  Beef. — In  forcing  calves  for  baby  beef, 
the  feeder  must  remember  that  the  calves  are  babies  and  must  be 
treated  as  such  to  secure  the  greatest  gains.  The  feeder  who  loves 
them  and  pets  them  and  never  allows  a  harsh  word  to  be  spoken  in 
the  feed-lot  will  get  many  more  pounds  of  gain  from  his  feed  than 
will  the  feeder  who  simply  puts  an  equal  amount  of  feed  in  the  boxes 
and  kicks  a  calf  when  it  gets  in  his  way. 

The  feed  should  be  fresh  and  palatable  at  every  feeding,  and 
the  calves  should  be  fed  in  such  a  way  as  to  induce  them  to  eat  the 
greatest  possible  amount  and  yet  come  to  the  feed-boxes  hungry  at 
every  feeding.    The  feeding  should  be  done  regularly  to  the  minute. 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  281 

Water  and  salt  should  be  before  them  all  the  time,  and  both  should 
be  palatable.  We  prefer  fresh  salt  and  place  it  in  the  boxes  under 
the  shed.  Fresh  salt  should  be  placed  in  the  boxes  at  least  twice 
each  week,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  salt  does  not  cake 
and  harden.    If  it  does  the  calves  will  not  eat  enough  for  best  results. 

The  best  results  will  be  obtained  by  feeding  the  grain  mixed  with 
the  roughage,  and  the  mixing  is  best  when  done  in  such  a  way  that 
each  particle  of  grain  is  taken  into  the  mouth  attached  to  a  piece  of 
roughage.  When  this  is  done  the  calves  chew  the  greater  part  of 
the  grain  over  a  second  time  with  the  cud.  Greater  gains  are  made 
from  each  hundred  pounds  of  gain,  and  scouring  and  getting  off  feed 
are  not  troublesome. — (Kan.  B.  113.) 

In  stormy  weather  it  will  pay  the  feeder  to  stay  in  the  feed-lots 
with  the  calves  all  day.  In  bad  weather  a  calf  feels  "blue,"  just 
as  a  human  being,  and  often,  if  left  to  himself,  will  not  eat.  When 
a  calf  does  not  eat  he  will  not  gain.  At  such  times,  if  the  feeder 
who  has  petted  his  calves  will  stay  in  the  feed-lot,  stir  up  the  feed  in 
one  box,  freshen  it  in  another,  and  offer  a  handful  to  the  calf  that  is 
not  eating,  the  calf  will  come  around  his  feeder  for  companionship, 
and,  after  he  has  had  a  few  mouthfuls  of  feed,  will  find  that  he  is 
hungry  and  will  eat  a  hearty  meal.  The  calf  makes  a  good  gain  from 
that  day's  feed.  Care  and  kindness  do  not  cost  money,  but  come 
from  tlioughtfulness  and  love  for  animals.    They  pay. 

What  Does  the  Production  of  Baby  Beef  Mean? — Nothing  to 
the  ranchman  who  has  cheap  pastures;  a  complete  change  in  the 
methods  of  crop-production  and  of  feeding  to  the  farmer  with  high- 
priced,  limited  pastures.  The  farmer  who  raises  and  fattens  mature 
steers  has  to  furnish  pasture  for  his  cows,  the  yearlings,  the  two- 
year  olds,  and  often  for  the  three-year-old  steers.  He  waits  three 
years  from  the  time  the  calf  is  born  until  he  realizes  on  the  invest- 
ment, and  only  one-fourth  of  his  herd  are  cows  producing  calves. 
If  the  farmer  will  produce  baby  beef,  he  can  fill  his  pasture  to  the 
full  limit  with  cows  producing  calves,  and  he  will  realize  on  the  calves 
twelve  months  from  the  date  of  their  birth.  Capital  is  turned  an- 
nually instead  of  once  in  every  three  years.  The  farmer's  grain 
will  produce  from  50  to  100  per  cent  more  pounds  of  baby  beef  than 
it  will  of  beef  from  a  mature  steer,  and  for  the  past  three  years  the 
baby-beef  animal  has  sold  for  as  high  prices  per  hundred  as  has  the 
average  steer.  In  producing  baby  beef,  the  farmer  can  market  his 
heifer  calves  at  the  same  price  as  his  steers,  and  will  usually  get 
more  for  the  twelve-months-old  heifer  than  he  would  for  the  same 
animal  if  kept  until  maturity. — (Kan.  B,  113.) 

Quick  Returns — Saving  in  Pasture. — The  production  of  baby 
beef  gives  quick  returns  on  the  investment.  The  farmer  who  raises 
and  fattens  mature  steers  has  to  furnish  pasture  for  his  cows,  the 
yearlings,  the  two-year-olds,  and  often  for  the  three-year-old  steers. 
He  waits  three  years  from  the  time  the  calf  is  born  until  he  realizes 
on  his  investment,  and  only  one-fourth  of  his  herd  are  cows  produc- 
ing calves.     If  the  farmer  will  produce  baby  beef  he  can  fill  his 


282  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

pasture  to  the  full  limit  of  cows  producing  calves,  and  he  will  realize! 
on  the  calves  twelve  months  from  date  of  birth. 

The  Economy  of  Gain  at  Different  Ages  Compared. — ^It  is  a 
well-established  principle  in  animal  nutrition  that  young  animals 
make  more  economical  gains  than  older  ones,  and  that  the  amount 
of  feed  required  for  a  given  gain  increases  as  the  age  of  the  animal 
advances  toward  maturity. 

Comparatively  few  practical  feeders  are  aware  of  the  marked 
variation  due  to  the  operation  of  this  law.  Experiments  are  recorded 
where  gain  has  been  made  at  the  rate  of  1  pound  of  increase  in  live 
weight  for  each  pound  of  dry  matter  in  the  feed  consumed.  (Arms- 
by's  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding.)  This  was  made  with  calves  under 
three  weeks  of  age.  The  ration  consisted  of  17.6  pounds  of  milk  per 
head  daily  with  3.9  pounds  of  cream  added. 

In  an  experiment  conducted  at  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  (Bulletin  No.  25,  p.  24,  Iowa  Experiment  Station),  a 
gain  of  1  pound  of  increase  in  live  weight  was  obtained  from  each 
1.97  pounds  of  dry  matter  in  the  feed  consumed.  This  experiment 
covered  a  period  of  ninety  days,  beginning  when  the  calves  were 
about  one  week  old.  The  ration  consisted  of  separator  skim  milk, 
supplemented  with  corn,  oats,  and  oil  meal,  and  in  addition  a  mod- 
erate allowance  of  hay.  For  the  first  eight  months  it  required  4.6 
pounds  of  feed  (dry  matter)  for  a  pound  of  gain,  and  for  the  first 
seventeen  months  it  required  5.97  pounds  of  feed  for  a  pound  of 
gain,  and  for  a  period  of  two  years  the  amount  of  feed  required  for 
a  pound  of  gain  had  increased  to  7.19  pounds,  and  during  the  last 
four  months  the  amount  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain  ran  up  to  9.02 
pounds.  In  another  experiment,  recorded  in  Bulletin  No.  24  of  the 
Iowa  Station,  five  steers  were  finished  for  market  at  the  age  of  32 
months,  and  it  required  10.4  pounds  of  feed  for  a  pound  of  gain 
at  this  age.  Director  Thome  and  Professor  Hickman  have  presented 
a  summary  of  results  (Bulletin  No.  60,  Ohio  Station),  obtained  at 
the  stations  in  eight  States,  covering  132  head  of  cattle  ranging  in 
age  from  2  to  3  years,  in  which  it  is  shown  that  it  has  required  on  an 
average  10.24  pounds  of  feed  (dry  matter)  for  a  pound  of  gain, 
while  the  work  done  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert  along  this  line  indicates 
an  average  of  about  11  pounds  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain  on  cattle 
approaching  maturity. 

These  results  have  been  repeatedly  verified  by  many  other  careful 
experiments,  not  only  with  cattle,  but  with  sheep  and  hogs  as  well, 
and  the  law  of  diminishing  returns  for  feed  consumed  as  animals 
advance  in  age  toward  maturity  is  conclusively  established,  and  gov- 
erns the  economy  of  gain  in  all  practical  as  well  as  experimental  feed- 
ing. This  law  should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  by  the  meat  pro- 
ducer. Economy  of  production  is  one  of  the  important  f.actors  in 
the  practical  problem  of  determining  profit,  and  the  advantages  are 
all  with  the  young  and  growing  animal  as  compared  to  the  one  that 
has  practically  attained  its  growth.  In  comparing  the  cost  of  gain 
made  by  pure-bred  Shropshire  lambs  and  pure-bred  Shropshire  year- 
lings at  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  it  was  found 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  283 

that  the  lambs  made  gain  in  weight  at  the  rate  of  1  pound  from  each 
7.18  pounds  of  feed  (Bulletin  33,  pp.  536  and  565)  consumed,  at  a 
cost  of  2.88  cents  per  pound  for  the  gain  made,  while  it  required  11 
pounds  of  feed  to  make  a  pound  of  gain  on  the  yearlings,  and  at  a 
cost  of  4  cents.    All  conditions  except  age  were  the  same. 

The  market  also  pays  a  premium  on  the  younger  animal,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  it  furnishes  a  more  profitable  carcass  and  less  waste 
by  reason  of  the  absence  of  excessive  fat. 

The  modern  feeder  must  combine  the  advantages  of  economy 
of  production  resulting  from  early  maturity,  and  the  excellence  and 
enhanced  value  of  the  finished  product  that  can  only  come  from  the 
right  kind  of  stock  well  handled.  This  implies  good  breeding  and 
continuous  good  feeding.  These  requirements  are  no  longer  merely 
subservient,  but  practically  imperative. — (F.  B.  71.) 

Grain  for  Young  Cattle. — ^This  is  almost  self-evident.  Three 
year  old  steers,  for  example,  can  handle  ear  corn  and  coarse  roughage 
far  more  advantageously  than  can  calves,  say,  that  are  just  being 
weaned.  It  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  make  a  fair  rate  of  gain  on  young 
animals,  and  to  accomplish  only  this  result  would  not  require  any 
special  preparation  of  grain.  ^  But  to  make  a  gain  that  is  sufficiently 
rapid  to  fatten  the  animal  within  reasonable  time  does  require  that 
the  grain  be  offered  in  an  easily  assimilable  form  and  that  the  rough- 
age be  of  a  very  palatable  and  nutritious  character.  In  other  words, 
as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  the  first  draft  a  young  animal  will 
make  on  its  food,  outside  of  maintenance,  is  for  growth,  and  it  is  nec- 
essary to  induce  the  animal  to  eat  and  digest  an  amount  considerably 
in  excess  of  the  requirement  for  maintenance  and  for  growth  in  order 
to  make  it  fat.  The  aged  steer,  on  the  other  hand,  has  little  use  for 
food  for  growth,  and  puts  practically  its  entire  ration,  outside  of  that 
required  for  maintenance,  to  the  uses  of  fat  production,  and  it  is  not, 
therefore,  so  vital  a  matter  that  the  animal  gain  to  the  absolute  limit 
of  its  capacity  in  order  to  get  fat  in  a  reasonable  time  or  to  prove  prof- 
itable. Thus  it  comes  about  in  practice  that  the  feeders  use  ear  corn 
for  aged  cattle  and  crushed  or  ground  or  soaked  or  shelled  corn  for 
calves  and  yearlings. — (Mo.  B.  76.) 

Long  Time  to  Make  Young  Animals  Fat. — The  younger  the  ani- 
mal, the  longer  the  time  required  to  make  it  fat.  This  is  on  account 
of  the  tendency  of  the  young  animal  to  utilize  its  feed  so  largely  for 
growth  instead  of  for  the  production  of  fat.  It  is  fat  that  makes  the 
animal  ripe  and  marketable.  Clearly,  the  young  animal,  when  on 
full  feed,  puts  its  food  to  three  distinct  uses:  1.  Maintenance;  2. 
Growth;  3.  Fat.  The  rate  of  growth  diminishes  as  the  age  of  the 
animal  increases.  After  a  certain  time,  therefore,  the  animal  would 
reach  an  age  when  growth  would  cease  entirely.  At  such  a  time  in 
the  life  of  any  animal  all  of  the  available  food  above  maintenance 
would  necessarily  go  to  the  production  of  fat.  The  presumption  is 
that  the  requirement  for  growth  gradually  diminishes,  but  not 
directly  with  the  age  of  the  animal.  This  rate  of  growth  has  not 
been  determined  for  the  different  ages  of  the  beef  steer,  but  it  is  well 
known  that  after  the  age  of  something  like  two  years  is  reached, 


284  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

varying  greatly  with  the  individual,  and  with  how  he  has  been  fed 
previously,  it  is  very  much  easier  to  make  him  lay  on  fat  than  before. 
This  of  course  is  saying  that  with  the  decline  in  the  tendency  to 
grow  comes  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  tendency  to  fatten.  These 
are  all  matters  of  common  observation  among  feeders.  Particularly 
has  the  ease  with  which  older  cattle  may  be  made  fat,  and  the  com- 
paratively short  feeding  period  necessary  to  bring  this  about  become 
a  matter  of  common  observation  and  likewise  the  great  diffijculty  ex- 
perienced in  making  young  animals  fat  and  the  long  time  required 
to  accomplish  it. 

Starting  with  six  months  old  calves  in  good  flesh,  twelve  months 
is  the  minimum  time  in  which  these  animals  may  be  made  thick  and 
prime,  whereas  three  year  old  or  four  year  old  steers,  of  similar  qual- 
ity and  much  thinner  in  flesh  to  start  with,  may  be  made  prime  in 
less  than  six  months.  Or,  the  same  principle  may  be  illustrated  in 
another  way.  To  make  a  six  months  old  calf  prime  will  require  the 
laying  on  of  from  600  to  750  pounds  of  additional  weight,  making 
the  finished  animal  weigh  from  1,100  to  1,250  pounds,  and  requir- 
ing, as  has  been  said  before,  some  twelve  months  of  full  feeding. 
Whereas,  a  three  year  old  steer,  even  thin  in  flesh  at  the  outset,  may 
be  made  strictly  prime  by  the  addition  of  400  pounds,  weighing  at 
the  close  of  the  feeding  period  between  1,450  and  1,550  pounds. — 
(Mo.  B.  76.) 

Young  Cattle  Must  Be  Fat  to  Sell  Well. — Attention  has  already 
been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  yearling  must  be  fully  finished  to  sell 
well.  This  fact,  while  so  well  known  to  the  experienced  feeder,  is  so 
often  overlooked  that  it  will  bear  further  emphasizing  in  this  con- 
nection. It  seems  to  be  a  well  established  law  in  the  cattle  trade  that 
the  older  and  larger  the  animal  is,  the  less  fat  beyond  a  certain  point 
it  is  required  to  carry  to  sell  well  up  toward  the  top  of  the  market  for 
its  class.  It  not  infrequently  occurs  that  heavy  three  year  olds  will 
bring  the  top  of  the  market  for  heavy  cattle,  while  a  yearling  equally 
fat  would  not  sell  within  50  cents  of  the  market,  and  might  even  be 
classed  on  the  market  as  a  well  advanced  feeder  rather  than  as  a  fat 
steer.  In  this  connection  the  reader  is  again  referred  to  the  replies 
from  the  commission  men  and  packers  in  relation  to  the  factors 
affecting  the  demands  of  the  market.  One  cannot  fail  to  be  im- 
pressed with  the  unanimity  with  which  these  men  agree  that  the  so- 
called  dressed  beef  steer,  or  the  2  year  old,  weighing  from  1,800  to 
1,400  pounds,  is  in  most  active  demand  and  sells  at  a  better  price  one 
day  with  another,  year  after  year,  than  any  other  age  or  weight  of 
similar  quality  and  of  equal  finish.  It  is  furthermore  significant  that 
the  feeder  has  said  with  striking  unanimity  that  the  2  year  old  steer 
weighing  between  1,300  and  1,400  pounds  has  returned  him  the 
greatest  profit. —  (Mo.  B.  76.) 

The  Feeder. — The  average  feeder  may  not  be  guilty  of  getting 
his  cattle  too  fat.  For  this  reason  it  is  sometimes  sugge*sted  that  he 
be  encouraged  to  get  his  cattle  as  fat  as  possible,  in  order  not  to  fall 
below  the  market  requirements.  While  it  is  doubtless  true  that  many 
feeders  fail  to  eet  the  proper  finish  to  their  cattle,  this  is  no  reason 


1 


Open  and  Covered  Milk  Pails.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


Barn  90  Feet  in  Diameter;  One  of  the  Few  Dairy  Barns  With  Sufficient  Light. 

Dept.  of  Agr. 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  287 

why  they  should  remain  in  ignorance  of  what  constitutes  a  proper 
finish.  The  feeder  should  be  taught  as  to  what  is  meant  by  an  ideal 
beef,  and  encouraged  to  reach  that  ideal  whenever  it  is  possible,  and 
to  be  able  to  recognize  it  when  it  is  reached.  Such  knowledge  will 
inspire  a  feeder  to  do  better  feeding  and  will  undoubtedly  result  in  the 
marketing  of  better  cattle. 

Another  class  of  feeders  may  market  their  cattle  in  a  finished 
condition,  but,  not  being  able  to  recognize  this  condition,  may  be  led 
by  unscrupulous  buyers  to  imagine  their  cattle  are  not  fat  enough, 
and  sell  them  accordingly.  Feeders  need  to  know  what  they  have 
and  what  their  cattle  will  show  upon  the  block.  The  more  knowledge 
feeders  have  along  these  lines  the  more  certain  they  are  to  be  re- 
spected and  to  get  their  just  dues. — (Kan.  B.  118.) 

The  Butcher. — The  butcher  buys  a  beef  animal  for  the  amount 
of  lean  meat  he  is  able  to  cut  from  it,  and  especially  for  the  amount  of 
lean  in  the  high-priced  cuts.  He  wants  just  as  little  waste  as  possi- 
ble. It  is  his  business  to  cater  to  the  desires  of  the  consumer,  and 
whatever  the  consumer  demands  he  tries  to  secure  in  the  purchase  of 
a  beef  animal. 

The  Consumer. — The  consumer  dictates  to  the  butcher,  the 
butcher  to  the  feeder,  and  the  feeder  to  the  breeder;  in  other  words, 
the  consumer  is  the  supreme  judge  as  to  what  constitutes  good  beef, 
and  all  the  others  must  bow  to  his  judgment.  There  is  no  question 
but  that  the  consumer  is  demanding  more  lean  and  less  fat.  As  in- 
dicated in  the  cooking  tests,  there  must  be  enough  fat  distributed 
among  the  fibers  of  the  lean  to  make  the  meat  tender  and  well  fla- 
vored, but  the  heavy  layers  of  fat  are  now  relegated  to  the  tallow  box, 
and  not  served  on  the  meat  platter.  If  this  be  true,  it  behooves  both 
the  breeder  and  feeder  to  produce  beef  animals  that  will  furnish  the 
largest  amount  of  well-marbled  meat  in  the  highest-priced  cuts  with 
the  least  amount  of  extraneous  fat, — (Kansas  B.  118.) 

DAIRY  TYPE  STEERS  COMPARED  TO  BEEF  TYPE. 

Dairy  type  steers  show  a  considerably  higher  percentage  of  fat 
and  a  lower  dressing  percentage.  They  also  carry  a  higher  percent- 
age of  fat  on  internal  organs,  thereby  increasing  the  total  weight  of 
cheap  parts.  Beef  type  steers  carry  a  higher  percentage  of  valuable 
cuts  and  also  furnish  heavier  and  thicker  cuts ;  they  are  more  evenly 
and  neatly  covered  with  outside  fat  and  show  superior  marbling  of 
flesh.  The  flesh  of  beef  type  steers  is  brighter  red  in  the  lean  and 
the  fat  a  little  clearer  white,  but  there  is  little  difference  in  fineness  of 
grain  of  the  lean  meat. 

It  is  neither  profitable  nor  desirable  to  feed  steers  of  dairy  tj'pe 
for  beef  purposes.  They  are  unsatisfactory  to  the  consumer,  because 
they  do  not  furnish  thick  and  well  marbled  cuts;  they  are  unsatis- 
factory to  the  butcher  because  they  furni.sh  low-grade  carcasses  which 
are  difficult  to  dispose  of  and  they  are  decidedly  unsatisfactory  to  the 
feeder,  because  they  yield  him  little  or  no  profit  and  both  breeder  and 
feeder  waste  their  time  in  producing  such  a  type  of  steer  for  beef 
purposes. — (la.  B.  81.) 


288  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Practical  Feeders*  Conclusions  Usually  Right. — ^As  a  rule  the 
practical  man  arrives  in  the  long  run  at  correct  conclusions  on  the 
main  points  involved  in  his  practice.  This  is  perhaps  more  true  of 
the  cattle  feeder  than  of  any  other  class  of  farmers,  for  several  rea- 
sons :  First,  he  is  among  the  most  intelligent  and  progressive  of  the 
farming  class.  Second,  giving  most  of  his  attention  to  the  buying, 
feeding  and  marketing  of  cattle,  makes  him  in  a  large  sense  a  spe- 
cialist in  this  particular  branch  of  agriculture.  Third,  he  has  oppor- 
tunities for  checking  up  his  observations  and  judgment  with  accurate 
data  that  men  in  other  lines  of  farming  do  not  have.  This  comes 
about  because,  as  a  rule,  he  buys  his  cattle  by  weight  and  has,  there- 
fore, an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  cattle  at  the  time  he  begins  his 
feeding  operations.  He  always  sells  by  weight  and  has,  therefore,  the 
weight  of  his  cattle  at  the  close,  and  can  easily  determine  quite  ac- 
curately the  gain.  Furthermore  in  many  instances,  he  buys  a  large 
portion,  and  frequently  all  of  the  feed  used,  which  enables  him  to 
determine  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  the  amount  of  food  con- 
sumed. These  are  the  necessary  data,  of  course,  for  reliable  con- 
clusions as  to  the  outcome  of  his  feeding  operations.  Fourth,  the  pro- 
fessional feeder  is  of  necessity  more  or  less  of  an  experimenter.  He  is 
forced  by  the  varying  supply  of  different  kinds  of  feed  to  vary  the 
material  fed  from  season  to  season,  and  thus  one  season  while  he  may 
naturally  prefer  a  certain  grain  or  hay  the  supply  is  inadequate  or 
the  price  ls  too  high,  and  he  adopts  another.  Normally  he  might 
prefer  to  feed  his  corn  whole,  but  the  price  may  be  such  as  to  warrant 
him  in  grinding  it,  and  so  on  throughout  the  entire  range  of  steer 
feeding.  The  state  of  the  feeder  market  will  justify  his  feeding  three 
or  four  year  olds  in  one  season,  heifer  calves  in  another,  and  so  on. 
Thus  his  experience  is  forced,  so  to  speak,  to  take  a  very  wide  range 
in  the  quality  and  condition  of  cattle  fed,  and  in  the  kind,  condition 
and  quality  of  feed  used. 

These  considerations  therefore  would  seem  to  justify  us  in  giving 
to  the  conclusions  of  these  men  the  greatest  weight.  That  is,  the  dif- 
ference between  two  or  more  methods  or  practices,  when  large,  may 
be  safely  assumed  to  have  already  been  discerned  by  the  practical 
man,  by  reason  of  his  exceptional  facilities  for  securing  accurate  data 
already  pointed  out,  and  furthermore  because  of  his  capacity  for  close 
observation  and  sound  reasoning. — (Mo.  B.  76.) 

Advantages  of  Summer  Over  Winter  Feeding. — The  advantages 
of  summer  over  winter  feeding  may  be  very  briefly  summarized  as 
follows:  First,  gains  made  in  summer  require  less  grain.  Second, 
the  gains  are  made  more  rapidly,  so  that  the  animal  is  finished  in  less 
time.  Third,  steers  may  be  made  thick  and  prime  on  com  and  grass 
in  summer  without  the  use  of  expensive  supplementary  feeds  like 
cottonseed  meal  or  linseed  meal,  and  will  carry  to  market  a  lustrous 
coat.  It  is  impossible  by  the  use  of  com  and  such  roughage  as  tim- 
othy or  prairie  hay  to  bring  animals  within  a  reasonable  time  to  any- 
thing like  the  degree  of  fatness  that  may  be  easily  made  with  corn 
and  grass,  and  they  will  never  carry  the  bloom  that  is  put  on  by  full 
feeding  at  pasture.    Presumably  tne  green  grass  contains  sufficient 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  289 

protein  to  give  the  high  finish  and  excellent  coat  required  of  animals 
that  bring  a  high  price.  To  approximate  this  finish  in  winter  feed- 
ing requires  the  use  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  expensive  grain 
like  cotton  seed  meal  or  linseed  meal,  or  the  use  of  clover,  cowpea  or 
alfalfa  hay  for  roughage.  Fourth,  the  hog  makes  larger  gains  and 
shows  a  very  much  lower  death  rate  in  summer  than  in  winter  feed- 
ing. Fifth,  there  is  a  considerable  saving  in  labor  in  summer  feeding 
over  winter  feeding,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  only  the  grain  has  to  be 
hauled,  and  in  view  of  the  further  fact  that  as  a  rule  the  steers  need 
to  be  fed  but  once  a  day — either  about  sunrise  or  near  sunset.  To 
offset  this,  however,  labor  on  the  average  farm  is  scarce  and  much 
higher  priced  in  summer  than  in  winter.  The  manure  is  scattered 
by  the  cattle  themselves,  and  the  hauling  of  it  out  upon  the  ground 
is  dispensed  with.  Grass  is  cheaper  than  hay,  as  has  already  been 
pointed  out,  and  makes  better  gains.  The  handling  of  the  roughage 
is  likewise  disposed  of. —  (Mo.  B.  76.) 

Feeding  Two  Year  Old  Steers. — With  the  gradual  increase  in  the 
price  of  grain,  the  feeder  is  becoming  confronted  with  a  new  prob- 
lem. He  is  in  the  business  for  profit  and  unless  the  price  of  animal 
products  increases  proportionately  with  the  price  of  grain,  he  must 
decrease  expenses  or  quit  the  business.  The  latter  is  serious  for  no 
country  can  be  kept  in  a  prosperous  condition  without  a  large  number 
of  farm  animals,  and  any  condition  that  tends  to  hinder  the  raising 
of  farm  animals  should  be  discouraged. 

The  amount  of  grain  fed  to  dairy  and  beef  cattle  is  changing. 
Experiments  with  dairy  cows  are  beginning  to  show  that  less  grain 
can  be  fed,  for  heavy  maximum  production  than  has  been  the  prac- 
tice to  feed.  Enormous  quantities  of  grain  have  been  fed,  but  on 
account  of  the  increase  of  its  price,  farmers  of  the  United  States  are 
probably  not  feeding  grain  as  heavily  as  in  former  years.  Reports 
from  various  parts  of  the  country  show  that  less  grain  is  being  fed. 
A  large  amount  of  grain  for  a  short,  period  with  fleshy  steers  or  a 
small  amount  of  grain  with  considerable  roughage  for  a  long  period 
with  thin  steers,  seems  to  be  giving  good  results  and  is  apparently 
finding  favor.  Reports  from  the  middle  and  eastern  states,  are  that 
farmers  are  looking  more  to  silage,  roughing  their  cattle  through  the 
winter  and  finishing  on  grass  in  the  spring  with  less  grain  than  in 
former  years.  This  may  not  be  very  general  yet,  but  it  shows  that 
there  is  a  tendency  to  feed  less  grain. — (Montana  B.  78.) 

Silage  Fed  Cattle  Kill  the  Best. — While  the  percentage  of  good 
meat  in  any  of  the  slaughter  tests  is  thus  considerably  below  what 
should  be  a  fair  standard,  it  indicates  that  with  improved  sires,  the 
standard  of  beef  cattle  could  be  quickly  raised  in  the' state.  A  grati- 
fying result  of  the  slaughter  test  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  silage 
fed  cattle  showed  the  highest  per  cent  of  good  meat,  it  being  the  pre- 
vailing though  erroneous  belief  of  the  farmer  and  butcher  that  an. 
animal  fed  succulent  food  will  not  kill  well.  The  slaughter  tests 
speak  for  themselves  on  that  point  and  sound  the  death-knell  of  a 
prejudiced  and  absurd  belief.  The  weight  of  the  livers  was  not  ma- 
terially influenced  by  the  character  of  the  ration  fed,  though  the 


290  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

pound  of  intestinal  fat  showed  considerable  variation.  It  was  highest 
as  a  rule  with  the  silage  fed  cattle.  While  the  greater  weight  of  the 
intestinal  fat  may  be  attributed  in  a  measure  to  the  succulent  food, 
it  is  also  influenced  by  individuality  and  is  not  a  factor  of  sufficient 
importance  to  have  any  marked  influence  on  the  investigation. — 
(Tenn.  No.  3,  Vol.  XV.) 

RATIONS  AND  ENERGY  VALUES. 

CoTTiponents  of  the  Animal  Body. — The  essential  working  parts 
of  the  body  contain  a  great  variety  of  substances,  but  these  may,  for 
our  present  purpose,  be  grouped  under  three  heads — water,  ash,  and 
protein.  The  bones,  constituting  the  framework  of  the  body ;  the  liga- 
ments, muscles  and  tendons  which  bind  together  and  move  the  bones ; 
the  skin  and  hair,  or  wool,  which  cover  and  protect  the  body;  the 
internal  organs  of  circulation,  respiration,  digestion,  excretion,  and 
reproduction ;  the  brain  and  nerves — in  short,  the  whole  mechanism 
of  the  body — can  be  regarded  as  being  composed  substantially  of 
these  three  classes  of  suDstances 

Water. — Rarely  less  than  half  and  sometimes  as  much  as  three- 
fourths  of  the  weight  of  the  live  animal  consists  of  water.  The  pro- 
portion of  water  is  greatest  in  young  and  lean  animals  and  decreases 
as  they  become  more  mature  or  fatter. 

Ash. — The  ash  or  mineral  matter  is  the  portion  left  after  com- 
plete burning.  Its  presence  is  most  familiar  in  the  bones,  but  it  is 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  body  and  is  just  as  essential  as  water  or  pro- 
tein.   It  amounts  to  from  2  to  5  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  body. 

Protein. — Protein  is  the  name  given  to  a  highly  important  group 
of  substances,  of  which  the  white  of  egg,  washed  lean  meat,  the  casein 
of  milk,  the  gluten  of  wheat  flour,  etc.,  are  familiar  examples.  They 
are  composed  of  the  chemical  elements  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  and  sulphur.  They  are  what  are  commonly  called  organic 
substances,  which  simply  means  that  they  may  be  burned  completely 
in  air  or  oxygen.  They  differ  from  the  other  groups  of  substances 
found  in  the  animal  body  in  containing  sulphur  and  especially  nitro- 
gen, the  latter  element  constituting  from  15  to  18  or  19  per  cent  of 
their  weight. 

Protein  is  the  basis  of  the  living  tissues  of  the  body — ^the  so-called 
protoplasm — and  is  the  substance  through  which  life  especially  mani- 
fests itself.    In  the  body  it  is  always  associated  with  water  and  ash. 

Fat. — Besides  its  working  parts,  the  body  contains  a  store  of 
reserve  material  in  the  form  of  fat.  While  the  fat  deposits  in  the 
body  are  of  use  mechanically  as  cushions  between  the  various  organs 
and  as  a  protecting  layer  under  the  skin,  nevertheless  fat  represents 
essentially  a  storage  of  material  derived  from  food  consumed  in  ex- 
cess of  the  body's  immediate  needs.  When  the  food  is  insufficient  or 
entirely  lacking,  this  store  of  surplus  material  is  drawn  upon,  and 
the  animal  gradually  becomes  lean.  The  percentage  of  fat  in  the 
bodies  of  agricultural  animals  may  vary  greatly,  but  seldom  falls 
below  6  or  rises  above  30  per  cent. 

Glycogen. — Besides  fat  there  are  stored  up  in  the  muscles,  liver, 
and  other  organs  of  a  healthy  animal  rather  small  amounts  of  a  sub- 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 


291 


stance  called  glycogen,  belonging  to  the  group  of  carbohydrates  de- 
scribed in  the  next  section.  Neither  fat  nor  glycogen  contains  the 
elements  nitrogen  or  sulphur,  but  each  is  composed  entirely  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 

Composition  of  the  Entire  Body. — The  average  results  of  an- 
alyses shown  in  the  following  table  indicate  the  composition  of  the 
bodies  of  different  animals  in  different  conditions: 


Percentage 

Composition 

ofL 

ive  Animals. 

Ox. 

Fat 
calf. 

Sheep. 

Swine. 

Well 
fed. 

Half 
fat. 

Fat. 

Lean. 

Well 
fed. 

Half 
fat. 

Fat. 

Very 
fat. 

Well 
fed. 

Fat. 

Water 

Perct 

54.3 

4.8 

7.1 

15.8 

18.0 

perct 
50.2 
4.4 
14.9 
15.5 

15.0 

Perci 
43.6 
3.9 
26.8 
13.7 

12.0 

Perct 

60.1 

4.5 

13.1 

15.3 

7.0 

Perct 

56.6 

3.4 

8.6 

15.4 

16.0 

Perct 

53.7 

3.3 

13.2 

14.8 

15.0 

Perct 
50.7 
3.2 
18.3 
13.8 

14.0 

Perct 

44.8 

2.9 

28.1 

12.2 

12.0 

Perct 

39.0 

2.8 

37.2 

11.0 

10.0 

Perct 

53.9 

2.7 

22.5 

13.9 

7.0 

Perct 
42.0 

Ash 

1.8 

Fat 

40.2 

Protein 

11.0 

Contents  of   stomach  and 
intestines 

5.0 

Total 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

ICO.O 

100.0 

100.0 

Components  of  Feeding  Stuffs. — Like  the  animal  body,  the  vege- 
table feeding  stuffs  which  nourish  it  contain  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
stances, but  these,  too,  like  those  of  the  animal,  may  be  classified  into 
a  few  groups.  Not  only  so,  but  these  main  groups  are  the  same  as 
those  found  in  the  animal,  viz,  water,  ash,  protein,  fats,  and  carbo- 
hydrates. The  proportions  of  these  ingredients  in  the  animgd  body 
and  in  vegetable  substances,  however,  are  widely  different. 

Protein  and  Fat. — Protein  is  the  predominant  ingredient,  aside 
from  water,  in  the  animal  body,  while  the  latter  stores  up  its  reserve 
material  in  the  form  of  fat  with  but  little  carbohydrates  (glycogen). 
Protein  is  also  contained  in  all  plants  and,  as  in  the  animal,  forms 
the  basis  of  the  living  tissues,  but  the  predominant  ingredients  as 
regards  quantity  are  the  carbohydrates.  In  the  form  of  cellulose,  or 
crude  fiber,  they  form  the  cell-walls  of  the  plant,  while  as  starch  and 
sugar  they  are  stored  up  in  large  amounts  in  the  cells  of  seeds  and 
roots  as  reserve  material.  A  few  plants,  like  flax  and  cotton,  store  up 
oil  instead  of  starch  and  are  likewise  rich  in  protein,  but  as  a  rule  the 
common  feeding  stuffs  contain  relatively  small  amounts  of  protein 
and  fat  and  are  rich  in  carbohydrates. 

The  protein  and  fats  of  plants  are  not  widely  different  from 
those  of  animals  and  call  for  no  special  description  here. 

Carbohydrates. — ^The  carbohydrates,  as  starch,  sugar,  etc.,  con- 
stitute a  distinct  group,  represented  in  the  animal  chiefly  by  the  small 
amounts  of  glycogen  mentioned  previously  and  by  the  sugar  of  the 
milk.  They  are  composed  of  the  chemical  elements,  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, and  oxygen,  the  two  latter  being  present  in  exactly  the  same 
relative  amounts  qs  in  water,    Like  the  fats,  they  contain  no  nitrogeu 


292  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

or  sulphur,  but  they  differ  from  the  fats  in  containing  less  carbon 
and  more  oxygen. 

The  carbohydrates  of  feeding  stuffs  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes.  The  first  of  these  includes  those  substances  which  are  found 
in  the  cell  walls  and  constitute  the  framework  of  the  plant.  This  class 
includes  cellulose  and  a  great  variety  of  other  substances,  most  of 
which  are  rather  difficult  to  dissolve.  The  crude  fiber  obtained  in 
the  analysis  of  feeding  stuffs  represents  this  class  of  carbohydrates. 

The  second  class  of  carbohydrates  consists  of  the  reserve  material 
stored  up  in  the  cells  and  includes  starch,  the  various  kinds  of  sugar, 
and  other  less  familiar  substances.  Some  of  these  carbohydrates,  like 
the  sugars,  dissolve  in  water  and  all  may  be  converted  into  soluble 
forms  rather  easily.  In  analyses  of  feeding  stuffs  they  are  contained 
in  the  nitrogen-free  extract  which,  however,  also  includes  a  variety 
of  other  substances  of  ill-defined  nature. 

The  Animal  Body  as  a  Machine. — Mechanically  the  body  of  an 
animal  is  a  very  wonderful  machine,  but  what  is  of  peculiar  interest 
in  this  connection  is  that  the  body  is  what  tlie  engineer  calls  a  prime 
motor — ^that  is,  like  the  steam  or  gasoline  engine,  it  moves  itself  and 
may  supply  power  to  move  other  machines.  In  fact,  there  is  in  some 
respects  a  very  close  likeness  between  the  animal  body  and  what  are 
known  as  internal-combustion  motors,  i.  e.,  those  engines  in  which 
power  is  developed  by  burning  liquid  or  gaseous  fuel  (gasoline, 
alcohol,  producer  gas,  etc.)  in  the  cylinder  of  the  engine  itself.  Such 
an  engine  requires  two  things  for  its  operation :  ( 1 )  Sufficient  repair 
material  to  keep  its  working  parts  in  running  order,  and  (2)  a  supply 
of  fuel  in  proportion  to  the  work  to  be  done.  Just  these  same  two 
things  are  what  the  animal  requires — repair  material  and  fuel. 

In  one  respect,  however,  the  animal  body  differs  from  the  arti- 
ficial machine — it  can  not  be  stopped  and  started  again  at  \vill.  As 
long  as  the  animal  lives  the  vital  machinery  is  in  operation,  although 
less  actively  at  some  times  than  at  others.  The  animal  might  be  com- 
pared to  an  automobile  whose  engine  must  be  kept  running  at  a  low 
speed  in  order  to  have  the  power  available  when  needed.  Conse- 
quently, the  animal  requires  to  be  supplied  with  repair  material  and 
with  fuel  as  long  as  it  lives  and  not  merely  when  it  is  in  active  use. 

That  the  feed  of  the  animal  is  its  source  of  both  repair  material 
and  fuel  is  sufficiently  obvious.  We  do  not  need  a  physiologist  to  tell 
us  that  when  an  animal  is  deprived  of  food  its  tissues  waste  away 
while  its  fat  is  burned  up  in  the  effort  to  keep  the  bodily  machinery 
in  motion.  We  may  proceed  at  once,  therefore,  to  consider  the  feed 
in  these  two  relations,  but  at  the  same  time  must  weigh  the  effects  of 
all  kinds  of  food  as  regards  their  comparative  values  in  the  economy 
of  fat-production,  heat-generation  and  muscle  formation.  It  is  not 
so  much  what  the  animal  needs  nor  what  the  feed  will  furnish  in  the 
way  of  heat,  energy  and  strength,  so  much  as  it  is  in  what  the  animal 
can  transform  into  those  effects  from  the  feed.  In  other  words,  the 
desired  elements  in  the  feed  must  be  so  available  that  the  particular 
animal  can  transform  them  into  the  power  required.  (This  leads 
to  a  study  of  both  ajiimal  digestion  and  plant  nutrition.) 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 


293 


Average  Composition  of  Feeding  Stuffs. — The  following  table 
shows  the  average  composition  of  a  considerable  number  of  American 
feeding  stuffs.  In  this  table  the  common  practice  has  been  followed 
of  dividing  the  group  of  carbohydrates  into  two  portions.  The  crude 
fiber  or  woody  fiber  is  stated  separately,  partly  because  it  is  of  some- 
what inferior  nutritive  value  and  partly  because  it  gives  some  indica- 
tion of  the  bulkiness  and  wobdiness  of  the  feeding  stuff.  The  column 
headed  nitrogen-free  extract  includes  all  the  carbohydrates  except  the 
crude  fiber — that  is,  the  sugar,  starch,  etc. 


Water 

Ash 

Crude 
protein  a 

Carbohydrates 

Feeding  stufiE 

Crude 

fiber 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fat  (ether 
extract) 

Green  fodder  and  silage: 

Alfalfa 

Per  cent 
71.8 
80.9 
70.8 
79.3 
74.4 
71.1 
85.7 
76.6 
61.6 

8.4 
15.3 
42.2 
40.5 
10.7 

1.1 
16.0 
11.3 
13.2 

9.2 
7.1 
9.6 

88.6 
91.2 
78.9 
88.6 
90.6 

10.9 
10.9 
15.1 
11.0 
10.5 
11.6 
10.5 

8.0 
75.7 
11.8 

8.2 

7.0 
6.8 

8.1 

8.2 

8.1 

9.2 

9.9 

10.2 

11.8 

89.9 

6.4 

11  9 

12.1 

Per  cent 
2.7 
1.7 
2.1 
1.2 
1.5 
1.7 
2.0 
1.8 
2.1 

7.4 
6.2 
2.7 
3.4 
7.5 
6.0 
6.1 
7.2 
4.4 

5.1 
8.2 
4.2 

1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
1.2 

.8 

2.4 
1.5 
1.5 
3.0 
2.6 
1.9 
1.8 

3.4 
1.0 

4.8 
7.2 

2.0 
2.1 
1.3 

.9 
1.0 
5.7 
5.6 
5.7 
3.5 

.4 
8.3 
5.8 
8.3 

Per  cent 
4.8 
3.1 
4.4 
1.8 
2.2 
3.1 
2.4 
2.6 
3.1 

14.3 

12.3 
4.5 
3.8 

16.6 
7.5 
7.4 

15.4 
6.9 

4.0 
3.0 
3.4 

1.1 
1.4 
2.1 

1.2 
1.3 

12.4 
10.5 
8.5 
11.8 
20.2 
10.6 
11.9 

24.1 

5.4 
28.0 
42.3 

29.2 
17.3 
23.2 
24.5 
28.3 
32.9 
35.9 
23.2 
14.7 
1.0 
10.8 
15.4 
15.6 

Percent 
7.4 
5.2 
8.1 
5.0 
5.8 
9.2 
2.2 
11.6 
11.8 

25.0 
24.8 
14.3 
19.7 
20.1 
27.7 
27.2 
22.3 
29.0 

37.0 
38.9 
38.1 

1.3 

.8 

.6 

1.3 

1.2 

2.7 
2.1 
6.6 
9.5 
14.4 
1.7 
1.8 

13.0 
3.8 
6.3 
5.6 

11.0 

12.3 
6.4 
6.1 
1.1 
8.9 
8.8 

10.7 
3.3 
2.2 

19.8 
9.0 
4.6 

Per  cent 

12.3 

8.4 

13.5 

12.2 

15.0 

14.2 

7.1 

6.8 

20.2 

42.7 
38.1 
34.7 
31.5 
42.2 
49.0 
40.6 
28.6 
45.0 

42.4 
46.6 
43.4 

7.6 
5.4 
17.3 
7.5 
5.9 

69.8 
69.6 
64.8 
59.7 
51.1 
72.5 
71.9 

44.8 
12.5 
41.9 
23.6 

89.4 
51.0 
54.7 
47.8 
50.8 
85.4 
36.8 
48.5 
63.9 
6.3 
58.4 
53.9 
60.4 

Per  cent 
1.0 

Clover — crimson 

.7 

Clover — red 

1.1 

Corn  fodder 

.5 

Corn  silage 

1.1 

Hungarian  grass 

.7 

.6 

Rye  fodder 

.6 

Timothy 

1.2 

Hay  and  dry  coarse  fodders: 

Alfalfa  hay 

2  2 

3  3 

1.6 

1.1 

2.9 

Hungarian  hay 

2.1 

Oat  hay 

2.7 

5.2 

2.5 

Straws: 

2.3 

1  2 

Wheat  straw 

1.3 

Roots  and  tubers: 

.4 

.2 

.1 

.2 

.2 

Grains: 

1.8 

5.4 

3.5 

Oats 

5.0 

1.2 

Rye 

1.7 

Wheat 

2.1 

By-products: 

Brewers'  grains — dried 

6.7 

Brewers'  grains — wet 

1.6 

Buckwheat  middlings 

7.2 

13.1 

Distillers^  grains— dried— 

11.4 

Principally  rye 

7.5 

Gluten  feed — dry 

6.3 

12.5 

Gluten  meal — Chicago 

10.7 

Linseed  meal— old  process 

Linseed  meal— new  process 

7.9 
3.0 
1.7 

2.8 

.2 

Sugar  beet  pulp— dried 

Wheat  bran 

1.3 
4.0 

Wheat  middlings 

4.0 

«?  Total  NX  6.25. 


294  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

The  Demand  for  Repair  Material. — The  repair  material  for  any 
machine  must  be  of  the  same  kind  of  which  the  machine  is  made. 
We  have  just  seen  that  the  machinery  of  the  body  is  composed  of 
protein,  ash,  and  water.  These,  then,  are  the  materials  which  must 
be  supplied  to  keep  it  in  repair.  Water,  of  course,  is  or  should  be 
abundantly  supplied  in  the  drink  and  scarcely  need  be  considered 
in  a  discussion  of  rations. 

Ash. — The  ash  supply  has  received  less  attention  in  the  past  than 
its  importance  deserves.  In  the  ordinary  operation  of  the  bodily  ma- 
chinery its  ash  ingredients  are  being  continually  excreted  and  the 
food  must  supply  ash  sufficient  in  amount  and  of  the  right  kinds  to 
make  good  the  loss,  while  the  growing  animal  needs  an  additional 
supply  for  building  up  its  new  tissues.  Fortunately,  normally  con- 
stituted rations  appear  to  be  rarely  deficient  in  ash.  Usually  it  is 
only  when  large  amounts  of  certain  by-product  feeds  are  used  or 
when  there  is  a  misrelation  between  grain  and  coarse  fodder  that 
special  attention  needs  to  be  given  to  the  ash  supply. 

Protein. — The  protein  supply,  on  the  other  hand,  calls  for  care- 
ful consideration.  Protein  is  the  characteristic  ingredient  of  the 
animal  mechanism,  and  is  broken  down  and  destroyed  in  its  opera- 
tion at  a  fairly  regular  rate.  Moreover,  since  the  bodily  machinery 
is  running  all  the  time,  whether  any  external  work  is  done  or  not, 
this  loss  is  continually  going  on. 

The  body  differs  from  a  machine  in  being  self-repairing,  but  it 
can  not  manufacture  protein  for  repair  purposes  out  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats  of  its  feed  any  more  than  it  is  possible  to  make 
repairs  for  an  automobile  out  of  the  gasoline  which  supplies  the 
power.  For  its  protein  the  body  is  absolutely  dependent  on  the 
protein  of  the  feed.    This  protein  is  needed  for  two  purposes. 

First.  It  is  required  for  repair  purposes  in  the  strict  sense; 
i.  e.,  for  making  good  the  w^ear  and  tear  of  the  bodily  machinery. 
The  amount  needed  for  this  purpose  is  comparatively  small,  and  is 
no  greater  under  normal  conditions  when  the  animal  is  doing  work 
than  when  it  is  not.  Like  a  good  engine,  the  body  makes  relatively 
small  demands  for  repair  material  and  requires  chiefly  fuel. 

Second.  Protein  as  well  as  ash  is  needed  in  the  growing,  preg- 
nant, or  milking  animal  to  furnish  the  material  for  enlarging  the 
working  machinery  of  the  body  of  the  animal  itself  or  of  its  young. 
The  amount  of  protein  required  for  this  purpose  is  just  so  much  in 
addition  to  that  needed  for  repair  purposes  simply,  and  hence  the 
feed  of  these  animals  must  contain  a  more  liberal  supply  of  this  in- 
gredient. This  is  important  physiologically  to  secure  proper  nutri- 
tion of  the  young  and  economically  because  the  growth  of  milk  pro- 
duced is  the  principal  object  of  the  feeder. 

Feed  as  a  Source  of  Repair  Material. — For  the  reasons  stated 
the  ash  has  generally  been  omitted  from  consideration  in  discuss- 
ing the  feed  as  a  source  of  repair  material.  The  value  of  a  feeding 
stuff  as  a  source  of  protein  to  the  animal  body  evidently  depends  in 
the  first  place  on  the  amount  of  protein  which  it  contains.  Cotton- 
6Qed  meal,  carrying  some  43  per  cent  of  protein,  is  evidently,  other 


BREEDS  OF  BEEP  CATTLE  295 

things  being  equal,  a  better  source  of  protein  than  Indian  corn,  car- 
rying about  10  per  cent. 

In  the  second  place,  however,  the  protein  of  the  feeding  stuff 
must  be  capable  of  being  digested  by  the  animal.  Of  two  feeding 
stuffs  containing  equal  amounts  of  protein,  that  one  is  the  more 
valuable  as  a  source  of  supply  in  which  the  larger  proportion  of  the 
protein  is  digestible.  The  second  column  of  the  table  herein  shows 
the  average  percentage  of  digestible  protein  contained  in  a  number 
of  the  more  common  feeding  stuffs.  These  figures  are  the  average 
results  of  a  considerable  number  of  analyses  of  the  feeding  stuffs 
and  a  smaller  number  of  determinations  of  their  digestibility.  In- 
dividual samples  may  vary  more  or  less,  and  sometimes  considerably, 
from  the  average. 

A  third  question  is  at  once  suggested,  viz,  whether  the  digest- 
ible protein  from  different  feeding  stuffs  is  equally  valuable  to  the 
animal.  It  is  unlikely  that  this  is  exactly  the  case,  but  whether 
these  probable  differences  are  of  much  practical  significance,  espe- 
cially in  rations  containing  a  number  of  feeding  stuffs,  seems  doubt- 
ful. At  any  rate,  the  only  course  open  at  present  is  to  assume  them 
to  be  of  substantially  equal  value. 

The  Demand  for  Fuel  Material. — Since  the  animal  machinery 
is  running  continually,  it  requires  a  continual  supply  of  fuel  ma- 
terial, the  amount  which  is  necessary  depending  upon  the  amount 
of  work  done.  This  fuel  material  consists  chiefly  of  the  carbohy- 
drates and  fats  of  the  food,  although  if  more  protein  be  fed  than  is 
required  for  repair  and  construction  purposes  it,  too,  may  be  used  as 
fuel,  while  the  worn-out  portions  of  the  protein  tissues  are  also  util- 
ized— that  is,  the  bodily  engine  can  burn  up  its  own  waste  products 
as  fuel.  The  unnecessary  use  of  protein  as  fuel  material,  however, 
is  wasteful,  because  protein  is  ordinarily  more  expensive  to  buy  or 
to  produce  on  the  farm  than  are  carbohydrates  and  fat. 

If  the  fuel  materials  supplied  in  the  food  are  just  adequate  to 
the  work  to  be  done,  thej  are  virtually  burned  up  as  a  source  of 
power.  If  more  are  supplied  than  are  immediately  needed,  the  body 
is  able  to  store  away  the  surplus  for  future  use,  much  as  we  may  fill 
up  the  gasoline  tank  of  an  engine.  To  a  small  extent  the  body  stores 
up  carbohydrates  (in  the  form  of  glycogen),  but  most  of  its  surplus 
fuel  it  converts  into  fat.  The  fat  of  the  body,  therefore,  is  its  re- 
serv-e  of  fuel.  In  fattening,  the  body  is  accumulating  a  surplus 
against  future  needs  which  man  diverts  to  his  own  use  as  food.  If 
the  feed  becomes  insufficient,  this  store  is  drawn  upon  and  the  ani- 
mal gradually  becomes  lean.  Similarly,  in  growth  and  in  milk  pro- 
duction, the  animal  sets  aside  a  part  of  the  supply  of  both  repair 
and  fuel  material  in  its  food  for  its  ovm  growth  or  for  the  use  of  its 
young,  and  man  appropriates  the  resulting  meat  or  milk  as  repair 
and  fuel  material  for  his  own  body. 

FerrJ  as  a  Source  of  Fuel  Material. — "We  can  run  an  engine  with 
various  kinds  of  fuel.  For  the  st^^am  engine  we  may  use  coal,  wood  or 
petroleum ;  for  the  internal-combustion  motor,  gas,  alcohol,  or  gaso- 
line may  be  employed.    Similarly  we  supply  the  animal  body  with 


296  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

a  great  variety  of  feeding  stuffs  from  which  it  has  to  extract  its  sup- 
ply of  fuel,  and  even  the  materials  which  it  actually  burns  up  are 
of  various  sorts. 

These  fuel  materials  are  not  all  of  equal  value.  A  pound  of 
good  anthracite  coal,  for  example,  is,  other  things  being  equal,  about 
14  per  cent  more  valuable  as  fuel  than  the  same  weight  of  alcohol, 
while  a  pound  of  fat  in  the  food  has  over  twice  the  fuel  value  of  a 
pound  of  starch.  Evidently,  it  will  greatly  simplify  comparisons 
of  different  feeding  stuffs  and  rations  as  sources  of  fuel  material  to 
have  some  simple  method  by  which  we  can  learn  not  only  the  amount 
of  fuel  material  which  the  feed  contains,  but  also  the  quality  of  that 
fuel.  Such  a  basis  of  comparison  is  afforded  by  a  study  of  the 
energy  values. 

Measurement  of  Energy. — Anything  which  has  the  capacity  to 
do  work  is  said  to  possess  energy.  Hence  we  say  that  the  fuel  of  the 
engine  and  the  feed  of  the  animal  possess  energy,  since  they  enable 
the  engine  or  the  body  to  do  work.  They  hold  this  energy  stored 
up  in  the  "latent"  or  "potential"  form  of  chemical  energy.  When 
they  are  burned  in  the  engine  or  the  body,  this  chemical  energy  is 
set  free,  part  of  it  being  converted  into  work  and  the  rest  escaping 
as  heat. 

Plainly,  then,  the  value  of  a  fuel,  or  of  a  feeding  stuff  so  far  as 
it  serves  as  fuel,  depends,  in  the  first  place,  on  how  much  chemical 
energy  it  contains.  This  can  be  measured  without  difficulty  by 
converting  it  all  into  heat,  by  burning  the  substance,  and  measur- 
ing the  heat  produced.  Various  units  have  been  employed  in  meas- 
unng  heat,  but  the  one  used  in  this  article  is  the  therm. 

A  therm*  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  1,000  kilograms  (2,204.6  pounds)  of  water  1°  C.  A  pound 
of  good  anthracite  coal  would  produce  heat  enough  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  about  3,583  kilograms  of  water  1°  C.  Consequently, 
the  chemical  energy  contained  in  the  coal  is  3.583  therms  per  pound. 
In  precisely  the  same  way  the  amount  of  chemical  energy  contained 
in  many  feeding  stuffs  has  been  measured.  The  following  are  the 
results  of  a  few  such  determinations : 

Chemical  Energy  in  100  Pounds  (With  15  per  cent  moisture.) 

Therms. 

Timothy  hay 175.1 

Clover  hay 173.2 

Oat  straw 171.0 

*In  the  nutrition  investigations  and  studies  of  foods  and  feeding  stuffs  made 
by  this  Department  and  by  the  State  agricultural  experiment  stations,  the  results, 
so  far  as  energy  or  fuel  value  is  concerned,  have  been  expressed  in  calories. 
There  is  consequently  a  large  mass  of  available  data  so  expressed.  The  calorie 
is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  1  kilogram  of  water  1°  C.  (approximately 
1  pound  of  water  4°  F.).  The  small  size  of  the  unit  has  made  it  necessarv  to 
use  inconveniently  large  numbers  to  express  the  fuel  values  of  foods  and  feeding 
stuffs,  a  difficulty  which  is  obviated  by  the  use  of  the  therm.  As  the  latter  unit 
is  equivalent  to  1,000  calories,  available  data,  such,  for  example,  as  those  in 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  22,  can  be  readily  given  expression  in  the  new  unit.  The 
use  of  the  word  therm,  with  the  abbreviation  *.,  has  also  been  proposed  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  small  (or, gram)  calorie,  but  it  has  not  come  into  £eneral  use. 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  297 

Therms. 

"Wheat  straw 171.4 

Corn  meal 170.9 

Oats 180.6 

Wheat  bran 175.5 

Linseed  meal 196.7 

Utilization  of  Energy. — But  the  value  of  a  fuel  depends  also 
upon  how  much  of  the  chemical  energy  which  it  contains  can  be  used. 
Hard  coal  contains  plenty  of  energy,  but  it  would  not  be  of  much 
use  to  run  a  gasoline  engine.  Wheat  straw  contains  fully  as  much 
chemical  energy  as  corn  meal,  but  much  of  that  energy  can  not  be 
utilized  by  the  animal  machine.  Two  causes  combine  to  affect  the 
utilization  of  the  chemical  energy  contained  in  feeding  stuffs. 

First,  more  or  less  of  the  feed  escapes  from  the  body  unbumed. 
If  a  coal  is  of  such  quality  that  portions  of  it  drop  through  the  grate 
unconsumed,  and  if  smoke  and  combustible  gases  are  carried  off 
tlirough  the  stack,  it  is  evident  that  a  ton  of  it  will  supply  far  less 
heat  to  the  boiler  than  it  would  if  the  combustion  were  perfect.  The 
case  of  the  feeding  stuff  is  similar.  Much  of  even  the  best  feeding 
stuffs  escapes  digestion  and  is  excreted  in  the  dung,  carrying  with  it 
a  corresponding  quantity  of  the  chemical  energy  of  the  feed.  More 
or  less  incompletely  burned  material  is  also  contained  in  the  urine, 
while  ruminants,  and  to  a  certain  extent  horses,  also  give  off  combust- 
ible gases,  arising  from  fermentations  in  the  digestive  tract.  Thus 
about  22  per  cent  of  the  chemical  energy  of  corn  meal  and  fully  55 
per  cent  of  that  of  average  hay  has  been  found  to  escape  in  these 
ways. 

Second,  as  already  pointed  out,  the  animal  body  has  to  extract 
its  real  fuel  material  from  its  feed,  separating  i":  from  the  relatively 
large  proportion  of  useless  material  which  it  excretes.  To  effect 
this  separation  requiras  work  and  consumes  energy,  and  this  energy, 
of  course,  is  not  available  for  other  purposes.  The  case  is  somewhat 
as  if  the  gasoline  engine  had  to  distill  its  own  gasoline  and  separate 
it  from  impurities.  Moreover,  when  the  animal  eats  more  feed  than 
is  required  simply  to  furnish  energy  to  run  its  machinery,  and  hence 
is  able  to  produce  meat  or  milk,  the  process  of  converting  the  food 
into  suitable  forms  to  store  up  in  the  body  seems  to  require  a 
further  expenditure  of  energy. 

It  is  not,  then,  the  total  chemical  energy  contained  in  a  feeding 
stuff  which  mea.sures  its  value  as  fuel  material  to  the  body,  but  what 
remains  after  deducting  the  losses  in  the  unbumed  materials  of  the 
excreta  and  the  energy  expended  in  extracting  the  real  fuel  ma- 
terials from  the  feed  and  transforming  them  into  substances  which 
the  body  can  use  or  store  up.  For  example,  while  100  pounds  of 
com  meal  contain,  as  stated,  about  170.9  therms  of  chemical  energy, 
only  about  88.8  terms  remain,  after  all  these  deductions  have  been 
made,  to  represent  the  actual  value  of  the  com  meal  as  a  source  of 
energy  to  the  organism. 

Energy  Values  of  Feeding  Stuffs. — While  it  is  a  comparatively 
simple  matter  to  ascertain  the  total  amount  of  chemical  energy  con- 
tained in  a  feeding  stuff,  the  determination  of  the  proportion  of  this 


298  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

energy  which  the  body  can  actually  utilize  requires  the  use  of  com- 
plicated and  costly  apparatus  (respiration  apparatus  or  respiration 
calorimeter)  and  the  expenditure  of  much  time  and  labor.  While 
much  has  been  accomplished  along  this  line,  vastly  more  still  re- 
mains to  be  done  before  we  can  claim  to  have  even  a  fairly  com- 
plete knowledge  of  the  energy  values  of  feeding  stuffs.  At  the  same 
time,  enough  has  already  been  accomplished,  chiefly  through  the 
investigations  of  G.  Kiihn  and  of  Kellner  at  the  Mockern  Experi- 
ment Station  in  Germany,  since  1882,  and  in  part  also  by  experi- 
ments carried  on,  in  co-operation  A^-ith  this  Department,  by  the 
Institute  of  Animal  Nutrition  of  The  Pennsylvania  State  College, 
to  demonstrate  that  the  method  still  generally  current  of  comparing 
feeding  stuffs  on  the  basis  of  the  digestible  matter  which  they  con- 
tain is  seriously  erroneous  and  to  furnish  the  beginnings  of  a  reform. 

The  last  column  of  the  table  on  page  300  contains  the  energy 
values  of  the  feeding  stuffs,  whose  composition  is  given  herein,  com- 
puted on  the  basis  of  Kellner's  investigations.  They  are  what  Kell- 
ner call  production  values — i.  e.,  they  show  primarily  the  value  of 
the  different  feeding  stuffs  for  the  production  of  gain  in  mature 
fattening  cattle.  Even  for  this  purpose  many  of  them  are  con- 
fessedly approximate  estimates,  and  still  less  can  they  be  regarded 
as  strictly  accurate  for  other  kinds  of  animals  and  other  purposes 
of  feeding.  Nevertheless,  there  seems  to  be  reason  for  believing 
that  they  also  represent  fairly  well  the  relative  values  of  feeding 
stuffs  for  sheep  at  least,  and  probably  for  horses,  and  for  growth 
and  milk  production  as  well  as  for  fattening.  At  any  rate,  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  they  are  decidedly  more  accurate  than  the  figures 
which  have  been  commonly  used,  and  we  are  quite  justified  in  using 
them  tentatively  and  subject  to  correction  by  the  results  of  later  ex- 
periments. 

As  regards  swine,  the  matter  is  far  lees  certain,  and  it  may  per- 
haps be  questioned  whether  the  values  given  in  the  table  are  any 
more  satisfactory  for  this  animal  than  the  older  ones. 

Feed  Requirements. — Assuming  that  the  big  table  on  next  page 
represents,  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy,  the  amount  of  repair 
material  (protein),  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  energy,  on  the  other, 
which  the  various  feeding  stuffs  can  supply,  we  still  need  to  know 
how  much  of  each  is  required  by  the  bodies  of  animals  of  different 
kinds  and  kept  for  different  purposes ;  in  other  words,  we  need  some 
formulation  of  the  feed  requirements  of  farm  animals. 

Since  the  animal  machine  can  not  be  stopped  when  it  is  not  in 
active  use,  it  requires,  as  shown  herein,  and  as  is  a  familiar  fact  of 
experience,  a  continual  supply  of  food.  This  amount  of  food,  which 
is  required  simply  to  support  the  animal,  is  commonly  designated  as 
the  maintenance  requirement — i.  e.,  it  is  the  amount  required  sim- 
ply to  maintain  the  animal  when  it  is  doing  no  work  and  producing 
nothing.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  least  amount  on  which  life  can 
be  permanently  maintained. 

The  maintenance  requirement  is  naturally  greater  for  a  large 
than  for  a  small  animal.    Experiment  has  shown,  however,  that  this 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 


299 


increase  is  not  proportional  to  the  weight  of  the  animal,  but  approx- 
imately to  the  amount  of  surface  which  it  exposes,  so  that  the  large 
animal  requires  less  food  in  proportion  to  its  weight  to  maintain  it 
than  does  the  small  one. 

The  following  tables  show  the  amounts  of  protein  and  of  energy- 
required  per  head  for  the  maintenance  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  of 
different  weights.  The  figures  given  for  sheep  include  a  sufficient 
allowance  for  the  normal  growth  of  wool.  No  very  satisfactory 
figures  for  swine  are  available.  It  should  be  understood  that  strict 
accuracy  is  not  claimed  for  these  figures,  although  they  are  sub- 
stantially correct.  In  particular  there  seems  to  be  reason  to  believe 
that  the  maintenance  requirement  of  fattening  animals  increases 
somewhat  more  rapidly  than  these  tables  indicate. 


Maintenance 

Requirements 

of  Cattle  and  Horses,  Per  Day  and  Head. 

Cattle 

Horses 

Live  weight 

Digestible 
protein 

Energy  value 

Digestible  protein 

Energy  value 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Therms 

Pounds 

Therms 

150 

0.15 

1.70 

0.30 

2.00 

250 

.20 

2.40 

.40 

2.80 

500 

.30 

3.80 

.60 

4.40 

750 

.40 

4.95 

.80 

5.80 

1. 000 

.50 

6.00 

1.00 

7.00 

1.250 

.60 

7.00 

1.20 

8.15 

l^SOO 

.65 

7.90 

1.30 

9.20 

Maintenance  requirements  of  sheep,  per 
day  and  head. 


Estimated  energy  value  of 
1  pound  of  gain  in 
weight  hy  growing  cat- 
tle and  sheep. 


Live  weight. 

Digestible  protein. 

Energy  value. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Therms 

20 

0.23 

0.30 

40 

.05 

.54 

60 

.07 

.71 

80 

.09 

.87 

100 

.10 

1.00 

120 

.11 

1.13 

140 

.13 

1.25 

Age. 

Energy  value. 

Months. 

Therms. 

3 

1.50 

6 

1.75 

12 

2.00 

18 

2.50 

24 

2.75 

30 

3.00 

Requirements  for  Growth. — While  young  animals  gain  in 
weight  faster  than  do  older  ones,  a  pound  of  increase  in  live  weight 
in  the  young  animal  contains  much  more  water  and  less  dry  matter 
than  in  the  case  of  a  more  mature  animal.  Moreover,  the  dry  mat- 
ter in  the  case  of  the  young  animal  contains  relatively  more  protein 
and  less  fat,  as  a  rule,  than  in  the  older  one,  and  fat  contains  much 
more  chemical  energy  than  protein,  the  proportion  being  1  to  1.67. 
The  consequence  is  that  a  gain  of  1  pound  in  live  weight  represents 
the  storing  up  of  much  less  energy  in  the  young  than  in  the  mature 
animal,  and  therefore  requires  a  smaller  supply  of  energy  in  the 
food. 


300  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Dry  Matter,  Digestible  Protein,  and  Energy  Values  per  100  Pounds. 


Feeding  stuff 


Green  fodder  and  silage: 

Alfalfa 

Clover — crimson 

Clover— red 

Corn  fodder — green . . 

Corn  silage 

Hungarian  grass 

Rape , 

Rye. 


Timothy 

Hay  and  dry  coarse  fodders: 

Alfalfa  hay  

Clover  hay — red 

Corn  forage,  field  cured  . 

Corn  stover  

Cowpea  hay 

Hungarian  bay 

Oat  hay 

Soy  bean  hay 

Timothy  hay , 

Straws: 

Oat  straw 

Rye  straw 

Wheat  straw 

Roots  and  tubers; 

Carrots 

Mangel-wurzels 

Potatoes 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 

Grains: 

Barley 

Corn  

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Oats. 


Pea  meal 

Rye 

Wheat 

By-products: 

Brewers'  grains — dried 

Brewers'  grains— wet 

Buckwheat  middlings 

Cotton-seed  meal 

Distillers'  grains — dried — 

Principally  corn 

Principally  rye 

Gluten  feed— dry   

Gluten  meal— Buffalo 

Gluten  meal— Chicago 

Lindseed  meal— old  process. . 
Lindseed  meal — new  process. 

Malt  sprouts 

Rye  bran 

Sugar-beet  pulp — fresh 

Sugar-beet  pulp — dried 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings 


Total  dry 

Digestible 

Energy 

matter 

protein 

Value 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Therms. 

28.2 

2.50 

12.45 

19.1 

2.19 

11.30 

29.2 

2.21 

16.17 

20.7 

.41 

12.44 

25.6 

1.21 

16.56 

28.9 

1.33 

14.76 

14.3 

2.16 

11.43 

23.4 

1.44 

11.63 

38.4 

1.04 

19.08 

91.6 

6.93 

34.41 

84.7 

5.41 

34.74 

57.8 

2.13 

30.53 

59.5 

1.80 

26.53 

89.3 

8.57 

42.76 

92.3 

3.00 

44.03 

84.0 

2.59 

36.97 

•88.7 

7.68 

38.65 

86.8 

2.05 

33.56 

90.8 

1.09 

21.21 

92.9 

.63 

20.87 

90.4 

.37 

16.56 

11.4 

.37 

7.82 

9.1 

.14 

4.62 

21.1 

.45 

18.05 

11.4 

.88 

8.00 

9.4 

.22 

5.74 

89.1 

8.37 

80.75 

89.1 

6.79 

88.84 

84.9 

4.53 

72.05 

89.0 

8.36 

66.27 

89.5 

16.77 

71.75 

88.4 

8.12 

81.72 

89.5 

8.90 

82.63 

92.0 

19.04 

60.01 

24.3 

3.81 

14.82 

88.2 

22.34 

75.92 

91.8 

35.15 

84.20 

93.0 

21.93 

79.23 

93.2 

10.38 

60.93 

91.9 

19.95 

79.32 

91.8 

21.56 

88.80 

90.5 

33.09 

78.49 

90.8 

27.54 

78.92 

90.1 

29.26 

74.67 

89.8 

12.36 

46.33 

88.2 

11.35 

56.65 

10.1 

.63 

7.77 

93.6 

6.80 

60.10 

88.1 

10.21 

48.23 

84.0 

12.79 

77.65 

Unfortunately  no  very  extensive  determinations  of  the  compo- 
sition and  energy  values  of  the  increase  of  live  weight  in  growing 
animals  have  yet  been  reported.  The  following  estimates  by  the 
writer,  derived  from  such  data  as  are  available,  may  serve  to  give  a 
general  idea  of  the  requirements  per  pound  of  growth  of  cattle  and 
sheep  at  different  ages,  but  they  can  not  lay  claim  to  any  high  de- 
gree of  accuracy.  The  figures  refer  to  normal  growth,  with  no  con- 
siderable fattening. 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 


301 


The  growing  animal  also  requires  a  sufficient  supply  of  digesti- 
ble protein  for  maintenance  and  to  supply  material  for  new  growth. 
No  very  systematic  study  of  the  latter  requirement  has  yet  been  made, 
but  from  the  results  of  a  considerable  number  of  practical  feeding 
trials  it  is  possible  to  make  a  fairly  satisfactory  estimate  of  the  total 
amounts  of  digestible  protein  which  should  be  contained  in  the  ra- 
tions of  cattle  and  sheep  at  different  ages  to  insure  satisfactory 
growth.  These  estimates  are  contained  in  the  following  table.  They 
are  expressed  in  pounds  per  head  and  include  the  maintenance 
requirement.  As  a  matter  of  convenience,  the  table  also  contains 
the  estimated  energy  values  required  per  head  for  normal  growth, 
and  it  thus  constitutes  a  set  of  approximate  feeding  standards.  In 
their  use  the  weight  rather  than  the  age  of  the  animal  should  be  the 
controlling  factor. 

Estimated  Requirements  <»  Per  Day  and  Head. 

FOR  GROWING  CATTLE.  FOR  GROWING  SHEEP. 


Live 

Disrestible 

Energy 

Age. 

Live 

Digestible 

Energy 

Agre. 

weight. 

protein. 

value. 

weight. 

protein. 

value. 

Months. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Therms. 

Months. 

Pounds. 

Founds. 

Therms. 

3 

21b 

1.10 

5.0 

6 

70 

0.30 

1.30 

6 

425 

1.30 

6.0 

9 

90 

.25 

1.40 

12 

650 

1.65 

7.0 

12 

110 

.23 

1.40 

18 

850 

1.70 

7.5 

15 

130 

.23 

1.50 

24 

1.000 

1.75 

8.0 

18 

145 

.22 

1.60 

30 

1,100 

1.65 

8.0 

a  Including  the  maintenance  requirement. 

No  satisfactory  data  for  colts  are  available,  while,  as  noted  else- 
where, knowledge  of  the  relative  values  of  feeding  stuiffs  for  swine  is 
somewhat  deficient. 

Requirements  for  Fattening. — The  foregoing  data  refer  to  what 
might  be  called  normal  grorwth,  in  which  the  animals  are  kept  in  a 
good  thrifty  condition,  but  do  not  become  fat.  If  any  considerable 
fattening  is  desirable,  somewhat  heavier  rations  must  be  given  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  gain  made,  because  the  increased  gain 
in  fattening  animals  consists  to  a  very  large  extent  of  fat,  and  there- 
fore means  the  storing  up  by  the  animal  of  more  reserve  energy. 
For  fairly  mature  fattening  animals — such,  for  example,  as  the  2 
to  3-year-old  steers  which  are  commonly  fattened  in  the  corn  belt — 
probably  3.5  therms  per  pound  of  gain  in  live  weight  is  a  fair  allow- 
ance, although  more  appears  to  be  often  used  in  practice.  As  yet  no 
corresponding  data  are  available  for  the  fattening  of  growing  ani- 
mals, as,  for  example,  in  the  production  of  the  so-called  baby  beef. 
It  is  not  probable,  however,  that  any  larger  amount  of  protein  is  re- 
quired in  such  fattening  than  in  feeding  simply  for  normal  growth, 
so  that  the  additional  food  given  for  fattening  may,  from  this  point 
of  view,  consist  largely  of  nonnitrogenous  material,  i.  e.,  carbohy- 
drates and  fats.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  an  excess  of  these 
material*  in  the  ration  tends  to  cause  less  perfect  digestion,  and  also 


302  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

that  a  moderate  proportion  of  the  more  nitrogenous  concentrates 
seems  to  aid  in  securing  the  consumption  of  heavy  rations.  Kellner 
recommends  that  at  least  1  pound  of  digestible  protein  be  supplied 
in  the  ration  for  each  8  to  10  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  fat  to 
each  animal. 

Requirements  for  Milk  Production. — Of  all  forms  of  animal 
production  that  of  milk  is  perhaps  the  most  variable  and  most  in- 
fluenced in  its  amount  by  the  feed  supply.  The  energy  relations  of 
milk  production  have  not  been  very  fully  investigated.  Tentatively, 
however,  it  seems  safe  to  estimate  that  the  production  of  1  pound  of 
average  milk,  containing  about  13  per  cent  of  total  solids  and  4  per 
cent  of  fat,  will  require  approximately  0.3  therm  of  production  value 
in  the  feed.  Naturally  this  amount  would  vary  with  the  quality  of 
the  milk,  milk  rich  in  fat  and  in  total  solids  requiring  more  than 
milk  containing  more  water  or  a  lower  percent-age  of  fat.  This  state- 
ment is  based  upon  the  best  authority. 

The  matter  of  the  protein  requirements  for  milk  production 
has  not  been  altogether  cleared  up.  It  seems  to  have  been  pretty 
well  demonstrated  that,  for  a  time  at  least,  milk  production  may  be 
kept  up  on  a  supply  of  protein  very  slightly  exceeding  that  found  in 
the  milk  produced  (of  course,  in  addition  to  the  maintenance  re- 
quirement) .  In  the  case  of  average  milk,  this  would  call  for  about 
0.032  pound  of  digestible  protein  for  each  pound  of  milk.  It  has 
not  been  demonstrated,  however,  that  a  cow  can  keep  this  up  in- 
definitely. Furthermore,  for  the  production  of  liberal  yields  of 
milk  more  protein  seems  to  be  required,  or  at  least  to  be  advantage- 
ous. No  definite  statement  can  be  made  at  present  as  to  how  large 
an  excess  is  necessary.  For  the  ordinary  commercial  dairyman,  how- 
ever, it  is  believed  that  an  allowance  of  0.05  pound  of  digestible 
protein  per  pound  of  milk  will  prove  ample. 

Requirements  for  Work. — Since  the  horse  (or  mule)  is  the 
usual  working  animal  in  the  United  States,  consideration  will  be 
limited  to  this  animal.  There  is  on  record  a  considerable  amount 
of  data  as  to  the  relation  between  the  work  performed  by  the  horse 
and  the  amount  of  energy  necessary  to  be  supplied  in  the  feed. 
Where  large  numbers  of  horses  are  kept  and  the  work  is  relatively 
uniform  in  amount,  it  is  possible  to  make  fairly  satisfactory  compu- 
tations from  these  data,  although  the  method  is  somewhat  compli- 
cated. The  amount  of  work  required  of  farm  horses,  however,  is  so 
varied  in  amount  and  kind  and  so  difficult  of  measurem'ent  or  esti- 
mate as  regards  amount,  that  it  is  scarcely  practicable  to  base  the 
calculations  of  rations  upon  it.  The  large  table  herein  probably 
shows  with  at  least  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  the  relative  values  of 
different  feeding  stuffs  as  sources  of  energy  for  work  production, 
while  the  amount  to  be  fed  will  ordinarily  be  based  upon  the  obser- 
vation of  the  feeder  rather  than  upon  arithmetical  calculations.  As 
a  sort  of  general  average,  however,  Kellner  recommends  the  follow- 
ing rations  for  a  1,000-pound  horse,  the  amounts  stated  including 
the  maintenance  requirement: 


(4 

o 

< 


n 

H 


Q 

o 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  305 

Requirements  of  the  Working  Horses. 


Digestible 
protein. 

Energy 
value. 

FcT  iigh  t  work 

Pounds. 
1.0 
1.4 
2.0 

Therms. 
9.80 

For  medium  work , 

12  40 

Fof  heavy  work 

16.00 

Dry  Matter  in  Rations. — The  total  volume  of  feed  which  an 
animal  requires,  although  rather  variable,  has  its  limits.  In  com- 
puting rations  the  most  convenient  indication  of  the  bulk  of  the 
feeds  is  the  percentage  of  dry  matter  shown  in  the  first  column  of 
the  table  on  page  15.  In  very  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  a 
1,000-pound  ruminant  should  be  given  from  20  to  30  pounds  of 
dry  matter  per  day,  25  pounds  being  perhaps  a  fair  average,  while 
for  the  horse  smaller  amounts  will  be  appropriate. 

A  study  of  the  table  shows  that  concentrated  feeding  stuffs  con- 
tain much  more  protein  and  energy  in  proportion  to  their  dry  mat- 
ter than  do  the  forage  crops.  Evidently,  then,  in  heavy  feeding, 
where  the  purpose  is  to  give  the  animal  all  the  feed  possible,  the  ra- 
tion should  consist  as  largely  as  practicable  of  concentrated  feeding 
stuffs,  because  only  in  that  way  can  the  required  amount  of  food  be 
obtained,  without  unduly  increasing  the  bulk  of  the  ration.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  light  feeding  the  coarse  fodders  may  predominate, 
because  they  are  usually  relatively  cheaper  and  can  supply  the  re- 
quired amount  of  food  in  a  bulk  which  ihe  animal  can  consume. 

THE  COMPUTATION  OF  RATIONS. 

General  Considerations. — In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  con- 
sidered the  requirements  of  the  animal  machine  for  repair  material 
(protein),  and  for  fuel  material  (energy),  and  have  also  studied  the 
food  as  a  source  of  these  two.  If  we  knew  exactly  the  requirements  of 
the  animal  in  any  given  case,  and  if  we  knew  exactly  what  amounts 
of  protein  and  energy  the  feeding  stuffs  at  our  disposal  could  furnish, 
the  computation  of  a  ration  would  be  almost  purely  a  matter  of  arith- 
metic. We  would  simply  have  to  devise  a  mixture  of  the  feeding 
stuffs  which  would  yield  the  requisite  amounts  of  protein  and  energy 
and  would  at  the  same  time  be  of  suitable  bulk  and  of  such  a  char- 
acter as  to  exert  no  injurious  action  upon  the  animal. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  we  have  no  such  exact  knowledge.  Prac- 
tically, animals  vary  in  their  requirements,  while  feeding  stuffs  of 
the  same  name  show  a  wide  range  in  composition,  digestibility,  and 
nutritive  value.  Furthermore,  what  is  still  more  important,  the 
economic  conditions  vary  from  case  to  case  so  that,  for  example,  a 
very  liberal  ration  might  be  advisable  in  one  instance,  while  for  the 
same  animal  under  different  conditions  it  would  be  highly  uneco- 
nomic. The  figures  given  on  previous  pages  can  not  be  made  the 
basis  of  infallible  recipes  which  shall  save  the  user  the  trouble  of 
observing  and  thinking. 


306  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

But  notwithstanding  all  this,  the  foregoing  data  can  afford  val- 
uable aid  to  the  feeder.  By  their  use  he  can  get  a  general  idea  of 
the  feed  requirements  of  jais  animals  and  can  compute  a  ration 
which  will  approximately  supply  the  requisite  amounts  of  protein 
and  energy.  His  ability  as  a  feeder  will  be  shown,  first,  in  his 
power  to  estimate  the  conditions  which  will  modify  the  feed  require- 
ments of  his  particular  animals  and  cause  his  feeds  to  vary  from  the 
average,  and,  second,  in  the  skill  with  which  he  can  interpret  the 
daily  results  and  modify  his  feeding  in  accordance  with  them. 

The  problems  given  on  the  following  pages  are  intended  simply 
as  illustrations  of  the  method  of  using  the  tables  and  not  as  model 
rations.  Limitations  of  space  forbid  the  multiplication  of  examples, 
but  the  reader  who  grasps  the  method  will  have  no  serious  difficulty 
in  applying  it  to  his  own  conditions,  while  facility  will  be  required 
with  surprising  rapidity  by  practice.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
form  of  these  tables  and  the  methods  of  computation  do  not  differ 
materially  from  those  which  have  been  used  for  many  years  in  com- 
puting rations  on  the  basis  of  digestible  nutrients,  although  the  sig- 
nificance of  some  of  the  figures  is  different.  It  may  be  added  that 
the  digestible  protein  in  the  tables  is  true  protein — that  is,  it  does 
not  include  the  so-called  "amids"  of  the  "crude  protein."  Con- 
sequently the  percentages,  as  well  as  the  amounts  estimated  in  the 
rations  on  succeeding  pages,  are  somewhat  smaller  than  in  the  older 
tables. 

Total  Feed  Required. — A  bunch  of  feeders  2  to  3  years  old, 
averaging  1,000  pounds  per  head,  are  to  be  fattened  on  clover  hay 
and  com-and-cob  meal.  Such  cattle,  if  of  good  grade,  should  weigh 
1,400  pounds  each  when  ready  for  market  and  should  not  require 
over  two  hundred  days  to  make  the  gain  of  400  pounds.  They 
should  therefore  make  an  average  gain  of  2  pounds  per  day. 

On  page  301  it  was  estimated  that  a  gain  of  1  pound  live  weight 
requires  about  3.5  therms  energy  value  in  the  feed ;  for  a  daily  gain 
of  2  pounds,  therefore,  the  energy  requirement  would  be  7  therms. 
To  this  must  be  added  the  maintenance  requirement,  which  will  in- 
crease as  the  animals  grow  heavier.  For  the  average  weight  of  1,200 
pounds  it  is  sufficiently  accurate  to  use  the  maintenance  requirement 
computed  in  the  table  on  page  299  for  1,250  pounds,  viz.,  7  therms. 
This  makes  the  total  energy  requirement  per  day  14  therms  on  the 
average  of  the  whole  feeding  period. 

If  we  assume  that  2  pounds  of  grain  will  be  fed  for  each  pound 
of  hay,  it  is  easy  to  compute  from  figures  given  on  the  foregoing 
pages,  the  amount  of  feed  required  to  supply  14  therms  of  energy, 
as  follows: 

Therms. 

In  100  pounds  of  clover  hay 34.75 

In  200  pounds  of  com-and-cob  meal. 144.10 

In  300  pounds  of  feed 178.85 

In  1  pound  of  feed 596 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 


SOT 


To  supply  14  therms  requires  14-^0.596=23.49  pounds  of  total 
feed,  consisting  of  7.83  pounds  of  clover  hay  and  15.66  pounds  of 
com-and-cob  meal,  or,  in  round  numbers,  8  pounds  of  hay  and  16 
pounds  of  meal. 

Thk,  of  course,  represents  the  average  ration  for  the  whole 
feeding  period.  At  the  beginning  the  feed  will  naturally  be  lighter 
and  consist  to  a  larger  extent  of  hay,  while  the  amount  of  feed,  and 
especially  the  proportion  of  grain,  will  be  gradually  increased  until 
toward  the  end  of  the  feeding  the  animals  are  consuming  all  the 
grain  they  will  take,  with  only  enough  hay  to  insure  the  necessary 
bulk  and  proper  digestion.  Naturally,  too,  the  form  in  which  the 
com  is  given  will  usually  be  varied  in  the  course  of  the  feeding. 

Improvement  of  a  Ration. — In  the  foregoing  example  it  was 
assumed  that  the  feeding  stuflPs  to  be  used  had  been  decided  upon 
and  attention  was  directed  simply  to  the  quantity  required.  Let  us 
now  take  up  the  question  from  the  other  end  and  see  where  a  study 
of  the  ration  may  not  yield  some  suggestion  of  possible  improve- 
ment. 

According  to  the  table  herein,  clover  hay  and  com-and-cob 
meal,  respectively,  contain  in  100  pounds^— 


Feed. 

Total   dry 
matter 

Digestible 
protein. 

Energry 
value. 

CI  over  hay 

Pimnds. 
84.9 
84. 

Pounds. 
5.41 
4.53 

Therms. 
34  74 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

72  05 

The  8  pounds  of  clover  hay  in  the  ration  will  evidently  contain 
eight  one-hundredths  of  the  amounts  given  in  the  table,  viz: 
84.7  X0.08=6.78  pounds  of  dry  matter. 
5.41x0.08=0.43  pounds  of  digestible  protein. 
34.74X0.08=2.78  therms  of  energy  value. 
A  precisely  similar  computation  for  the  com-and-cob  meal  gives 
the  following  results: 

84^9  X0.16=13.58  pounds  of  drv  matter. 
4.53X0.16=  0.72  pounds  of  digestible  protein. 
72.05X0.16=11.53  therms  of  energy. 
Adding  these  amounts,  it  is  found  that  the  total  ration  contains: 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 


Clover  hay,  8  pounds 

Corn-and-cob  meal,  16  pounds. 

Total 


Total  dry 
matter. 


Pounds . 

6.78 

13.58 


20.36 


Digestible 
protein. 


Pounds. 
0.43 

.72 


1.15 


Energy 
value. 


Therms. 

2.78 
11.53 


14.31 


The  quantity  of  energy,  of  course,  corresponds  with  that  esti- 
mated to  be  necessary',  because  the  amounts  of  feed  were  fixed  upon 
that  basis.  It  is  observed,  however,  that  the  amount  of  digesti- 
ble protein  in  the  ration  is  considerably  less  than  is  estimated  on 


808 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


page  301  to  be  needed  by  cattle  of  this  age.  A  ration  like  the  above 
might  produce  fair  gains,  but  it  would  fail  to  take  full  advantage  of 
the  capacity  of  such  cattle,  for  growth  and  the  gain  would  most 
likely  fall  below  that  which  was  anticipated.  An  increase  in  the 
protein  could  be  expected  to  make  the  ration  more  efficient.  One 
way  of  accomplishing  this  which  naturally  suggests  itself  is  to  feed 
more  clover  hay,  since  it  is  richer  in  protein  than  the  meal.  This 
would  make  the  ration  more  bulky,  and  the  rather  low  total  for  dry 
matter  indicates  that  a  moderate  increase  in  this  direction  is  prac- 
ticable. In  the  early  stages  of  fattening  in  particular,  at  a  time 
when  we  may  suppose  that  the  call  for  protein  is  greater  than  at 
subsequent  periods,  a  freer  use  of  clover  hay  would  usually  be  prac- 
ticable, as  well  as  desirable  on  the  score  of  economy.  Even  if  we 
suppose  the  proportion  of  hay  and  grain  reversed,  however,  and  the 
ration  to  consist  for  a  time  of  16  pounds  of  hay  and  8  pounds  of 
meal  the  digestible  protein  is  after  all  only  slightly  increased. 

Pounds. 

16  pounds  of  clover  hay  contain  of  digestible  protein 0.86 

8  pounds  of  com-and-cob  meal  contain  of  digestible  protein . .     .36 

Total  digestible  protein 1.22 

To  make  any  marked  change  in  the  ration  in  this  respect,  it  is 
evident  that  there  must  be  introduced  into  it  some  feed  much  richer 
in  protein  than  either  of  those  composing  it.  On  consulting  the 
table  it  is  evident  that  what  is  needed  is  one  of  the  by-product  feeds 
like  gluten  feed  or  meal,  the  oil  meals,  etc.,  and  also  that  only  a 
small  amount  of  one  of  these  will  be  needed  to  effect  a  marked 
change  in  the  ration.  Thus,  if  there  be  substituted  2  pounds  of  old- 
process  linseed  meal  for  2  pounds  of  the  com-and-cob  meal,  the  ra- 
tion will  foot  up  as  follows : 


Kind  and  amonnt  of  feed. 


Clover  hay,  8  pounds 

Corn  and-cob-meal,  14  pounds 

Old-process  linseed-meal,  2  pounds 

Total 


Total  dry 
matter. 


Pounds. 

6.78 

11.87 

1.82 


20.47 


Digestible 
protein 


Pounds. 
0.43 
.63 
.55 


1.61 


Energy 
value. 


Therms. 

2.78 

10.09 

1.58 


14.45 


Thus  at  a  comparatively  small  additional  expense  it  is  possible 
to  improve  the  ration  materially  by  adding  the  lacking  protein,  and 
there  is  little  doubt  that  the  improved  ration  would  produce  a  more 
rapid  gain  and,  under  ordinary  conditions,  a  more  profitable  one  as 
well,  either  by  increasing  the  total  gain  or  shortening  the  feeding 
period. 

^  Computing  a  Ration  From  Given  Feeding  Stujfs. — There  are 
available  for  a  dairy  herd  field-cured  com  forage  (including  the 
ears),  clover  hay,  com  meal,  wheat  bran,  and  gluten  feed.  The 
table  herein  shows  that  these  feeding  stuffs,  if  of  good  average  qual- 
ity, will  furnish  in  100  pounds : 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 


309 


Feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Digestible 
protein. 

Energy 
value. 

Pounds. 
57.8 
84.7 
8&.1 
88.1 
91.9 

Pounds. 

2.13 

5.41 

6.79 

10  21 

19.95 

Therms. 
30.53 

Clover  hay 

34.74 

Corn  meal 

88.84 

Wheat  bran 

48.23 

Gluten  feed 

79.32 

The  cows  average  850  pounds  per  head  and  have  produced  in 
previous  years  an  average  of  20  pounds  of  milk  per  day.  According 
to  the  table  above,  the  maintenance  requirement  of  such  animals 
per  day  and  head  would  be  approximately — 

Digestible  protein pound . .  0.45 

Energy    therms . .   5.60 

For  the  production  of  20  pounds  of  milk  of  average  quality  there 
would  be  needed. 

Digestible  protein    (0.05x20) pounds..        1 

Energy    (0.3x20) therms..        6 

The  total  feed  requirements  per  day  and  head  are  therefore : 


Digestible 
protein. 

Energy 
value. 

Pounds. 
0.45 
1.00 

Therms. 
5  60 

For  milk  production , 

6.00 

1.45 

11.60 

The  problem,  then,  is  to  find  a  mixture  of  the  available  feeding 
stuffs  which  will  yield  these  amounts  of  digestible  protein  and  of 
energ}^  and  which  shall  have  a  suitable  bulk.  The  first  step  in  the 
construction  of  a  ration  is  to  fix  upon  the  amounts  of  coarse  fodders. 
It  is  usually  desirable  to  use  as  large  a  proportion  of  these  as  possible, 
since  they  are  usually  cheaper  sources  of  food  than  grain.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  amount  of  them  which  an  animal  can  consume  is 
limited.  Much  depends  upon  the  individual  animals,  and  the  proper 
amount  can  only  be  told  by  trial,  but  it  is  aimed  to  get  from  12  to  14 
pounds  of  dry  matter  in  the  form  of  coarse  fodder.  Com  forage 
being  a  cheap  feeding  stuff,  it  is  best  to  use  this  freely,  with  prob- 
ably some  hay  for  variety.  By  a  little  trial,  it  is  found  that  14 
pounds  of  corn  forage  and  6  pounds  of  clover  hay  will  give  us  12 
pounds  of  dry  matter  and  the  amounts  of  digestible  protein  and  of 
energy  shown  below: 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 


Com  forage.  12  pounds 
Clover  bay,  6  pounds  ■  ■ 

Total 


Total  dry 
matter. 


Pounds. 
6.94 
5.08 


12.02 


Digestible 
protein. 


Founds, 

0.26 

.32 


.58 


Energy, 
value. 


Therms. 
3.66 
2.08 


B.74 


310 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


To  this  is  added  sufficient  grain  to  bring  the  ration  up  to  the 
requirement.  The  proper  amount  must  be  ascertained  by  trial.  At 
a  venture  there  is  taken  5  pounds  of  corn  meal  and  2  pounds  of 
wheat  bran.    Add  this  to  the  ration  and  the  result  is — 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 


Corn  forage,  12  pounds. 
Clover  hay,  6  pounds. . . 
Corn  meal,  5  pounds  . . . 
Wheat  bran,  2  pounds. . 


Total 


Total  dry 
matter. 


Pounds. 
6.94 
5.08 
4.46 
1.77 


18.25 


Digestible 
protein. 


Pounds. 

0.26 

.32 

.34 

.20 


1.12 


EnergT 
value. 


Therms. 

3.66 

2.08 

4.44 

.% 


11.14 


Comparing  these  totals  with  the  requirement  as  computed,  it  is 
found  that  the  ration  is  slightly  deficient  in  energy  and  considerably 
so  in  digestible  protein,  while  the  rather  low  figure  for  dry  matter 
shows  that  more  feed  may  be  added  to  it  if  desirable.  Of  the  feeding 
stuffs  available,  gluten  feed  is  the  one  richest  in  protein,  and  nat- 
urally this  is  used  to  make  up  for  the  lack  of  this  material.  The 
ration  still  needs  0.33  pound  of  digestible  protein  in  the  ration,  and 
this  will  be  almost  exactly  supplied  by  1%  pounds  of  gluten  feed. 
Making  this  addition,  the  ration  stands  thus: 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 


Corn  foragre,  12  pounds. . 
Clover  hay,  6  pounds  . . . 
Corn  meal,  5  pounds. . . . 
Wheat  bran,  2  pounds . . 
Gluten  feed.  \}i  pounds. 


Total 


Total  dry 
matter. 


Pounds. 
6.^ 
5.08 
4.46 
1.77 
1.38 


19.63 


Digestible 
protein. 


Pounds. 
0.26 
.32 
.34 
.20 
.30 


1.42 


Energy 
value. 


Therms. 
3.66 
2.08 
4.44 
.% 
1.19 


12.33 


This  ration  contains  almost  exactly  the  desired  amount  of 
digestible  protein,  but  it  supplies  a  surplus  of  energy  which  would 
probably  tend  to  fatten  the  cows  rather  than  to  cause  any  marked 
increase  in  the  milk  flow.  It  is  wished,  therefore,  to  reduce  the 
energy  content  while  retaining  the  same  amount  of  protein.  This 
can  be  done  by  taking  out  some  material,  such  as  corn  meal,  which 
supplies  chiefly  energy,  and  substituting  for  it  a  smaller  quantity 
of  some  substance  like  gluten  feed,  rich  in  protein.  Thus,  exchang- 
ing 1  pound  of  com  meal  for  one-half  pound  of  gluten  feed  gives  a 
ration  which  agrees  very  closely  with  the  computed  requirements: 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Digestible 
protein. 

Energy 

value. 

Corn  forage,  12  pounds 

Pounds. 
6.94 
5.08 
3.56 
1.77 
1.84 

Pounds. 

0.26 
.32 
.27 
,20 
.40 

Therms. 
3.66 

Clover  hay.  6  pounds 

2.08 

Corn  meal,  4  pounds 

3.55 

Wheat  bran,  2  pounds 

.% 

Gluten  feed,  2  pounds 

1.59 

Total 

19.19 

1.45 

11.84 

BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  311 

This  ration  corresponds  Tvith  ihe  average  requirement  of  the 
whole  herd,  since  it  is  based  on  its  average  performance.  It  hardly 
need  be  said  that  it  should  be  modified  to  suit  the  requirements  and 
capacities  of  the  individual  cows,  the  heavy  milkers  getting  more 
and  the  lighter  ones  less. 

By  proceeding  in  this  manner,  with  a  little  patience  there  can 
usually  be  obtained  a  ration  corresponding  as  closely  as  it  is  neces- 
sary to  the  requirement,  provided  the  feeds  available  admit  of  it. 
"With  a  little  experience  one  very  soon  learns  to  guess  pretty  closely, 
and  with  some  practice  finds  the  computations  very  easy.  An  exact 
agreement  with  the  requirement  need  not  be  sought  for,  since  in 
practice  the  composition  of  the  feeds  will  probably  vary  more  or  less 
from  the  average  of  the  tables. 

The  Choice  of  Feeding  Stuffs. — ^When,  as  in  the  last  example, 
feeding  stuffs  must  be  purcnased  in  order  to  get  the  desired  relation 
between  the  protein  and  the  energy  of  the  ration,  it  is  evident  that 
often  a  wide  range  of  choice  may  be  offered.  In  such  a  case  the 
question  at  once  arises  which  of  the  various  feeds  available  is  it  most 
economical  to  purchase,  it  being  evident,  of  course,  that  this  is  not 
necessarily  the  one  offered  at  the  lowest  price. 

No  simple  method  of  determining  this  point  is  possible,  be- 
cause, as  seen,  the  food  serves  two  entirely  distinct  purposes  in  the 
body.  Sometimes  the  supply  of  protein  is  the  specially  important 
point,  and  in  other  cases  what  is  needed  is  a  supply  of  energy  with- 
out special  reference  to  whether  its  source  be  protein  or  non-nitrog- 
enous material.  Consequently,  the  relative  values  of  two  feeding 
stuffs  may  vary  under  different  circumstances.  Some  writers  have 
based  their  comparisons  of  the  values  of  by-product  feeds  solely 
upon  their  content  of  protein,  for  the  reason  that  such  feeds  are 
often  bought  especially  to  supply  this  ingredient,  while  the  fats 
and  especially  the  carbohydrates  are  usually  produced  in  abundance 
upon  the  farm.  They  regard  that  purchased  feeding  stuff  as  the 
most  economical  which  furnishes  a  pound  of  digestible  protein  at 
the  lowest  cost,  ignoring  any  value  in  the  other  ingredients.  It  is 
obvious,  however,  that  this  is  a  one-sided  view.  The  other  ingredi- 
ents have  a  value,  and  this  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  a  feeder 
who  bu3'S  a  considerable  part  of  his  grain  supply  and  depends  upon 
it  as  a  source  of  energy,  as  well  as  oi  protein.  The  method  of  com- 
parison illustrated  in  the  following  pages  is  based  primarily  upon 
the  cost  per  unit  of  energy  because  this  is  on  the  whole  the  most  im- 
portant function  of  the  feed,  but  the  method  takes  account  also  of 
the  amount  of  protein  present. 

Suppose  the  following  feeding  stuffs  are  available  to  a  dairy- 
man at  the  prices  named : 

Prices  of  Feeds  Per  Ton. 

Oats  (40  cents  per  bushel) $25 

Com   meal    25 

Wheat  bran    21 

"WTieat  middlings 24 

Dried  brewers'  grains 23 


312 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


Gluten  feed $27 

Cotton-se€d  meal    30 

Old-process  linseed  meal 33 

The  supply  of  coarse  feed  on  the  farm  is  sufficient  to  furnish 
each  animal  per  day  32  pounds  of  silage  and  8  pounds  of  clover 
hay;  the  cows  average  1,000  pounds  each  and  may  be  expected  to 
produce  about  24  pounds  of  milk  per  day.  The  first  step  is  to  com- 
pute, in  precisely  the  same  way  as  in  the  previous  example,  the  esti- 
mated requirements  of  these  cows  per  day  as  follows: 


Requirements. 

Digestible 
protein. 

Energy 
value. 

For  maintenance 

Pounds. 
0.50 

1.20 

Therms. 
6.00 

For  24  pounds  of  milk; 

Protein  24X  0.05 

Energy  24 X  0 .30 

7.20 

Total  requirement... 

1.70 

13.20 

The  amounts  of  silage  and  clover  hay  available  will  furnish,  ac- 
cording to  the  table,  the  following  amounts  of  dry  matter,  digestible 
protein,  and  energy  value: 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 


Total  dry 
matter. 


Digestible 
protein. 


Energy 
value. 


Corn  silage,  32  pounds 
Clover  bay,  8  pounds. 

Total 


Pounds. 
8.  In 
6.78 


Pounds. 

0.39 

.43 


14.97 


.82 


Therms. 
5.30 
2.78 


8.08 


The  question  now  is  what  feeding  stuffs  is  it  most  economical 
to  buy  (or  to  refrain  from  selling  if  in  stock)  to  complete  the  ration. 
The  first  step  in  deciding  this  question  is  to  compare  the  various 
feeds  as  sources  of  energy  and  see  which  one  furnishes  a  unit  of 
energy  value  at  the  lowest  price.  This  computation  gives  the  fol- 
lowing results : 


Kind  of  feed 

Cost  of  100 
pounds 

Energy 

value  of 

100  pounds 

Cost  of 
1  therm  en- 
ergy value 

Oats 

$1.25 
1.25 
1.05 
1.20 
1.15 
1.35 
1.50 
1.65 

Therms 
66.27 
88.84 
48.23 
77.65 
60.01 
79.32 
84.20 
78.92 

Cents 
1.89 

Corn  meal 

1.13 

Wheat  bran 

2.18 

Wheat  middlings 

1.55 

Dried  brewer's  grains 

1.92 

Gluten  feed 

1.70 

Cotton-seed  meal 

1.78 

Old-process  linseed  meal 

2.09 

Evidently,  if  it  were  simply  a  question  of  supplying  energy  to 
the  animals,  the  farmer  should  use  corn  meal,  since  that  supplies  a 
unit  of  energy  at  a  much  lower  price  than  any  of  the  other  feeding 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 


313 


stuffs.     If  it  were  thought  desirable  to  add  variety  to  the  ration, 
wheat  middlings  would  obviously  be  the  next  choice. 

It  is  evident,  however,  without  going  through  the  labor  of  com- 
putation, that  while  com  meal  and  wheat  middlings  may  be  used  in 
the  ration,  neither  will  supply  enough  protein  if  used  exclusively. 
Of  the  available  feeding  stuffs  which  are  rich  in  protein  and  which 
may  therefore  serve  to  balance  the  deficiency  of  this  ingredient, 
gluten  feed  is  relatively  the  cheapest,  and  cotton-seed  meal  comes 
next.  While  the  difference  between  the  two  is  not  great,  naturally 
it  is  best  to  try  the  cheaper  one.  It  is  not  difficult  to  determine  by 
a  few  trials  that  4  pounds  of  corn  meal  and  2^2  pounds  of  gluten 
feed,  in  addition  to  the  coarse  fodder  available,  will  give  a  ration 
corresponding  very  closely  to  the  requirements,  as  the  following 
table  shows: 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Energy 

value 

Corn  silage.  32  pounds 

Pounds 
8.19 
6.78 
3.56 
2.30 

Pounds 

0.39 

.43 

.31 

.50 

Therms 
5  35 

Clover  hay,  8  pounds 

2.78 

Corn  meal,  4  pounds 

3.55 

Gluten  feed,  2M  pounds 

1.73 

Total 

20.83 

1.63 

13  36 

This  ration  shows  as  close  an  agreement  with  the  computed 
requirement  as  could  be  desired.  The  comparatively  low  figure  for 
dry  matter  indicates  that  more  coarse  fodder  might  have  been  used 
had  it  been  available,  with  the  probable  effect  of  cheapening  the 
ration.  As  it  is,  the  farmer  has  used  the  feeds  relatively  low^  in 
price  and  apparently  have  a  very  economical  ration. 

Since,  according  to  the  assumed  figures,  com  meal  is  relatively 
cheap  as  compared  with  the  other  feeding  stuffs,  the  farmer  should 
naturally  use  as  large  a  proportion  of  this  in  the  ration  as  practic- 
able. In  order  to  increase  the  com  meal,  however,  it  will  plainly  be 
necessarj'^  to  use  some  other  feed  richer  in  protein  than  gluten  feed. 
Cotton-seed  meal  is  nearly  as  cheap  as  a  source  of  energy  as  gluten 
feed,  while  it  contains  almost  twice  as  much  protein.  Therefore  the 
farmer  should  try  the  effect  of  increasing  the  com  meal  to  4^^ 
pounds  and  using  1^^  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  in  place  of  the 
2^2  pounds  of  gluten  feed,  with  the  following  results: 


Kind  and  amoant  of  feed. 


Total  dry 
matter. 


Dicestible 
protein. 


Energy 
value. 


Corn  silage.  32  pounds 

Clover  hay.  8  pounds 

Corn  meal.  4J4  pounds 

Cotton-seed  meal,  IM  pounds 

Total 


Pounds. 
8.19 
6.78 
4.01 
1.38 


Pounds. 

0.39 

.43 

.31 

.54 


Therms. 
5.30 
2.78 
4.00 
1.26 


20.36 


1.67 


13  34 


This  ration  agrees  with  the  computed  requirements  even  better 
than  the  previous  one,  while  a  simple  comparison  shows  that  it  is 


314  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


actually  a  trifle  cheaper.    The  grain  portion  of  the  two  rations  costs 
as  follows: 

Feed  in  ration. 

First 
ration. 

Second 
ration. 

Corn  meal 

Cents. 

5.00 
3.37 

Cents. 
5.63 

Gluten  meal 

Cotton-seed  meal 

2.25 

Total 

8.37 

7  88 

It  thus  appears  that  a  ration  made  up  with  the  somewhat  more 
expensive  cotton-seed  meal  was  actually  cheaper  because  it  was  pos- 
sible to  use  more  of  the  cheap  corn  meal.  The  difference,  to  be  sure, 
is  small,  yet  for  30  cow^s  fed  for  200  days,  it  would  amount  to  $30. 
Such  a  difference  is  only  likely  to  be  found,  however,  when,  as  was 
assumed  in  this  instance,  some  feed  low  in  protein  but  rich  in  energy 
can  be  had  at  a  relatively  cheap  rate.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
when  there  are  no  very  marked  differences  in  the  cost  of  a  therm  of 
energy  value  in  the  feeding  stuffs  constituting  the  bulk  of  the  ration, 
one  of  the  various  high-protein  feeds  which  supplies  energy  at  the 
lowest  cost  should  ordinarily  be  used,  although  it  is  always  wise  to 
check  up  this  point,  as  in  the  example  just  given. 

THE   COMPOUNDING   OF   RATIONS. 

While  in  the  foregoing  examples  an  exact  daily  ration  is  com- 
puted, it  would,  of  course,  be  utterly  impracticable  in  most  cases 
to  weigh  out  separately  each  day's  ration  for  each  animal.  Indi- 
vidual weighings  of  feeds  at  intervals  would  often  yield  valuable  in- 
formation and  might  be  profitably  undertaken,  but  for  the  ordi- 
nary routine  of  feeding  simpler  methods  must  be  used. 

"When  practicable,  the  grain  feed  may  be  advantageously  mixed 
in  advance  in  the  desired  proportions  in  as  large  quantities  as  the 
storage  capacity  available  and  the  proper  preservation  of  the  ma- 
terials will  permit.  Where  facilities  are  available,  the  whole  amount 
of  grain  required  for  all  the  animals  may  be  weighed  out  daily,  or 
even  for  each  feeding,  without  much  additional  labor.  In  distrib- 
uting the  grain  to  the  individual  animals,  regard  of  course  should 
be  paid  to  their  productive  capacity  and  their  individual  peculiari- 
ties. The  ration,  as  computed,  is  for  the  average  animal.  The  skill 
of  the  feeder  is  shown  in  adapting  it  in  quality  and  in  amount  to 
the  individual.  Doubtless  individual  weighings  at  intervals,  as  al- 
ready suggested,  would  be  useful  as  a  control  on  the  accuracy  of  the 
distribution. 

The  weighing  of  coarse  fodder  is  usually  a  more  difficult  prob- 
lem on  account  of  its  bulk.  When,  however,  silage  or  cut  fodder  is 
handled  in  trucks,  the  matter  is  still  comparatively  simple.  Long 
fodder,  on  the  contrary,  is  not  readily  weighed.  Nevertheless,  even 
here  an  occasional  weighing,  if  practicable,  as  a  control  upon  the 
feeding,  is  very  desirable. 

In  all  these  and  similar  matters  common  sense  is  necessary. 
The  computed  ration  expresses  the  best  estimate  that  can  be  made 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  315 

of  the  actual  average  requirements,  but  it  is  at  best  more  or  less  of  an 
approximation.  It  would  be  foolish,  therefore,  to  seek  extreme  ex- 
actness in  realizing  it  or  to  go  to  more  expense  in  the  weighing  and 
apportioning  of  the  feed  than  the  saving  in  the  latter  would  amount 
to.  The  scale  upon  which  the  feeding  is  conducted  will  play  an  im- 
portant part.  Where  scores  or  hundreds  of  animals  are  being  fed, 
an  exactness  may  be  profitably  sought  which  would  be  absurd  m  the 
case  of  two  or  three  animals.  Finally,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
these  computed  rations  are  guides  and  not  recipes.  They  may  aid 
the  feeder  in  wisely  using  the  resources  at  his  command,  but  they 
can  not  take  the  place  of  experience  and  good  judgment. 

BEARING  ON  FARM   MANAGEMENT. 

The  data  and  the  methods  of  computation  on  previous  pages 
will  aid  the  feeder  in  determining  the  amounts  of  each  class  of 
feeds  needed  for  each  class  of  his  animals.  The  man  of  good  busi- 
ness habits  will  find  them  useful  in  determining  the  quantities  of 
each  kind  of  feed  to  grow  or  purchase  and  in  deciding  upon  the  pur- 
chase of  animals  to  feed  and  the  feeds  to  keep  or  to  purchase  for 
feeding  them.  These  facts  and  methods  will  aid  the  farmer,  the 
feeder,  or  the  user  of  work  animals  in  deciding  upon  the  chances 
of  profit  in  proposed  enterprises.  Often  by  using  these  formal  ways 
of  checking  up  a  proposed  business  project  the  way  is  made  more 
clear  to  avoid  loss  and  to  secure  the  largest  practicable  profit.  In 
case  of  the  farmer  who  grows  most  of  his  feed  stuffs,  these  facts  and 
methods  of  calculation  may  often  be  used  in  connection  with  the 
planning  of  his  scheme  of  crop  rotation  and  in  proportioning  the 
acreages  of  the  respective  crops  to  each  other  and  to  the  numbers  of 
each  class  of  animals.  They  will  prove  useful  in  reducing  the  farm- 
management  plan  to  a  scientific  basis. —  (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  346.) 

FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  FOR  BEEF  PRODUCTION. 

Importance  of.  Com  as  a  Stock  Food. — Corn  is  the  great  Amer- 
ican stock  food.  No  other  plant  compares  with  it  in  its  wide  and 
general  distribution,  in  the  ease,  certainty  and  cheapness  with  which 
it  may  be  produced ;  in  the  yield  of  valuable  food  material  per  acre, 
and  in  the  close  relation  it  bears  to  the  development  of  the  live  stock 
interest  of  the  country.  Practically  every  State  in  the  Union  is  re- 
ported as  growing  corn  commercially.  Where  com  is  grown  ex- 
tensively, there  the  live  stock  interests  are  extensively  developed  and 
prosperous.  A  corn  center  is  synonymous  with  a  live  stock  center, 
and  the  geographical  distribution  of  corn  production  is  in  a  general 
way  an  index  to  the  distribution  of  live  stock  production.  Eleven 
prominent  corn  states,  producing  something  over  75  per  cent  of  all 
the  corn  of  the  United  States,  produce  practically  60  per  cent  of  the 
horses,  mules,  cattle,  hogs,  milch  cows  and  sheep  of  the  country. 
From  these  states  are  drawn  the  chief  supplies  of  well  finished 
beeves  and  hogs,  and  well  developed  horses  and  mules.  They  are 
the  feed  yard  of  the  nation. — (Univ.  Mo.  Circ.  Inform.  11.) 

Dairy  Cows. — Jordan  reports  the  result  of  an  experiment  in 
which  the  yield  of  milk  from  cows  when  fed  on  six  pounds  of  com 
daily  and  all  the  timothy  hay  they  would  eat  was  compared  with 


316  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

the  quantity  of  milk  obtained  from  the  same  cows  when  fed  on  a 
balanced  ration  consisting  of  two  pounds  corn  meal ;  two  pounds  of 
cottonseed  meal;  and  two  pounds  of  gluten  meal  together  with  all 
the  timothy  hay  they  would  eat.— (Maine  State  College  Annual  Re- 
port 1893,  page  81.)  Both  rations  supplied  practically  the  same 
quantity  of  digestible  nutrients,  but  the  proportion  of  protein  was 
nearly  twice  as  much  in  the  mixed  grain  ration  as  in  the  corn  meal 
ration.  The  results  showed  that  during  the  time  the  cows  were  fed 
the  balanced  ration,  they  produced  from  one-fifth  to  nearly  one- 
third  more  milk  than  when  they  were  fed  on  the  unbalanced  ration, 
and  that  the  yield  of  milk  solids  was  from  30  per  cent  to  40  per 
cent  greater. — (Univ.  Mo.  Circ.  Inf.  11.) 

Com  a  Carbonaceous  Food. — Notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
com  is  the  best  single  stock  food  known  and  that  thousands  of  ani- 
mals are  successfully  w^intered  or  fattened  each  year  on  an  exclusive 
ration  of  corn  and  corn  stover  or  some  similar  roughage,  it  is  true 
that  it  is  by  no  means  a  perfectly  balanced  or  complete  food.  As 
has  been  shown,  corn  contains  a  very  large  quantity  of  carbona- 
ceous matter  in  proportion  to  the  protein  compounds.  It  does  not 
give  a  proper  balance  between  the  carbohydrates  (which  includes 
starch,  the  sugars,  fat  and  digestible  fiber)  and  the  protein.  In 
other  words,  practical  experience  and  scientific  experiments  have 
proven  beyond  doubt  that  by  combining  corn  with  some  feed  that 
will  increase  the  proportion  of  protein,  a  more  efficient  ration  will 
be  the  result;  more  rapid  gains  will  be  made  by  the  animals  to 
which  it  is  fed;  more  rapid  and  healthful  growth  will  be  made  on 
young  animals;  a  larger  flow  of  milk  will  be  obtained  from  the 
dairy  cow;  and  the  steer  will  carry  a  smoother  finish  and  a  finer 
coat  to  market;  and  under  ordinary  circumstances,  or  if  the  mate- 
rial for  balancing  the  com  be  selected  judiciously  and  with  a  due 
regard  to  the  cost  as  compared  with  the  increased  efficiency  obtained, 
an  increased  profit  will  be  returned. 

Preparation  of  Corn  for  Feeding. — ^Upon  this  point  Prof.  Jor- 
dan has  summed  up  the  results  of  the  investigations  and  practical 
experience  as  follows:  Much  labor  and  expense  have  been  ex- 
pended by  farmers  in  giving  to  feeding  stuffs  special  treatment,  such 
as  wetting,  steaming,  cooking  and  fermenting,  in  order  to  secure  a 
supposed  increase  in  nutritive  value,  an  increase  which  must  come 
chiefly,  if  at  all,  from  a  more  complete  digestion.  It  is  plainly  no- 
ticeable that  these  methods  of  feeding  have  lost  in  prevalence  rather 
than  gained.  Practice  does  not  seem  to  have  permanently  ratified 
them,  and,  so  far  as  digestibility  is  concerned,  this  outcome  is  in 
accordance  with  the  results  of  scientific  demonstration.  The  conclu- 
sions of  German  experimenters  have  been  that  these  special  treat- 
ments have  no  favorable  influence,  their  effect  being  either  imper- 
ceptible or  unfavorable. 

German  and  American  experimenters  uni^e  in  condemning  the 
cooking  of  foods  already  palatable,  because  this  causes  a  marked  de- 
pression of  the  digestibility  of  the  protein,  with  no  compensating 
advantages.     Digestion  trials  with  cooked  or  steamed  hays,  silage, 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  317 

lupine  seed,  cornmeal,  and  wheat  bran,  and  roasted  cotton  seed,  uni- 
formly show  their  protein  to  be  notably  less  digestible  than  that  in 
the  original  materials,  a  fact  which  may  explain  the  lessened  pro- 
ductive value  of  cooked  grains  which  has  been  observed  in  certain 
experiments.  It  must  be  conceded,  of  course,  that  when  cooking 
feeding  stuffs  by  steaming  or  otherwise  renders  them  more  palata- 
ble, and  thereby  makes  possible  the  consumption  of  material  other- 
wise wasted,  the  influence  upon  digestibility  is  a  minor  considera- 
tion. 

A  large  number  of  careful  experiments  have  been  made  in  this 
country  with  corn  on  hogs  with  results  unfavorable  to  cooking. 
Com  was  either  shelled  or  ground  and  in  some  cases  a  mixture  of 
corn  meal  and  middlings  was  used.  In  most  cases  the  raw  food  was 
more  efficient  than  the  same  food  carefully  cooked.  Averaging  all 
the  trials,  476  pounds  of  uncooked  meal  or  grain  were  required  for 
100  pounds  gain  while  after  it  was  cooked  505  pounds  were  re- 
quired for  the  same  gain. 

CORN  THE  BASIS  OF  PROFITABLE  RATIONS. 

In  general  the  best  ration  is  made  of  such  a  combination  of 
food  stuffs  as  will  give  the  proper  proportion  of  protein  and  carbo- 
hydrates for  the  particular  class  of  animals  or  the  special  purpose  for 
which  it  is  to  be  used,  at  the  same  time  that  careful  attention  is 
given  to  the  cost  of  the  material  to  be  used,  the  palatability  of  the 
ration  and  the  convenience  with  which  it  may  be  obtained  and  fed. 
In  short  the  controlling  factor  in  making  up  every  ration  should  be 
its  cost  in  proportion  to  its  productiveness,  but  as  has  already  been 
stated  the  taste  and  appetite  of  the  animal  should  be  catered  to  and 
heed  should  be  given  to  the  adaptability  of  the  ration  to  the  special 
use  to  which  it  is  proposed  to  be  put.  A  vast  majority  of  the  feed- 
ers of  America  find  it  necessary  and  profitable  to  use  the  product  of 
the  com  plant  as  the  basis  of  all  rations  and  for  all  classes  of  stock. 
It  is  clear  that  when  feed  is  to  be  purchased,  it  should,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, be  selected  with  reference  to  supplementing,  balancing  or 
adding  to  the  value  of  the  material  already  on  hand,  rather  than  to 
purchase  more  of  the  same  class.  For  example,  it  would  not  be  good 
business  to  purchase  timothy,  kafir  corn,  sorghum,  millet,  or  any  of 
the  straws  to  feed  with  corn  and  stover,  since  such  a  combination 
adds  nothing  to  the  ration  above  the  sum  of  digestible  nutrients  con- 
tained in  the  two  feeds.  Whereas,  if  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  bran, 
middlings,  gluten  meal,  cottonseed  meaJ,  or  linseed  meal  be  selected 
to  combine  with  the  corn  products,  the  feeding  value  of  the  resulting 
ration  would  be  directly  increased. 

Fattening  Steers.-— Corn  is  conceded  hj  all  authorities  to  be 
the  best  single  grain  ration  for  fattening  animals — especially  when 
its  low  cost  is  considered.  At  the  same  time  the  combination  of 
com  with  such  food  stuffs  as  will  increase  the  proportion  of  protein 
in  a  ration,  will  result  in  a  more  rapid  gain. 

Grinding. — Experiments  indicate  that  com  when  ground  into 
meal  or  the  grain  and  cob  cru.shed  together  will  be  somewhat  more 
digestible  than  when  fed  whole.     The  difference,  however,  is  so 


318  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

small  that  when  corn  is  very  cheap  the  increased  efficiency  may 
not  meet  the  expense  of  grinding.  The  following  concise  advice  is 
commended :  This  subject  is  a  difficult  one  to  discuss  owing  to  the 
great  variety  of  conditions  existing  as  to  both  grain  and  animals. 
Directions  are  here  given  which  may  serve  to  guide  the  feeder  in  his 
practice.  For  horses  which  are  out  of  the  stable  during  the  day  and 
w^orked  hard,  all  grain,  with  the  possible  exception  of  oats  should  be 
ground.  For  those  at  extremely  hard  work,  all  grain  should  be 
ground  and  mixed  with  chaffed  hay.  For  idle  horses  oats  or  corn 
should  not  be  ground,  nor  need  the  hay  or  straw  be  chaffed.  A 
cow  yielding  a  large  flow  of  milk  should  be  regarded  as  a  hard  work- 
ing animal  and  her  feed  prepared  accordingly.  Fattening  steers 
and  pigs  may  be  crowded  more  rapidly  with  meal  than  with  whole 
grain,  though  there  is  more  danger  attendant  upon  its  use.  Sheep 
worth  feeding  can  always  grind  their  own  grain.  In  general,  idle 
animals  and  those  having  ample  time  for  mastication,  rumination 
and  digestion  do  not  need  their  grain  or  roughage  prepared  as  care- 
fully as  do  those  with  only  limited  time  for  these  essential  opera- 
tions. Experiments  quite  generally  show  increased  gains  from  grind- 
ing grain,  but  in  many  cases  they  are  not  sufficient  to  pay  the  cost 
of  grinding.  It  is  believed  that  it  will  pay  to  grind  or  crush  corn 
for  calves,  colts  and  all  young  cattle  in  the  average  season,  particu- 
larly if  they  are  to  be  fed  strong,  and  it  will  undoubtedly  pay  to 
Erepare  com  in  this  way  for  dairy  cows  in  any  season.  It  is  not 
elieved  that  the  cob  has  any  considerable  nutritive  value,  but  it 
seems  to  have  a  very  favorable  effect  upon  the  mechanical  condition  ^ 
of  the  grain  in  the  stomach  of  the  animal. 

VALUE  OF  SOFT  CORN  FOR  BEEF  PRODUCTION. 

The  early  fall  frosts  affect  the  corn  crop  in  the  central  and 
northern  states  more  or  less  each  year.  The  crop  of  1902  was  seri- 
ously damaged  in  many  sections  by  the  eai'ly  September  frost.  The 
yield  per  acre  was  very  much  reduced.  The  percentage  of  market- 
able corn  was  a  variable  quantity.  In  some  sections  practically  all 
of  the  com  was  worthless  from  a  regular  market  standpoint,  due  to 
the  fact  that  it  was  too  soft  and  watery  for  shipping  purposes. 

This  presented  a  serious  condition  of  affairs.  There  was  then 
but  one  way  to  utilize  that  portion  of  the  crop  which  was  soft  and 
immature.  It  must  be  fed  to  live  stock.  The  feeding  value  of  the 
soft  com  at  once  became  a  question  of  vital  interest.  Many  men 
regarded  it  as  being  worthless  from  a  feeding  standpoint.  Some 
claimed  that  the  frost  affected  the  composition,  thus  the  necessary 
food  constituents  were  not  present.  Others  claimed  that  that  part 
of  the  food  value  which  -was  not  present  in  the  com  grain  proper  was 
contained  in  the  cob,  thus  by  the  utilization  of  both  the  cob  and 
com  all  the  food  nutrients  could  be  obtained.  It  was  also  claimed 
by  many  that  this  soft  com  might  give  fairly  good  results  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fattening  period,  but  that  it  would  be  impossible  to 
finish  animals  on  the  same. 

There  certainly  was  an  urgent  need  for  some  information 
.which  would  enlighten  the  people  on  the  feeding  value  of  soft  com. 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  319 

Information  along  this  line  was  needed  by  the  man  who  desired  to 
purchase  soft  corn  for  feeding  purposes.  The  same  was  true  for  that 
large  mass  of  people  who  make  a  business  of  grain  farming.  They 
needed  information  concerning  the  value  of  the  com  which  they 
must  either  sell  to  the  stockman  or  allow  to  rot  in  the  fields. 

Recognizing  the  need  of  securing  some  light  on  this  subject  the 
Animal  Husbandry  Section  of  this  Station  with  the  co-operation  of 
the  Agronomy  and  Chemical  Sections  conducted  the  work  presented 
in  this  bulletin.  A  practical  feeding  test,  in  which  sixteen  steers 
were  divided  into  two  lots  of  eight  each,  was  outlined  and  carried 
through  a  period  of  six  months. 

The  lot  fed  on  soft  corn  required  almost  one  pound  less  dry 
matter  in  the  corn  fed  to  make  one  pound  of  gain  than  did  the  lot 
fed  on  mature  com.  The  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soft  corn  was 
determined  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  month  and  an  aver- 
age of  the  same  was  used  in  computing  the  figures  for  the  month  in 
question. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  test  the  amount  of  moisture  was  de- 
termined by  taking  the  average  of  several  samples  which  had  been 
analyzed  by  the  chemical  section.  From  the  beginning  until  the 
end  of  the  test  the  amount  of  moisture  was  determined  by  a  series 
of  chemical  analyses  and  the  results  of  a  corn  shrinkage  test.  In 
the  corn  shrinkage  test  the  crib  was  weighed  at  the  end  of  each 
month,  thus  we  had  the  results  of  a  considerable  amount  of  com 
which  very  much  reduced  the  possibility  of  error  in  our  estimates. 
It  will  be  further  noticed  that  the  cattle  fed  on  soft  com  sold  for 
the  same  price  as  did  the  lot  fed  on  mature  com  which  was  practi- 
cally the  top  of  the  market.  In  shipping,  the  soft  com  lot  had  the 
lightest  shrink,  and  in  the  slaughter  test  they  dressed  out  .8  of  a  per 
cent  more  meat  than  did  the  mature  corn  lot. — (la.  B.  75.) 

COMMERCIAL   STOCK   FOODS. 

From  Wheai. — Bran  consists  of  the  outer  coating  of  the  wheat 
kernel  and  because  of  its  fat  and  protein  content  is  a  very  valuable 
feed.  Middlings  and  Shorts  are  terms  used  interchangeably  in  the 
trade  and  consist  of  the  coating  of  the  wheat  kernel  just  below  the 
bran  layer,  the  finer  particles  and  fragments  of  bran  and  flour  par- 
ticles. They  are  rich  in  digestible  fat  and  protein  and  an  excellent 
feed.  Middlings  are  often  divided  into  standard  middlings,  germ 
middlings,  flour  middlings,  etc.  White  middlings  as  used  in  many 
parts  designate  a  product  which  is  in  reality  a  low  grade  flour  much 
below  red  dog  in  feeding  value.  Shipstuff  consists  of  a  mixture  of 
bran  and  middlings,  bran  and  shorts  or  of  all  three  of  these  mate- 
rials. Red  Dog  Flour  consists  of  low  grade  flour  and  fine  particles 
of  bran  which  cannot  be  separated  in  the  process  of  milling.  Screen- 
ings consist  of  the  smaller,  imperfect  grains  of  wheat,  weed  seeds 
and  other  foreign  materials  separated  from  the  wheat  in  preparing 
it  for  milling.  Scourings  consist  of  the  small  particles  from  the 
outer  bran  coating  of  the  wheat  kernel  and  the  dust  and  dirt  re- 
moved by  the  scourer.  Sweepings  consist  of  the  cleanings  from  the 
bin,  around  spouts  and  other  parts  of  the  mill.    Bee  Wings  con- 


320  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC, 

sist  of  the  light,  fine,  thin,  membranous  coating  set  free  from  the 
crease  of  the  wheat  kernel  in  the  process  of  crushing  the  wheat. 

From  Rye. — These  products  are  secured  from  the  same  portions 
of  the  rye  grain  as  are  the  bran  and  middlings  from  the  wheat 
kernel. 

From  Buckwheat. — Bran  consists  of  a  mixture  of  buckwheat 
hulls  and  middlings  prepared  by  the  millers  of  buckwheat  to  enable 
them  to  dispose  of  buckwheat  hulls.  Middlings  consist  of  that  por- 
tion of  the  buckwheat  grain  immediately  inside  the  hull  and  are 
rich  in  crude  fat  and  crude  protein  and  have  a  high  feeding  value. 
Mixed  Feed  consists  of  relatively  large  proportions  of  middlings  and 
shorts  and  a  small  proportion  of  hulls.  Two  of  the  samples  were 
deficient  in  crude  protein. 

From  Corn. — Bran  consists  of  the  outer  coating  of  the  corn 
kernel  and  is  variable  in  composition,  depending  on  the  process  of 
manufacture.  It  is  of  low  feeding  value  and  is  often  used  as  an 
adulterant  for  wheat  bran  and  other  wheat  by-products.  Hominy 
Feed  or  Chop  consists  of  the  bran  coating,  germ  and  part  of  the 
starch  portions  of  the  corn  kernel  secured  as  a  by-product  in  the 
manufacture  of  hominy.  Hominy  Hearts  are  secured  as  a  by- 
product in  the  manufacture  of  hominy  and  consist  of  the  germ  or 
heart  of  the  grain. 

Gluten  Meal. — This  is  a  by-product  of  com,  produced  in  the 
glucose  factories  in  the  manufacture  of  starch.  It  is  difficult  to  se- 
cure detailed  information  as  to  the  various  steps  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  these  products,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  owners  of 
these  factories  prefer  to  withhold  some  things  from  the  public.  The 
following  points  in  regard  to  the  preparation  of  the  same  may  be  of 
interest  to  feeders.  The  corn  is  first  soaked,  then  by  mechanical  de- 
vices the  different  parts  of  the  corn  are  separated.  First  the  germ 
is  taken  out;  then  the  bran,  which  is  the  hull  of  the  corn,  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  gluten  and  starchy  portions.  The  gluten  and  starch 
are  then  separated  by  a  filter  process.  The  starch,  being  the  heavier 
of  the  two,  settles  to  the  bottom,  while  the  gluten  runs  off  and  is 
taken  to  the  feed  house  where  it  is  kiln  dried  into  gluten  meal. 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed. — This,  like  gluten  meal,  is  a  by-product 
of  com,  produced  in  the  manufacture  of  starch.  It  differs  from 
gluten  meal  in  that  it  contains  the  hulls  (corn  bran)  as  well  as  the 
gluten  part  of  the  com.  Gluten  and  corn  bran  are  found  in  gluten 
feed  in  about  the  following  proportions:  gluten  55  per  cent;  corn 
bran  or  hulls  45  per  cent.  The  corn  bran  gives  it  more  bulk  than 
gluten  meal,  thus  making  it  an  easier  product  to  feed.  It  does  not 
contain  as  much  protein,  however,  as  gluten  meal.  For  the  average 
farmer  we  would  recommend  the  use  of  gluten  feed  in  preference  to 
gluten  meal  unless  his  other  grain  feed  is  of  a  bulky  nature. — (la. 
B.  66.) 

Hominy  Feed. — Hominy,  as  manufactured  for  human  use, 
consists  of  the  hard  or  flinty  part  of  the  corn  kernel.  The  hull, 
germ,  and  part  of  the  starch  portions  of  the  kernel  constitute  the 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  323 

waste  of  hominy  manufacture.     These  materials  are  sold  together 
under  the  name  of  hominy  chops  or  feed. 

Distillers'  Dried  Grains. — These  are  a  by-product  obtained  in 
the  manufacture  of  alcohol  or  whisky  from  the  cereals.  Corn  and 
rye  are  most  often  used,  sometimes  smgly,  more  often  in  combina- 
tion. Sometimes  certain  proportions  of  oats,  wheat,  and  barley  are 
also  added.  The  grains  are  coarsely  ground,  mixed  with  water,  a 
malt  solution  added,  and  the  whole  kept  at  a  uniform  temperature 
until  most  of  the  starch  has  changed  to  sugar.  Yeast  is  then 
added  to  convert  the  sugar  to  alcohol,  which  is  distilled.  The 
residue  from  the  distillation,  or  distilling  slop,  is  filtered,  dried,  and 
placed  on  the  market  as  a  concentrated  food.  The  dried  material, 
on  account  of  the  removal  of  a  large  part  of  the  starch  and  sugar 
of  the  grain  by  the  above  process,  contains  an  increased  percentage 
of  proteids,  fat,  and  crude  fiber. 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal  consist  of  the  whole  ear  of  com  ground  or 
crushed  just  as  it  is  received  from  the  field  without  the  addition 
either  of  cob  or  kernel. 

Corn  Sweepings  consist  of  small  pieces  of  cob,  butts  of  com, 
particles  of  husks,  chaff  and  the  imperfect  and  decayed  kernels 
which  are  not  removed  in  the  process  of  shelling.  This  material  is 
often  used  as  an  adulterant. 

Cob  Meal  consists  of  finely  ground  com  cobs  which  are  largely 
woody  fiber.  It  contains  but  little  crude  fat  and  crude  protein  and 
a  large  amount  of  crude  fiber.  It  is  often  used  as  a  filler,  serving  to 
give  bulk  and  roughness.  It  has  little  or  no  feeding  value  and  is  a 
common  adulterant  of  feeding  stuffs. 

From  Oats. — Oat  Clippings  are  the  small  hairs  and  dust  sepa- 
rated from  the  oats  in  the  clipping  machine.  They  bear  much  the 
same  relation  to  the  oat  kernel  as  scourings  do  to  the  wheat  kernel 
and  contain  considerably  larger  amounts  of  cmde  fat  and  crude  pro- 
tein than  the  hulls  and  considerably  less  fiber.  They  are  often  used 
as  a  filler  and  also  as  an  adulterant. 

Oat  Hulls  are  a  common  adulterant  of  feeding  stuffs  and  are 
much  used  as  a  filler.  They  contain  about  the  same  amount  of 
crude  fat,  crude  protein  and  crude  fiber  as  cob  meal,  serve  a  similar 
function  in  feeding  stuffs  and  have  little  or  no  feeding  value. 

From  Flax  Seed. — Flaxseed  Meal  consists  of  the  entire  flaxseed 
ground.  Oil  Cake  is  the  unground  residue  from  the  extraction  of 
oil  from  ground  flaxseed.  Linseed  Meal  is  the  ground  residue  from 
the  extraction  of  oil  from  ground  flaxseed.  The  extraction  of  the 
oil  is  accomplished  by  two  methods  known  as  the  old  and  new  proc- 
ess and  the  meals  from  the  two  processes  are  designated  as  old  and 
new  process  linseed  meal.  New  Process  Linseed  Meal  consists  of  the 
residue  from  crushed  flaxseed  which  has  been  heated  and  the  oil 
extracted  by  repeated  leachings  with  light  naphtha.  After  the  ex- 
traction is  complete  the  naphtha  is  driven  from  the  residue  with 
steam  and  the  meal  is  entirely  without  naphtha  odor.  The  extrac- 
tion of  the  oil  in  the  new  process  meal  is  much  more  complete,  the 


324  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

new  process  meal  containing  only  one-half  as  much  crude  fat  and 
from  one  to  two  per  cent  more  crude  protein. — (Ind.  B.  141.) 

At  the  oil  mills  after  the  flaxseed  is  crushed  there  are  two  ways 
of  removing  the  oil.  The  first,  known  as  the  old  process,  consists  of 
crushed  flaxseed  heated  and  placed  in  sacks  which  are  piled  one  on 
another  and  the  mass  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure  to  extract  the 
oil.  After  the  oil  has  been  pressed  out,  the  residue,  after  it  is 
stripped  of  its  coverings  appears  in  the  form  of  slabs  about  one  inch 
thick,  one  foot  wide,  and  two  feet  long.  In  this  form  it  is  shipped 
abroad  as  it  is  then  in  its  purest  form  and  contains  no  adulterations. 
In  this  country  it  is  usually  ground  up  and  sold  in  the  form  of  meal, 
known  as  old  process  oil  meal.  The  new  process  oil  meal  has  been 
treated  in  a  different  way  by  the  use  of  chemicals  and  steam,  and 
contains  about  the  same  amount  of  digestible  protein  and  carbohy- 
drates but  not  nearly  so  much  fat.  A  simple  test  to  distinguish  old 
process  oil  meal  as  outlined  is  as  follows:  Pulverize  a  small  quan- 
tity of  the  meal  and  put  a  level  tablespoonful  of  it  in  a  tumbler; 
then  add  ten  tablespoonfuls  of  boiling  hot  water  to  the  meal,  stir 
thoroughly  and  leave  to  settle.  If  the  meal  is  new  process  meal  it 
will  settle  in  the  course  of  an  hour  and  will  leave  about  half  of  the 
water  clear  on  top.  Old  process  meal  will  remain  jelly  like. —  (la. 
B.  66.) 

In  making  cold  pressure  linseed  cake  the  flaxseed  is  run 
through  a  screw  press  and  the  oil  extracted  by  pressure,  the  process 
being  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  production  of  cold  pressed  cot- 
ton seed  cake.  Ground  flaxseed  cake  is  a  term  used  to  designate  a 
low  grade  linseed  meal  made  of  inferior  flaxseed.  Flax  Screenings 
consist  of  the  broken  flaxseed,  hulls,  weed  seeds  and  other  foreign 
materials  separated  in  preparing  the  flaxseed  for  the  manufacture  of 
linseed  oil. 

From  Flax. — Flax  Bran  as  used  by  manufacturers  of  com- 
pounded feeds  is  of  variable  composition  and  ingredients,  but  usually 
consists  of  flax  pods,  flax  stems  from  which  the  tow  has  been  ex- 
tracted, and  small  flax  seeds.  The  pods  and  stems  are  invariably 
present  in  largest  amount.  This  product  is  sometimes  used  as  an 
adulterant  for  alfalfa. 

From  Cotton  Seed. — Cotton  Seed  Cake  is  the  residue  of  cotton 
seed  from  which  the  oil  has  been  extracted  after  removal  of  the 
hulls.  In  the  process  of  extracting  the  oil  from  cotton  seeds  they 
are  first  delinted,  the  hulls  removed,  the  meats  and  such  hulls  as 
cannot  be  separated  cooked,  wrapped  in  cloths,  placed  in  presses 
and  all  the  oil  possible  extracted  by  pressure.  The  residue  in  the 
cloths  from  the  extraction  is  cotton  seed  cake.  Cotton  Seed  Meal  is 
ground  cotton  seed  cake.  It  is  rich  in  both  crude  fat  and  crude 
protein,  relatively  low  in  crude  fiber  and  is  highly  regarded  as  a 
concentrated  feeding  stuff. 

Cold  Pressed  Cotton  Seed  Cake  consists  of  the  residue  from 
cotton  seeds  after  extraction  of  the  oil  by  what  is  known  as  the  cold 
pressure  system.  In  preparing  this  material  the  cotton  seeds  are 
delinted  and  the  entire  seed  without  heating  or  hulling  is  put  into 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  825 

a  screw  press  and  the  oil  extracted  by  pressure.  The  residue  from 
this  process  consisting  of  the  hulls,  meal  and  such  lint  as  was  not 
removed  constitutes  the  cold  pressed  cotton  seed  cake  which  is  sold 
as  a  feeding  stuff  without  further  crushing.  It  is  a  light,  rather 
fluffy  material  containing  on  an  average  less  crude  fat  and  17.5  per 
cent  less  crude  protein  than  cotton  seed  meal.  Cold  pressed  cotton 
seed  cake  is  not  as  valuable  for  milk  and  butter  production  as  an 
equal  weight  of  choice  cotton  seed  meal  and  hulls  mixed  in  the  pro- 
portion of  two  parts  of  meal  to  one  part  of  hulls.  The  analysis  of 
cold  pressed  cake  is  a  reliable  indication  of  its  feeding  value.  Among 
the  principal  claims  made  for  this  product  is  that  not  having  been 
^'ooked  the  albuminoids  are  more  digestible  than  those  in  cotton 
seed  meal  and  being  more  bulky  and  less  concentrated  it  can  be  fed 
in  large  quantities  without  danger  of  the  undesirable  results  pro- 
duced when  excessive  amounts  of  cotton  seed  meal  are  used. 

Cotton  Seed  Feed  Meal  is  a  trade  name  used  to  designate  a  mix- 
ture of  cotton  seed  meal  and  cotton  seed  hulls  generally  in  the  pro- 
portion of  50  to  55  per  cent  hulls. 

Cotton  Seed  Hulls  are  the  outer  portion  of  the  cotton  seed. 
They  are  high  in  crude  fiber  and  have  little  feeding  value.  Their 
principal  use  is  as  a  filler,  as  a  source  of  roughage  and  as  an  adul- 
terant for  cotton  seed  meal. 

From  Barley. — Malt  Sprouts  consist  of  the  dried  shoots  secured 
in  the  germination  of  barley  in  the  production  of  malt.  They  are 
low  in  crude  fat  and  rich  in  crude  protein. 

Dried  brewers'  grains  consist  of  the  residue  left  after  mashing 
the  malt,  whereby  the  greater  portion  of  the  carbohydrates  is  re- 
moved, leaving  a  residue  rich  in  protein,  which,  on  drying  becomes 
a  valuable  feeding  stuff. 

From  Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  meal  consists  of  ground  alfalfa  hay. 
The  better  grades  of  alfalfa  meal  contain  a  larger  proportion  of 
leaves  than  ?tems. 

Corn  and  Oats  Feed. — Com  and  oats  feed,  usually  sold  under 
the  name  of  Corn  and  Oats  Chop,  or  Chop  Feed,  are  prepared  by 
mixing  corn  and  oats  together,  generally  in  the  proportion  of  56 
pounds  of  the  former  to  32  pouncfe  of  the  latter,  and  then  grinding. 
— (Ind.  B.  141.) 

Animal  Meals. — These  consist  of  by-products  from  the  j>acking 
industry,  such  as  dried  blood,  meat  meal,  blood  meal,  digester  tank- 
age, etc.  They  are  very  rich  in  protein,  and  have  been  found  to  be 
an  excellent  concentrate  in  a  ration  for  swine.  They  are  sold  in  a 
dry  condition,  finely  ground.  In  some  cases  the  bone  has  been  sub- 
jected to  steam  under  pressure  or  kettle  rendered,  in  which  case  the 
resulting  product  is  lower  both  in  fat  and  protein. — (Dep.  Agr.  Bu. 
Chem.  B.  108.) 

Dried  Blood. — This  is  a  product  from  packing  houses,  prepared 
as  follows:  The  blood  nms  from  the  cattle  when  stuck,  into  a  re- 
ceptacle from  which  it  is  promptly  pumped  into  a  cooking  tank 
where  it  is  cooked  to  a  point  where  the  water  separates  from  the  clots. 
It  is  then  dropped  into  large  press  cloths  and  put  under  hydraulic 


826  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

pressure  to  press  out  most  of  the  water.  The  residue,  which  is  then 
in  the  form  of  a  cake  about  three  inches  thick  and  containing  about 
50  per  cent  of  moisture  is  put  into  a  mechanical  dryer,  which  is  heated 
by  steam  radiation,  from  which  it  comes,  containing  about  6  per  cent 
of  moisture.  It  is  then  ready  for  the  mill  where  it  is  ground  and  put 
into  sacks  ready  for  the  market.  In  the  preparation  of  blood  for 
feeding  purposes  it  must  be  handled  very  quickly  and  not  allowed  to 
decompose  between  the  different  stages  of  manufacture.  Some  samples 
of  blood  have  a  frightful  odor,  caused  by  decomposition  in  the 
process  of  manufacture. — (Iowa  B.  66.) 

Dried  Beet  Pulp. — The  beets  are  thoroughly  washed,  shredded, 
and  placed  in  a  large  cylinder ;  water  is  admitted  and  sugar  extracted 
by  the  diffusion  method.  After  the  liquor  is  withdrawn,  the  beet 
pulp  is  run  through  a  press  to  remove  excess  of  water.  Molasses 
residues  from  the  sugar  factory  are  thoroughly  mixed  with  beet  pulp 
and  the  whole  kiln  dried  by  direct  heat.  The  resulting  dry  product 
is  placed  on  the  market  as  a  feeding  stuff. 

Molasses  Grains. — These  residues  are  added  to  some  dry  and 
bulky  material,  such  as  brewer's  grains,  malt  sprouts,  oat  hulls,  or 
light  oats,  in  such  amounts  that  they  are  all  absorbed.  This  mixture 
after  drying  is  known  to  the  trade  as  "molasses  grains." 

Proprietary  Feeds. — These  are  derived  from  numerous  and 
varied  sources,  but  very  often  they  serve  as  the  outlet  for  industrial 
by-products,  such  as  are  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  breakfast 
foods. 

Poultry  Foods. — These  are  composed  principally  of  several 
cereals,  either  whole  or  coarsely  ground.  Some  poultry  foods  con- 
tain also  charcoal  and  ground  oyster  shells.  Other  foods  of  this  class 
are  fortified  with  dried  blood,  meat  scraps,  cottonseed  or  linseed 
meals.  Wheat  screenings,  containing  the  small  and  shriveled  wheat 
and  weed  seeds,  are  very  often  among  the  chief  ingredients. — (Dep. 
Agr.  Bu.  Chem.  B.  108.) 

MOLASSES  FOR  FATTENING  CATTLE. 

Methods  of  Feeding  Molasses. — The  most  common  method  of 
using  barrel  molasses  is  to  carry  it  out  in  buckets  and  mix  it  by  hand 
with  feed  in  the  bunk.  In  all  our  experiments  the  molasses  was 
mixed  with  an  equal  volume  of  water  and  poured  over  the  mixed 
grain  and  hulls,  the  whole  then  being  thoroughly  stirred.  This, 
however,  entails  too  much  labor  to  be  profitable  when  feeding  on  a 
large  scale.  A  common  practice  is  to  take  a  spraying  outfit,  the  barrel 
being  filled  with  equal  parts  of  water  and  molasses,  and  drive  through 
the  feed  lot,  spraying  on  the  mixed  feed  in  bunks  such  amount  of  the 
mixture  as  is  to  be  fed.  This  practice  in  some  degree  prevents  the 
loss  occasioned  by  the  feed  being  blown  from  the  bunks.  Feeders 
who  mix  meal  and  hulls  in  the  mill,  buy  their  molasses  in  tank  cars, 
empty  it  into  storage  tanks  in  proximitj^  to  the  mixing  room  and  mix 
it  with  the  meal  and  hulls  before  loading  it  into  the  feeding  wagon. 
Others  recommend  allowing  steers  constant  access  to  molasses. 

Amount  of  Molasses  to  Feed. — Those  feeders  who  have  been 
using  molasses  as  a  cattle  food,  have  in  most  instances  restricted  its 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  327 

use  to  a  quart  per  day,  mixing  it  with  the  feed  principally  to  render 
it  more  palatable,  inducing  the  cattle  to  consume  greater  amounts. 
The  idea  prevails  to  a  considerable  extent  that  molasses  has  a  laxative 
action,  and  its  use  in  large  quantities  is  not  advisable.  This  impres- 
sion is  probably  founded  upon  the  experience  of  feeders  of  beet  mo- 
lasses, the  ash  of  which  is  more  abundant  and  contains  more  potash 
than  the  ash  of  cane  molasses.  Although  observing  very  closely,  we 
have  never  noted  that  increase  in  amount  of  molasses  fed  caused  any 
more  inclination  to  scour  than  follows  the  too  rapid  increase  of  any 
new  feed.  So  far  as  the  danger  of  scouring  is  concerned  there  is  no 
reason  to  refrain  from  using  molasses  in  the  same  manner  as  in  any 
other  feed  of  similar  composition  would  be  used. 

Experiment  III. — Feeding  Molasses  from  Trough. — At  the  close 
of  experiment  II,  Lot  II  was  divided  and  added  to  the  original  lots  I 
and  III,  which  two  lots  were  increased  to  ten  head  each  bj-^  the  addi- 
tion of  other  animals  of  same  age  and  weight.  These  two  lots  were 
turned  on  grass  and  fed  similarly  except  that  one  lot  was  allowed 
access  to  a  tight  bottomed  feed  bunk  in  one  end  of  which  a  barrel  of 
molasses  was  placed  and  gauged  to  run  fast  enough  to  make  sure  of 
continuous  supply.  These  cattle,  now  two-year-olds  past,  weighing 
about  900  pounds  and  eating  twelve  pounds  grain  each  per  day,  prin- 
cipally corn,  at  the  start  ate  molasses  at  the  rate  of  six  pounds  or  two 
quarts  each  per  day.  They  continued  to  take  increasing  amounts  of 
tne  molasses  until  in  the  third  week  they  were  taking  twelve  pounds 
(one  gallon)  each  daily.  Some  steers  seemed  especially  fond  of  the 
molasses  and  ate  it  in  such  large  quantities  as  to  cause  them  to  scour. 
This  is  the  only  experience  we  have  had  with  the  system  of  feeding 
clear  molasses  separately.  The  grass  on  which  the  cattle  were  de- 
pendent for  roughage  was  very  washy  and  so  scarce  that  at  no  time 
were  they  as  well  filled  as  is  desirable. 

Summary. — The  addition  of  molasses  to  a  fattening  ration  has 
always  produced  an  increased  gain.  Addition  of  molasses  to  a  ration 
of  cottonseed  meal  and  hull  lowered  the  cost  of  gains.  When  mo- 
lasses was  added  to  a  balanced  ration  it  gave  larger  gains  and  im- 
proved the  appearance  of  the  cattle  but  did  not  lower  the  cost  of 
gain.  There  was  no  undesirable  result  from  feeding  yearling  steers 
one  gallon  of  molasses  each  per  day,  and  there  is  good  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  larger  amounts  might  be  used.  The  cheapest  gains  in  each 
month  were  made  by  the  lot  receiving  most  nearly  a  balanced  ration. 
Molasses  returned  from  3  to  30  cents  per  gallon.  The  lower  value 
was  obtained  when  molasses  was  added  to  a  ration  already  balanced 
and  when,  in  the  early  part  of  the  feeding  period,  an  unbalanced  ra- 
tion was  fed  the  higher  value  was  obtained. — (Texas  B.  86.) 

FEEDING  ALFALFA. 

The  use  of  alfalfa  as  the  sole  roughage  in  full-feeding  cattle  is 
becoming  quite  general  and  seems  to  give  the  best  of  results.  Some 
feeders,  however,  are  of  the  opinion  that  where  too  much  alfalfa  of 
high  quality  is  supplied  to  steers,  they  will  not  consume  enough 
grain  to  produce  satisfactory  results.  It  has  been  observed  in  the 
progress  of  feeding  experiments  that  cattle  receiving  nothing  but  al- 


328  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

falfa  as  a  roughage  always  seem  to  have  a  taste  for  coarse  roughage 
of  various  kinds.  Other  kinds  of  roughage  have  been  fed  in  connec- 
tion with  alfalfa  but  the  results  seem  to  indicate  that  the  advantage 
lies  with  the  feeding  of  alfalfa  as  the  sole  roughage  in  comparison 
with  the  feeding  of  other  kinds  in  connection  with  it. — (Kan.  B. 
130.) 

MIXING  GRAIN  AND  ROUGHAGE  TOGETHER. 

The  first  thing  that  a  practical  feeder  notices  when  he  goes  into 
a  feed-lot  where  steers  are  fed  grain  and  roughage  mixed  is  the  ab- 
sence of  scouring.  The  stockman  who  is  feeding  his  fattening  steers 
grain  and  roughage  thoroughly  mixed  finds  that,  with  ordinary  care 
in  feeding,  his  steers  not  only  do  not  have  the  scours,  but  that  an 
animal  is  seldom  off  feed.    Why? 

Average  corn  contains  seventy-two  per  cent  of  starch.  Starch  in 
feed  is  not  absorbed  into  the  system  and  used  in  building  up  the 
body  and  sustaining  life  until  it  is  changed  to  sugar.  When  changed 
to  sugar  it  is  readily  absorbed  and  used  in  the  body.  The  saliva  of 
the  mouth  has  the  power  to  make  this  change  while  the  juices  of  the 
stomach  do  not.  It  follows,  then,  that  the  method  of  preparing  the 
feed  that  will  induce  the  steer  to  chew  it  the  most  thoroughly  and  for 
the  longest  time  will  secure  the  greatest  amount  of  saliva  mixed  with 
the  feed  and  the  greatest  amount  of  starch  changed  to  a  form  that 
will  build  up  the  steer's  body. 

When  grain  and  roughage  are  mixed  together  the  steer  eats 
slowly,  giving  much  time  for  the  food  to  become  saturated  with  the 
saliva  and  for  the  saliva  to  act  on  the  starch.  When  the  food  is 
swallowed  it  goes  from  the  mouth  to  the  paunch.  When  the  food 
reaches  the  paunch  the  finer  portions,  such  as  grain  fed  alone,  are 
forced  directly  into  the  third  stomach  and  onward.  The  coarse  food 
and  the  grain  mixed  with  it,  when  the  grain  is  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  roughage,  is  held  for  quite  a  while  in  the  paunch,  where  the 
saliva  and  the  water  which  the  steer  drinlcs  makes  it  very  soft  and 
moist  and  the  saliva  continues  to  change  the  starch  to  sugar.  After 
the  coarse  feed  has  remained  in  the  paunch  until  it  is  thoroughly 
softened  it  is  brought  back  to  the  mouth  and  rechewed  as  the  cud ; 
this  allows  more  saliva  to  be  mixed  w^ith  it,  which  in  turn  changes 
more  starch  into  sugar,  and  the  rechewing  reduces  the  food  to  a 
greater  fineness.  The  second  time  the  food  is  swallowed  it  passes  to 
the  paunch  and  the  fine  particles  go  to  the  third  and  fourth  stomachs, 
where  the  action  of  the  saliva  ceases. 

When  the  grain  is  fed  separately  from  the  roughage,  the  animal 
chews  it  but  little,  swallows  it  quickly,  it  stays  but  a  short  time  in  the 
paunch,  and  but  a  small  portion  or  none  is  brought  up  with  the  cud' 
and  remasticated.  This  allows  for  slight  action  only  of  the  saliva. 
The  starch  which  forms  seventy-two  per  cent  of  corn  is  not  acted  on 
by  the  gastric  juice  of  the  stomach,  and  the  large  proportion,  which 
has  not  been  changed  by  the  saliva,  passes  to  the  intestines  undi- 
gested. Some  of  the  juices  of  the  intestines  change  the  starch  to 
sugar,  but  what  remains  unchanged  irritates  the  intestines,  producing 
looseness  and  scouring. 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  329 

Mixing  the  grain  with  the  roughage  compels  the  st^r  to  spend 
more  time  in  chewing  his  ration  than  when  the  grain  is  fed  alone. 
The  mixed  grain  and  roughage  is  held  in  the  paunch,  where  most  of 
the  water  drank  by  the  steer  is  stored,  and  the  water  thoroughly 
softens  the  mixed  feed.  The  lengthening  of  the  time  needed  to 
chew  the  feed  and  th€  holding  in  the  stomach  gives  the  saliva  a 
longer  time  in  which  to  change  starch  to  sugar.  After  the  mixed 
feed  has  become  soft  it  is  returned  to  the  mouth  as  the  cud,  and  the 
chewing  of  the  cud  grinds  the  grain  to  greater  fineness,  putting  it  in 
such  shape  that  the  digestive  juices  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  can 
better  act  on  it.  The  result  is  that  a  larger  portion  of  the  grain  is 
made  of  use  in  building  up  the  body  of  the  steer;  a  less  portion  of  the 
grain  is  undigested.  The  steer  gains  more  for  each  bushel  of  grain 
eaten,  better  digestion  keeps  his  body  in  better  health,  and  scouring 
is  avoided.  It  is  obvious  that  the  best  results  will  be  obtained  where 
the  feed  is  so  well  mixed  that  every  mouthful  which  the  steer  takes 
is  part  grain  and  part  roughage. — (Kansas  B.  112.) 

USE  OF  PULP. 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  attempts  to  compute  the  cash  value 
of  pulp  compared  with  other  foods  do  not  indicate  its  total  value.  It 
supplies  a  succulent  food  at  a  time  when  such  food  is  either  not  avail- 
able or  is  scarce,  and  its  effect  on  stock  seems  to  be  much  more  favor- 
able than  either  its  chemical  analysis  or  the  return  in  increased  meat 
or  milk  would  indicate.  To  its  actual  nutritive  effect  as  a  food  should 
be  added  its  general  effect  on  the  quality  of  meat  and  milk  and  on 
the  animal  system.  Pulp  undoubtedly  overcomes  much  injurious 
effects  of  dry  and  concentrated  foods,  puts  the  system  in  good 
sanitary  condition,  keeps  off  disease,  and  so  aids  the  appetite  and 
digestion  and  assimilation  of  food  that  there  is  less  waste,  both  of 
food  which  is  generally  discarded  in  eating,  and  that  which  usually 
passes  through  the  animal  undigested. 

There  seems  to  be  no  difficulty  in  regard  to  keeping  beet  pulp. 
While  there  is  some  loss  of  material  when  placed  in  open  piles,  the 
fermentation  which  takes  place  seems  to  be  beneficial  rather  than 
otherwise.  Animals  eat  the  sour  pulp  as  well,  and  after  a  little  time 
even  better  than  they  do  the  pulp  fresh  from  the  factory,  and  the  dry 
beet  chips  on  the  surface  of  the  piles  are  very  palatable  to  sheep  and 
cattle.  Nebraska  feeders  claim  that  pulp  which  has  been  left  in  open 
piles  for  two  or  three  years  is  as  good  as  ever. 

No  injurious  effects  have  been  observed  from  feeding  pulp,  un- 
less too  large  amounts  are  given  before  the  animals  become  accus- 
tomed to  it.  The  Michigan  Station  warns  feeders  against  too  liberal 
use  of  pulp  from  frozen  beets.  Freezing  does  not  seem  to  injure  the 
pulp  itself,  except  that  it  probably  does  not  pay  to  feed  large  amounts 
of  frozen  pulp  in  cold  weather,  as  the  animal  must  expend  much  food 
energy  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  pulp  to  the  heat  of  the  body. 

During  the  past  spring  the  Denver  papers  gave  an  account  of 
oattles'  mouths  becoming  sore  from  eating  pulp,  claiming  that  the 
injury  was  produced  by  aoids  added  to  the  pulp  in  the  process  of 
manufacture.    This  is  hardly  possible,  as  the  pulp  is  suDJected  to 


330  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

nothing  but  hot  water  at  the  factory.  Through  the  process  of  fer- 
mentation from  long  keeping  butyric  and  acetic  acids  develop  in 
pulp,  but  we  have  no  accounts  of  any  injurious  effects  from  feeding 
fermented  pulp. 

The  greatest  difficulty  with  pulp  feeding  is  that  the  large 
amount  of  water  it  contains  makes  it  heavy  and  rather  expensive  to 
handle,  and  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  keep  the  animals  dry  and 
comfortable  while  feeding  large  amounts  of  it.  The  feeder  who  is 
near  the  factory  and  has  the  appliances  so  arranged  that  he  can 
handle  the  pulp  with  the  least  expense,  should  make  the  greatest  use 
of  pulp  and  will  gain  the  greatest  profit  from  its  use.  If  it  can  be 
placed  before  stock  at  a  cost  of  not  more  than  one  dollar  per  ton,  we 
believe  it  will  bring  good  returns  for  the  investment,  and  in  many 
instances  it  may  be  worth  two  or  three  times  this  amount.  Whether 
fresh,  fermented,  or  dry,  beet  pulp  is  a  valuable  stock  food,  and  one 
of  which  our  farmers  should  make  the  largest  possible  use. — (Colo. 
B.  73.) 

BEET  PULP  AND  CORN  MEAL. 

The  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  these  three  feeding  trials,  in 
comparison  of  dried  beet  pulp  and  corn  meal  for  fattening  steers 
are:  Beet  pulp  produced  gain  cheaper  than  corn  meal.  The  ab- 
solute gains  produced  by  feeding  beet  pulp  were  practically  the  same 
as  from  feeding  corn  meal.  The  gains  of  the  pulp  fed  steers  Avere  in 
the  nature  of  growth  and  development,  the  corn-meal  produced  fat 
and  finish.  As  a  result,  at  the  end  of  the  feeding  period,  the  com 
meal  steers  were  in  better  condition  for  market  than  the  others.  For 
growing  animals,  beet  pulp  produced  the  greatest  gains.  For  ani- 
mals in  a  condition  for  finishing  com  meal  gave  the  most  rapid 
gains. 

From  this  it  would  be  safe  to  conclude  that  in  the  earlier  part  of 
the  feeding  period,  beet  pulp  could  be  fed  in  a  larger  quantity  to  ad- 
vantage, because  of  its  cheapness  and  at  the  same  time  ability  to  pro- 
duce gain  rapidly.  During  the  finishing  period  it  should,  however, 
be  replaced  at  least  in  a  large  measure  by  corn  meal,  which  possesses 
more  value  for  finishing  purposes.  The  corn  meal  is  a  much  more 
concentrated  feed,  hence  its  especial  value  for  forcing  at  the  close  of 
the  feeding  period  when  beet  pulp  could  not  be  used  on  account  of 
the  bulky  character  rendering  it  impossible  to  feed  sufficient  quantity 
for  the  best  results.  These  trials  show  that  a  thousand-pound  steer 
will  not  consume  over  10  lbs.  of  dried  beet  pulp  in  a  day. — (Mich. 
B.  247.) 

CONDIMENTAL  AND  MEDICINAL  STOCK  AND  POULTRY  FOODS. 

Food  Ingredients. — The  chemist  and  microscopist  have  found 
these  foods  to  consist  principally  of  ordinary  grains  and  concentrates, 
such  as  wheat  by-products  (bran  and  middlings)  and  corn  meal.  In 
some  oases  a  few  hundred  pounds  to  the  ton  of  linseed,  cottonseed 
and  occasionally  meat  and  bone  meal  have  been  added,  obviously  to 
increase  the  amount  of  protein ;  such  mixtures  contained  from  10  to 
20  per  cent  of  that  nutrient,    Occasionally  the  presence  of  consider- 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  331 

able  quantities  of  mustard  hulls,  cocoa  shells  and  weed  seeds  are 
noted,  used  evidently  as  a  filler. 

The  poultry  foods  more  frequently  reveal  the  presence  of  from 
10  to  50  per  cent  of  ground  oyster  shells  or  noticeable  quantities  of 
ground  bone,  which  accounts  for  the  exceptionally  high  ash  per- 
centage. 

Nutritive  and  Commercial  Values  of  the  Food  Ingredients. — It 
having  been  shown  that  the  bulk  of  these  foods  is  made  up  of  or- 
dinary ground  grains  and  by-products,  it  must  be  evident  to  all  that 
they  cannot  have  a  greater  nutritive  value  than  is  to  be  found  in  the 
materials  of  which  they  are  composed.  The  extravagant  claims 
made  by  the  manufacturers  concerning  their  wonderful  nutritive 
properties  is  in  no  way  substantiated  by  the  analytical  results.  It 
also  must  be  clear  that  their  commercial  value  from  a  nutritive 
standpoint  cannot  exceed  1  to  1^^  cents  a  pound.  Certainly  no  one 
would  entertain  the  idea  of  purchasing  these  mixtures,  at  the  prices 
asked,  because  of  any  particular  nutritive  value  they  may  possess. 

Character  of  Medicinal  Ingredients. — In  addition  to  the  various 
cereals  and  by-products,  these  foods  contain  small  quantities  of  a 
variety  of  substances,  most  of  which  possess  simple  medicinal  qual- 
ities, to  which  it  is  understood  is  attributed  the  wonderful  nutntive 
and  curative  properties  claimed  for  them.  The  condition  powders, 
so  called,  generally  contain  larger  quantities  of  these  medicines  than 
the  stock  and  poultry  mixtures.  The  medicinal  substances  are  de- 
scribed as  follows: — 

Fenugreek  and  fennel  are  the  ground  seeds  of  plants  grown  in 
southern  Europe,  known  botanically  as  Trigonella  Foenum  Grcecum, 
and  Foeniculum  vulgare.  They  are  aromatic  substances,  used  to  ex- 
cite the  action  of  the  stomach,  thereby  relieving  indigestion  and  gas, 
and  also  to  impart  an  lagreeable  flavor.  The  quantity  used  is  com- 
parativelj'  small. 

Anise  or  Aniseed  (Pimpenella  Anisum)  is  the  seed  of  a  plant 
cultivated  in  Spain  and  Malta.  It  has  a  pleasant  warm  taste  and  an 
agreeable  odor,  and  is  used  for  much  the  same  purpose  as  fenugreek. 

Gentian,  occasionally  recognized,  is  the  dried  root  of  the  plant 
known  as  Gentiana  lutia,  and  is  grown  in  central  and  southern 
Europe.  It  is  very  bitter,  and  is  used  as  a  stomach  tonic,  promoting 
an  increased  secretion  of  the  gastric  juice. 

Ginger  is  the  powdered  underground  stem  of  Zingiber  officinale, 
grown  principally  in  India  and  the  West  Indies.  It  stimulates  the 
various  membranes  with  which  it  comes  in  contact,  and  is  used  as  an 
appetizer  and  to  reduce  the  griping  effects  of  purgatives. 

Pepper,  the  common  black  form,  is  obtained  from  the  brown 
berries  of  an  East  India  climbing  plant,  Piper  nigrum.  Cayenne 
pepper  consists  of  the  dried  ripe  fruit  of  Capsicum  fastigiatum  and 
annum.  Both  kinds  are  used  as  a  stomachic  and  to  increase  the  ac- 
ti\'ity  of  the  reproductive  organs.  Salt,  of  which  many  of  the  mix- 
tures contained  from  2  to  20  per  cent,  was  used  as  an  appetizer. 
Sulfates  of  magne.-^ia  and  soda,  in  the  form  of  Epsom  and  Glauber's 
salts,  are  purgatives,  and  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  salts.    Saltpeter, 


332  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

nitrate  of  potash  or  niter,  is  used  in  medicine  to  excite  the  action  of 
the  kidneys  and  to  reduce  fever.  Sodium  bicarbonate  is  employed  to 
neutralize  an  undue  acidity  of  the  stomach.  Sulphur  is  used  as  a 
laxative,  alterative,  and  as  a  stimulant  of  mucous  surfaces.  Iron 
found  as  the  oxide — Venetian  red  or  Princess  metallic — is  not  used 
medicinally,  but  is  employed  to  color  or  disguise  the  real  character  of 
the  food.  Sulfate  of  iron  used  as  a  restorative  and  tonic  was  seldom 
identified. 

The  medicinal  value  of  charcoal  consists  in  its  ability  to  check 
fermentative  changes,  and  to  absorb  undesirable  gases.  In  most  cases 
it  appears  to  have  been  ground  fine  and  mixed  with  the  other  in- 
gredients to  conceal  their  identity. 

Tumeric,  the  powdered  root  of  an  East  Indian  plant,  the  Cur- 
cuma longa,  is  a  stomachic,  but  is  used  principally  as  coloring  matter. 

Quantity  of  Medicinal  Ingredients. — No  attempt  was  made  to 
determine  the  exact  quantity  of  each  of  the  several  drugs  employed. 
Most  of  the  foods  contained  from  5  to  40  per  cent  of  ash.  Ordinary 
grains  and  by-products  rarely  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  of  ash; 
the  excess  in  the  present  cases  was  made  up  of  such  mineral  substances 
as  oyster  shells,  bone,  sand,  common  salt  (2  to  20  per  cent),  Epsom 
or  Glauber's  salts  (about  5  per  cent),  niter  (1  or  more  per  cent)  and 
Venetian  red.  The  vegetable  drugs — fenugreek,  fennel,  anise, 
gentian,  ginger  and  pepper — were  employed  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  produce  an  agreeable  odor  and  smart  taste,  probably  in  quantities 
varying  from  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  whole  mixture.  In  some  cases 
the  total  quantity  of  mineral  and  vegetable  drugs  constituted  from 
one-sixth  to  one-third  of  the  mixture,  while  in  other  cases  the  amount 
of  such  substances  was  very  much  less. 

Cost  and  Selling  Price  Compared. — None  of  the  mineral  dru^, 
excepting  niter,  cost  much  over  1  cent  a  pound ;  the  vegetable  drugs 
vary  in  price  from  3  to  12  cents  a  pound.  Jud^ng  from  all  the  data 
at  hand,  the  cost  of  the  entire  mixtures — grains  and  drugs — could 
rarely  have  exceeded  3  to  4  cents  a  pound.  In  many  oases  it  could 
not  have  been  more  than  2  cents  a  pound. 

The  initial  cost  of  the  condition  powders  is  probably  somewhat 
greater  than  the  ordinary  stock  foods.  The  retail  prices  of  the  latter 
vary  from  6  to  25  cents  a  pound,  depending  on  the  brand  and  quan- 
tity purchased.  Condition  powders  are  much  higher  priced,  varying 
from  30  cents  to  $1  a  pound.  Is  it  not  strange  that  many  are  willing 
to  pay  extravagant  prices  for  materials  possessing  such  ordinary  feed- 
ing and  medicinal  values?  It  is  hoped  that  poultrymen  have  suf- 
ficient common  sense  to  purchase  bran,  com  meal,  salt,  oyster  shells, 
charcoal  and  meat  scraps  separately,  rather  than  pay  from  10  to  20 
cents  a  pound  for  such  mixtures  put  up  in  attractive  packages,  for 
w^hich  the  manufacturers  make  the  most  astounding  and  unreason- 
able claims. 

Utility  of  These  Foods. — Their  food  value  cannot  be  greater  than 
the  ordinary  grains,  of  which  they  are  largely  composed.  Their 
medicinal  value  depends  largely  upon  the  aromatic  seeds  and  roots 
used  as  a  tonic  for  the  stomach,  on  charcoal  as  an  absorbent  and  on 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  333 

the  purgative  effect  of  the  Epsom  or  Glauber's  salts.  The  quantity 
recommended  to  be  fed  daily  is  usually  so  small  (1  ounce  or  less) 
that  very  little  if  any  effect  can  be  expected  unless  the  material  is  fed 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  While  it  is  probably  true  that 
some  of  these  stock  foods  may  prove  beneficial  under  certain  con- 
ditions, it  is  also  true  that  most  of  them  are  heterogeneous  mixtures, 
and  evidently  put  together  by  parties  quite  ignorant  of  the  principles 
of  animal  physiology,  pathology  ^and  veterinary  medicine. 

Clmms  Made  by  Manufacturers. — The  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal claims  made  by  one  of  the  largest  manufacturers  of  stock  and 
poultry  foods:  Horses. — Gives  greater  speed  endurance.  Imparts 
new  life  and  strength.  Makes  colts  grow  very  rapidly  and  keeps 
brood  mares  and  colts  healthy.  Guaranteed  to  save  corn  and  oats. 
Makes  horses  fat,  gives  glossy  coat  and  fine  appearance.  Cattle. — 
Increases  the  milk  yield  15  to  25  per  cent  and  increases  the  richness 
of  the  milk.  Removes  taint  from  milk,  cream  and  butter,  and  makes 
milk  more  healthful  for  human  use.  Such  milk  will  convey  some  of 
the  beautiful  elements  of  the  vegetable  ingredients  we  use  into  the 
systems  of  your  children,  and  they  will  be  stronger  to  ward  off  dis- 
ease. Makes  calves  grow  as  fast  as  new  milk.  Saves  thirty  days*  time 
in  fattening  cattle,  and  15  to  25  per  cent  of  the  grain  usually  required. 
Hogs. — Cures  and  prevents  hog  cholera,  and  is  the  quickest  hog 
grower  ever  discovered.  Makes  juicy  and  tender  meat,  roultry. — It 
prevents  disease  and  cures  chicken  cholera.  It  greatly  increases  egg 
production  and  makes  chickens  grow  very  rapidfy.  The  amount  ad- 
vised to  be  fed  daily  to  horses  and  cattle  to  accomplish  these  mar- 
velous results  is  two-thirds  of  an  ounce  I  The  material  costs  14  cents 
a  pound  in  25-pound  lots. 

The  Connecticut,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  Virginia,  Iowa, 
South  Dakota  and  Massachusetts  stations  have  found  this  stock  food 
to  consist  principally  of  wheat  (bran  and  middlings),  to  which  has 
been  added  fine  charcoal,  a  bitter  substance  resembling  gentian,  cay- 
enne and  common  salt.  Another  large  manufacturer  makes  es- 
sentially the  same  claims  as  above,  and  the  material  sells  at  6  cents  a 
pound  in  25-pound  lots.  The  same  experiment  stations  found  it  to 
be  composed  largely  of  corn  meal,  with  small  quantities  of  fenu- 
greek, gentian,  charcoal  and  salt. 

Farmers,  dairymen  and  poultrymen:  TVTiat  would  be  your 
opinion  of  any  experiment  station  w'orker  who  would  make  such 
statements  concerning  the  nutritive,  medicinal  or  commercial  value 
of  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  charcoal,  gentian  and  salt?  Do  you  think 
there  is  any  humbug  in  the  claims  made  by  the  manufacturers  of 
such  goods?  The  question  is  left  for  you  to  decide.  You  may  be 
the  judge. 

Do  Healthy  Animals  Need  Medicine? — Animals  in  a  state  of 
health  do  not  need  condition  powders  or  tonic  foods.  There  is  in  the 
body  of  a  healthy  animal  a  condition  of  equilibrium  of  all  body  func- 
tions. The  processes  of  digestion  and  assimilation  are  at  their  best. 
All  that  is  required  to  maintain  this  condition  of  balance  is  that  the 
animal  be  kept  under  sanitary  conditions,  and  receive  a  sufficient 


334  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

supply  of  healthful,  nutritive  food  and  pure  water.  While  tonics 
may  improve  the  appetite  so  that  the  animal  will  temporarily  con- 
sume and  digest  more  food,  should  this  increased  quantity  of  nu- 
trients consumed  not  be  appropriated  by  the  tissues  of  the  body, 
harm  may  result  from  thus  overloading  the  lymphatic  system,  or 
from  an  increased  action  of  the  excreting  organs. 

Treatment  of  Sick  Animals. — It  is  believed  to  be  unwise  to  give 
drugs  to  animals  when  it  can  possibly  be  avoided.  Even  such  simple 
substances  as  salts,  ginger,  gentian  and  the  like  should  be  used  as 
sparingly  as  possible.  If  an  animal  is  out  of  condition,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved a  tonic  will  be  helpful,  try  the  following :  Pulverized  gentian, 
1  pound;  pulverized  ginger,  l^  pound;  pulverized  saltpeter,  i/4 
pound;  pulverized  iron  sulfate,  %  pound.  Mix  and  give  one  table- 
spoonful  in  the  feed  once  a  day  for  ten  days,  omit  for  three  days,  then 
give  ten  days  more.  Cost  of  the  above,  20  cents  a  pound.  In  ex- 
ceptional cases,  when  skilled  medical  treatment  appears  absolutely 
necessary,  it  is  far  wiser  to  employ  a  reliable  veterinarian  than  to  at- 
tempt home  doctoring  by  the  indiscriminate  use  of  patent  medicines 
or  powders  recommended  to  cure  everything. — (Mass.  An.  Kept. 
Part  II,  1910.) 

AUTHORITIES  CONSULTED. 

Beef  Production.— Mo.  B.  76 ;  Miss.  B.  76 ;  Kans.  B.  118,  113 ; 
Mich.  B.  241;  Kas.B.lll;Tenn.B.79;Tex.B.86;Tenn.B.3.Vol.XV; 
S.  Dak.  B.  100;  Ag.  Dept.  F.  B.  71;  Miss.  B.  92, 136;  Nebr.  B.  75,  85, 
90;  la.  B.  66;  Mich.  B.  247;  An.  Rept.  Sec'y  Ag.  U.  S.,  1908;  Mont. 
B.  48;  la.  B.  75,  79;  Miss.  B.  137,  145,  149,  152;  Ag.  Societies  of 
Ont.  11th  Rept. ;  Tex.  B.  121,  147 ;  Kans.  B.  146,  158 ;  Miss.  B.  125 
Pa.  B.  26 ;  Minn.  B.  60 ;  Kans.  B.  86 ;  Mass.  An.  Rept.  Part  II,  1910 
Tex.  B.  97 ;  Tex.  B.  86 ;  Mass.  B.  44 ;  la.  B.  75 ;  Tex.  B.  135 ;  Kans.  B 
112;  Kans.  B.  130;  Ag.  Dept.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  34;  111.  Cir.  88,  92 
94;Mich.  B.  241. 

Commercial  Cattle  Foods. — R.  I.  A.  E.  S.  B.  77;  Miss.  B.  114 
Mass.  B.  45;  Mass.  B.  94;  Nev.  B.  26;  N.  J.  B.  185,  237,  153,  160 
230;  Tex.  B.  141;  Mass.  B.  108,  106;  Tex.  B.  127;  Mass.  B.  101 
N.  J.  B.  165,  175,  212;  Pa.  B.  41;  R.  I.  B.  94;  Conn.  Rept.  1905 
Part  3;  N.  J.  B.  193,  201,  185;  N.  Y.,  Geneva,  B.  268;  Tenn.  B 
Vol.  9,  No.  3 ;  Pa.  B.  81 ;  Conn.  Rept.  1909,  Part  3 ;  La.  B.  86 ;  Va.  B 
107;  N.  Y.,  Geneva,  B.  198;  La.  B.  114;  N.  Y.  (State)  217;  N.  H 
B.  147 ;  Mass.  B.  93 ;  La.  B.  88 ;  Conn.  Biennial  Rept.  1908,  Part  10 
N.  H.  B.  116;  Mass.  B.  56,  64,  85,  71;  N.  H.  B.  147;  Mass.  B.  53 
136,  139;  la.  B.  66;  Nev.  B.  26;  Vt.  B.  144;  Vt.  B.  138;  R.  I.  B.  78 
105,  112;  la.  B.  65;  N.  H.  B.  149;  R.  I.  B.  119;  La.  B.  98;  Mass.  B 
78 ;  R.  I.  B.  119 ;  R.  I.  Inspection  B.  1911 ;  Conn.  Rept.  1906,  Part  3 
N.  H.  B.  133;  R.  I.  B.  134, 140;  Wis.  Cir.  Inf.  11,  22, 1;  Tex.  B.  70 
R.  I. B.  98; Ind. Cir.  7, 6. 


PART  III 

SHEEP. 

INTRODUCTION. 

SHEEP  are  associated  with  man  in  the  earliest  records  of  the 
human  race.    They  were  first  used  only  for  milk  and  later  the 
skins  were  used  for  clothing.     Nearly  a  century  and  a  half 
have  elapsed  since  Robert  BaJkewell  of  Dishley,  Loughborough, 
England,  began  the  first  systematic  and  intelligent  improvement  of 
mutton  sheep.    Prior  to  that  time  wool  had  been  the  primary  con- 
sideration in  sheep  raising, 

Spain,  the  home  of  the  Merino,  at  one  time  controlled  the  wool 
markets  of  the  world,  and  in  the  early  management  of  the  Spanish 
Merino  the  ewes  were  so  small  that  it  was  common  to  kill  half  the 
lambs  in  order  that  those  remaining  might  go  to  two  ewes.  The 
fleece  was  practically  the  only  consideration  in  the  sheep  reared  in 
that  country,  and  this  has  been  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of 
the  Merino  breed  until  within  the  present  decade.  As  late  as  1892 
J.  H.  McKibbon  of  Albion,  Iowa,  exhibited  a  yearling  American 
Merino  at  the  Iowa  Sheep  Breeders'  shearing  meeting  tm.i  yielded  a 
15-pound  fleece  from  a  54-pound  carcass. 

Bakewcll's  work  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  sheep 
raising  in  Great  Britain.  His  achievements  in  the  practical  and  scien- 
tific improvement  of  live  stock  and  the  consequent  increased  value 
and  profit  in  farm  animals  entitle  him  to  take  rank  with  the  greatr 
est  benefactors  of  humanity.  Bakewell's  contemporaries  credit  him 
as  being  a  man  of  such  analytical  and  systematic  methods,  such  force 
of  intellect  and  creative  genius,  that  he  would  have  been  eminent  in 
any  field  of  labor  or  undertaking.  The  problems  connected  with 
live-stock  production  are  even  more  intricate  at  the  present  time  and 
the  conditions  in  agriculture  more  exacting.  Good  animals  never 
come  by  chance  or  haphazard  methods ;  they  have  been  the  product 
of  a  high  degree  of  intelligence,  skill,  and  intellectual  ability.  This 
field  will  always  be  worthy  of  the  best  minds  and  highest  talent  the 
world  affords.— (Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  96.) 

THE  PRINCIPAL  BREEDS, 

Merinos. — Modern  Merinos  originated  in  Spain  but  their  ances- 
trj'^  traces  back  to  the  sheep  of  Italy,  Greece  and  Syria.  For  the  most 
part  they  have  been  raised  in  large  flocks  and,  hence,  adapt  them- 
selves to  range  conditions  more  readily  than  the  English  Mutton 
Breeds,  which  have  generally  been  handled  in  small  flocks.  There 
are  many  distinct  types  of  Merinos  known  by  dift'erent  names.  All, 
however,  are  characterized  by  the  extreme  fineness  of  their  wool  and 

835 


336  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIUYING,  ETC. 

the  heavy  fleeces  they  shear.  As  a  sheep  for  mutton  purposes  they 
compare  with  the  English  breeds  in  about  the  same  way  as  a  Jersey 
compares  with  a  Shorthorn  or  Hereford.  They  are  essentially  the 
sheep  of  Southern  Europe,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  Argentine 
Republic  and  the  prairies  of  the  United  States.  Even  in  these  coun- 
tries, however,  there  is  a  marked  tendency  to  cross  with  rams  of  the 
English  Mutton  breeds,  so  as  to  produce  a  sheep  of  greater  value  for 
the  export  mutton  trade.  This  tendency  accounts  for  the  fabulous 
prices  which,  of  late  years,  have  been  paid  by  breeders  from  these 
parts  of  the  world  for  rams  of  the  Lincoln  and  other  English  breeds. 
One  strain  of  Merinos,  the  Rambouillet  or  French  Merino,  has  re- 
cently become  particularly,  popular  in  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
elsewhere.  This  strain,  called  after  the  little  village  in  France 
where  it  originated,  is  characterized  by  more  size,  better  mutton  fonn 
and  a  little  coarser  wool  than  any  other  of  the  Merino  sheep.  The 
Rambouillet  and  other  Merino  sheep  have  the  ability  to  conceive 
early  and  drop  their  lambs  in  fall  and  winter,  a  characteristic  shared 
by  the  English  Dorset  'breed. — (Annual  Report  Sec'y  Agr.  Prov. 
Nova  Scotia,  1907.) 

ENGLISH  LONG  WOOL  SHEEP. 

Leicester. — Although  sheep  existed  in  the  British  Isles  as  long 
ago  as  history  records,  yet  it  was  not  until  about  the  year  1755  that  a 
systematic  effort  at  improvement  was  made.  About  that  time  Robert 
Bakewell,  of  Dishley  Grange,  Leicestershire,  famed,  also  as  a  breeder 
and  improver  of  Longhorn  cattle  and  cart  horses,  made  a  systematic 
effort  to  improve  the  sheep  of  his  neighborhood,  as  a  result  of  which 
he  produced  the  English  Leicester,  or  Dishley  breed  of  sheep.  He 
had  conceived  a  clear  idea  of  the  modern,  smooth,  easily-fed  and 
early-maturing  type  of  sheep  as  superior  to  the  sometimes  larger,  but 
coarser  and  later-maturing  sort  then  existent.  As  a  result  of  careful 
selection,  and,  it  is  believed,  considerable  inbreeding,  he  produced  a 
class  of  sheep  measuring  up  to  his  ideal,  which  were  so  highly  appre- 
ciated that  as  much  as  2,000  guineas  ($10,000),  per  year,  each,  was 
paid  for  the  rent  of  seven  rams  bred  by  him.  The  Dishley  Leicester 
has  been  used  extensively  in  effecting  improvement  in  other  long- 
wool  breeds. 

The  Border  Leicester. — The  Border  Leicester,  thought  by  some 
to  have  been  produced  in  the  Border  areas  between  England  and 
Scotland  by  crossing  the  Dishley  Leicester  with  the  Cheviot,  is  now 
generally  considered  to  have  been  produced  through  crossing  of  ewes 
of  the  Teeswater  Valley  with  Dishley  rams.  The  Dishley  and  Border 
Leicester  are  much  alike,  the  principal  differences  being  that  the 
head  of  the  Border  Leicester  is  white,  and  bare  of  wool,  whereas  that 
of  the  English  Leicester  has  a  bluish-white  appearance,  and  the  head 
and  face  is  not  so  free  from  wool.  The  carcass  of  the  Border  Leicester 
is  considered  to  be  a  little  larger  and  longer  than  that  of  the  English 
Leicester.  The  following  description  of  the  Border  Leicester  will, 
with  the  exception  of  the  above  points,  fit  the  English  Leicester  as 
well: 


mEEP  337 

The  face  is  bare  and  pure  white.  The  body  is  scarcely  as  low  set 
as  that  of  some  of  the  other  breeds,  but  is  a  little  longer.  The  back  is 
exceptionally  wide,  and  the  quarters  very  smoothly  rounded  on  top. 
No  breed  possesses  a  more  marked  aptitude  to  fatten,  a  characteristic 
which  places  a  special  premium  upon  the  Leicester  for  crossing  pur- 
poses. The  wool  of  the  sheep  is  lustrous,  five  or  six  inches  long,  and 
very  soft,  though  frequently  too  open,  and  sometimes  aibsent  on  the 
belly. 

The  Lincoln. — This  is  the  largest  sheep  of  the  British  Isles,  and 
also  possesses  the  heaviest  and  strongest  fleece  of  wool.  The  breed  is 
a  growth  of  many  years'  culture  in  the  Lincolnshire  fens  and  ad- 
joining districts.  Here,  agriculture  has  been  carried  on  under  the 
highest  system,  and  roots,  grasses  and  grain,  all  grown  in  profusion, 
have  been  the  means  of  developing  a  very  large-framed  sheep.  The 
Lincoln  of  early  times,  like  that  of  today,  was  a  large  sheep,  but  was 
coarse,  and  of  slow  maturity.  Marked  improvement  was  effected  by 
a  cross  of  the  improved  Leicester.  The  modem  Lincoln  is  a  magni- 
ficent-looking sheep.  The  head  is  rather  long  and  massive,  the  face 
pure  white,  free  from  wool,  but  surmounted  by  a  conspicuous  tuft  of 
wool.  The  body  is  exceedingly  full  in  its  development  all  over.  The 
wool  is  long  in  fibre,  very  strong,  and  noted  for  its  lustre.  It  is 
especially  valuable  for  the  worsted  class  of  goods,  as  well  as  for  braids, 
bunting  for  flags,  etc.,  where  length  and  strength  are  needed.  As  to 
mutton  qualities,  the  breed  is  a  little  large  and  strong  to  meet  the  ap- 
proved demands  of  an  exacting  market.  Their  special  value  seems  to 
be  for  crossing  upon  the  common  American  stock  to  improve  their 
size.  Farmers  generally  are  not  recommended  to  adopt  this  breed, 
unless  they  were  prepared  to  accord  them  somewhat  of  the  same 
luxurious  feeding  as  their  ancestors  were  accustomed  to  on  their 
native  soil. 

The  Cotswold. — This  breed,  contrary  to  the  haibit  of  most  long- 
wooled  sheep,  has  made  its  home  on  the  uplands — ^the  Cotswold  hills 
of  Gloucester  and  adjoining  counties.  It  is  a  very  ancient  breed  and, 
with  the  exception  of  a  little  resort  to  Leicester  blood  to  improve  the 
quality,  has  been  kept  pure  for  a  long  period.  In  form,  the  Cotswold 
is  rather  deeper,  squarcr  in  outline,  and  larger  than  the  Leicester,  in 
fact,  rivalling  the  Lincoln  in  size.  The  head  is  rather  long,  but  wide 
between  the  eyes,  though  scarcely  as  massive  as  that  of  a  tvpical 
Lincoln,  The  face  is  usually  white,  but  dashes  of  grey  are  quite  ad- 
missible and,  by  many,  admired.  The  face  is  surmounted  with  a 
full,  long  forelock,  if  is  said  of  the  Cotswolds  that  they  are  a  sheep 
that  "can  look  over  a  hurdle"  in  reference  to  the  prominent  way  in 
which  they  carrj'^  their  heads.  Many  Cotswolds  are,  on  this  account, 
inclined  to  be  ewc-neckcd,  although  this  has  been  bred  out  of  the  best 
of  them.  As  regards  wool,  Cotswold  breeders  prefer  a  bold,  open  curl, 
rather  than  the  close,  spiral  of  the  Leicester.  A  long,  strong  fibre 
that  yields  heavy  is  the  ideal.  Owing  to  ite  length,  the  fleece  is  some- 
times open  along  the  back.  In  regard  to  mutton  qualities,  Cotswolds 
are  open  to  the  same  criticism  as  the  Lincoln  and  their  greatest  value 
in  this  country  is  for  crossing  upon  and  improving  tne  eize  of  the 


338  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

smaller  grades.  In  selecting  Cotswolds  ^be  very  particular  to  get  them 
dense  fleeced,  especially  along  the  back,  and  of  extra  quality. 

The  Downs. — In  the  south  of  England  is  a  chain  of  chalky  hills 
covered  with  fine,  short  grass.  As  long  as  history  records,  there  has 
been  on  these  hills  a  race  of  short-wooled  sheep  for  the  most  part  pos- 
sessed of  horns.  From  this  old  type,  through  selection  and  crossing 
and  careful  feeding,  have  been  developed  the  Southdown,  Shrop- 
shire, Oxford,  Hampshire,  Suffolk  and  Dorset  horn,  breeds  of  sheep 
which,  in  greater  or  less  numbers,  are  to  be  found  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  These  breeds  are,  for  the  most  part,  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  Long-wools,  but  they  atone  for  this  by  their  quality 
and  even  more  by  the  fineness  and  denseness  of  their  fleeces,  the 
latter  being  particularly  important  05  a  means  of  protecting  them 
from  rains  and  snows,  which  are  all  too  often  the  cause  of  colds  and 
other  diseases. 

The  Southdowns. — This  breed  is  a  striking  illustration  of  tho 
possibilities  of  breeding.  A  native  of  the  Sussex-downs,  and  some- 
times so  designated,  the  unimproved  ancestors  are  described  as  being 
small  in  size,  of  bad  shape,  long  in  the  neck,  low  at  both  ends,  light 
in  shoulders,  narrow  in  front,  coarse  in  bone,  possessed  of  horns,  but 
boasting  of  a  big  leg  of  mutton.  Today,  the  breed  is  one  of  the  most 
perfectly  formed  breeds  in  existence. 

The  size  of  Southdowns  is  medium  to  small,  but  so  compact  and 
thick  fleshed  are  they  and  so  close  to  the  ground  that  their  weights 
will  astonish  any  unacquainted  with  the  breed.  The  head  is  mod- 
erate in  size,  short  and  cleanly  cut.  The  forehead  should  be  covered. 
with  wool,  as  also  the  cheeks,  but  this  does  not  usually  join  under  the 
eyes.  There  is  an  absence  of  horns  and  the  ears  are  small,  pointed 
and  very  alert.  The  face  is  of  a  mouse  or  slightly  darker  brown 
color  (speckled  face  objected  to).  The  neck,  body  and  quarters  are 
most  symmetrical  and  the  very  embodiment  of  mutton  type.  No 
other  sheep  has  such  a  development  of  hind  quarters.  The  fleece  is 
characterised  more  by  its  fineness  and  density,  rather  than  its  weight, 
which  is  usually  not  great  on  account  of  the  shortness  of  fibre  and  a 
comparative  lack  of  yolk. 

The  great  transformation  in  the  quality  of  the  Southdown  waa 
effected  exclusively  by  selection,  and  the  result  has  been  not  only  a 
very  handsome,  but  exceedingly  prepotent  class  of  sheep  that  have 
been  used  extensively  in  the  improvement  of  the  short-wools,  just  aa 
the  Leicester  has  been  used  in  the  improvement  of  the  long-wools. 
Southdowns  are  not  very  numerous  in  this  country,  their  lack  of  size 
and  rather  light  fleeces  being  strongly  urged  against  them.  Never- 
theless, they  will  always  find  a  place,  and  every  breeder  of  short-wool 
sheep  must  feel  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  this  splendid  breed  of  sheep, 
whose  blood  has  so  greatly  improved  the  mutton  qualities  of  almost 
all  the  Down  breeds. 

Shropshires. — This  well-known  breed  originated  a  little  further 
north  in  England  than  the  Southdowns.  The  fact  that,  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  it  has  the  largest  number  of  registering  breeders,  indicates 
its  great  popularity.    lu  size,  the  Shropshire  is  considerably  larger 


\iii.  dh^miH 


■■■■■ 


SHEEP  341 

than  the  Southdown,  and  shears  a  heavier  fleece,  while  at  the  same 
time  preserving,  to  a  large  degree,  the  compact  mutton  form,  for 
which  the  latter  is  so  deservedly  noted.  The  breed  had  its  origin  in 
the  mingling  of  the  blood  of  a  diminutive  black  or  brown-faced  and 
horned  sheep,  called  from  its  habitat,  the  "Morfe  Common  sheep," 
with  that  of  the  Leicester,  Cotswold,  and  Southdown.  These  Morfe 
Common  sheep  dressed,  when  matured,  about  forty  to  fifty  pounds  of 
mutton,  and  sheared  about  two  (2)  pounds  of  wool.  A  comparison 
of  this  sheep  with  the  modern  Shropshire  ought  to  convince  anyone 
of  the  possibilities  there  are  for  stock  improvement  through  the  per- 
sistent use  of  high-class  sires  of  the  type  sought  after.  In  sixty  years 
the  Shropshire  sheep  as  compared  with  their  ancestors,  doubled  their 
carcass  weight,  and  more  than  trebled  the  weight  of  their  fleeces. 
Since  about  the  middle  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  the  breed  has  been 
kept  pure. 

The  type  of  the  Shropshire  is,  as  stated,  very  similar  to  the 
Southdown,  except  that  it  is  on  a  larger  scale.  The  head  is  of  mod- 
erate size,  short,  wide  and  clean  cut.  It  should  be  closely  covered 
with  wool  right  down  the  bridge  of  the  nose.  There  should,  of 
course,  be  no  appearance  of  horns.  The  ears  should  be  far  apart, 
pointed  and  moderate  in  thickness  and  preferably  covered  with  fine, 
curly  wool.  The  fleece  should  be  strong  and  fine  in  fibre,  with  all 
the  density  possible,  extending  from  the  bridge  of  the  nose  all  over 
the  body  and  right  down  to  the  hind  fetloclcs.  Black  wool  fibres  are 
objectionable,  though  sometimes  hard  to  avoid  forward  of  the  ears. 
The  characteristic  color  of  the  face  and  legs  is  a  rich,  dark  seal  brown. 
No  breed  of  sheep  will  adapt  itself  to  varying  conditions  better  than 
the  Shropshire. 

The  greatest  rivals  of  the  Shropshire  are  the  Oxford  and  Hamp- 
shire Downs.  Of  these  two,  the  Oxford  very  much  resembles  the 
Shropshire,  so  that  it  is  sometimes  almost  impossible  to  distinguish 
a  coarse  Shropshire  from  a  fine  Oxford.  The  chief  points  of  differ- 
ence are  to  be  seen  in  the  greater  size,  larger,  heavier  head  and  ear 
and  the  longer  but  more  open  fleece  of  the  Oxford  as  compared  with 
the  Shropshire. 

Hampshire. — ^These  have  not,  as  yet,  been  extensively  bred  in 
America.  However  they  are  gradually  coming  into  favor.  The 
Hampshire  is  one  of  the  more  recent  additions  to  the  breeds  of  Eng- 
lish sheep  and  is  the  result  of  the  skillful  mingling  of  bloods  of  an 
old,  white  faced,  horned  breed  called  tlie  Wiltshire  (somewhat  simi- 
lar to  the  Dorset),  the  Berkshire  Knot  (a  similar  though  smaller 
breed),  the  Southdown  and,  perhaps,  the  Cotswold.  The  result  has 
been  the  evolution  of  the  largest  and  heaviest  of  the  Down  breeds, 
almost  rivalling  the  Cotswold  and  Lincoln  in  size. 

The  face  and  legs  of  the  Hampshire  are  darker  in  color  than  in 
any  of  the  Down  breeds,  except  the  Suffolk.  The  head  is  large, 
strong  and  bold.  Though  its  features  cannot  be  too  dark  in  color, 
yet  the  wool  of  the  body  must  be  perfectly  white,  even  a  dark  tinge 
around  the  poll  being  objectionable.  The  head  is  well  covered  with 
wool,  both  between  the  ears  and  on  the  cheeks,  the  wool  not,  however, 


842  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

coming  down  as  far  as  in  the  Shropshire.  The  ears  are  large,  set  on 
somewhat  low  and  falling  slightly  outward,  as  they  do,  give  the 
appearance  of  a  very  wide  poll.  In  body  Hampshires  are  of  the  ap- 
proved mutton  type,  but  they  are  stronger  iboned  and  larger  than 
any  other  of  the  Down  breeds.  The  wool  is  relatively  short,  but 
dense  and  of  strong  fibre. 

The  strong  points  claimed  for  the  Hampshire  are  their  size  and 
the  early  maturity  of  their  lambs,  no  lambs  excelling  them  in  weight 
at  a  given  age  when  well  fed.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered 
that  mey  are  the  sheep  of  the  arable  farm,  able  to  consume  a  large 
amount  of  food,  and  requiring  an  abundance  of  it  before  their  good 
points  can  be  thoroughly  evidenced.  They  have  a  place  on  our 
farms,  where  pastures  are  good  and  plenty  of  stable  feeding  supplied. 

Oxfords. — This  breed  is  one  of  the  more  modern  of  sheep.  Its 
origin  was  the  deliberate  crossing  of  two  distinct  types  of  sheep,  viz., 
the  'Southdown  and  Hampshire,  of  the  short-wools,  and  the  Cots- 
wold,  of  the  long-wools.  The  result  has  been  a  breed  almost  if  not 
as  large  as  the  Hampshire,  and  uniting  many  of  the  diverse  qualities 
of  long  and  short-wool  sheep.  The  Oxford  resembles  in  form  the 
Shropshire,  but  is  generally  larger  and  higher  off  the  ground.  The 
fibres  of  wool  are  longer  and  somewhat  stronger,  but  the  fleece 
itself  is  scarcely  as  dense  as  that  of  the  Shropshire.  The  head  is 
larger  and  longer  than  that  of  the  Shropshire,  and  is  not  so  densely 
covered  with  wool.  The  face  may  be  a  dark-gray  or  a  brown,  with 
or  without  a  gray  spot  on  the  tip  of  the  nose.  The  ears  are  larger 
and  longer  than  those  of  the  Shropshire,  but  should  not  be  coarse, 
and  should  be  well  carried.  The  Oxford  is  a  noble  sheep,  and  is 
especdally  valued  on  account  of  its  strength  and  size,  for  cross  breed- 
ing. In  a  measure,  the  statements  made  in  regard  to  the  feed  neces- 
sary for  Hampshires  also  apply  to  the  Oxfords. 

Suffolks. — In  appearance  the  breed  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
Hampshire,  .having  the  same  black  features  and  bat-like  spreading 
ears.  The  head,  however,  is  usually  bare  of  wool  or  carries  but  a 
small  amount  on  the  forehead.  They  are  not  so  blocky,  compact 
and  low-set  as  the  Shropshire  and  their  fleece,  though  pure  and  dense, 
is  rather  short.  The  Suffolk  in  its  home,  however,  has  been  greatly 
improved  and  is  growdng  in  favor,  having  distinguished  itself  par- 
ticularly in  the  block  t€sts  at  England's  great  Fat  Stock  Show, 
Smithfield,  London.  No  doubt  more  will  be  heard  of  this  breed  in 
future  years. 

The  Dorset  Horn. — The  homed  sheep  of  Dorsetshire  are  also 
classed  with  the  Down  breeds,  but  different  from  all  the  others  in 
the  particular  that,  with  their  short  wool,  they  have  white  faces  and 
legs,  whereas,  the  other  short  wool  breeds  have  dark  faces  and  le^. 
Their  ancestry  w^as  a  horned  breed  very  similar  to  the  ancestors  of  the 
Hampshire  Downs.  Like  the  Southdown,  however,  they  have  been 
improved  entirely  by  selection  and  hence,  are  one  of  the  purest 
breeds  in  existence.  The  Dorset  horned  sheep  is  larger  than  the 
Southdown,  though  scarcely  as  large  as  the  Shropshire.  In  form  and 
fleece  they  are  not  unlike  the  Southdown,  but  generally  more  up- 


SHEEP  343 

standing  and  seldom  as  thick.  Many  of  them,  too,  are  a  Httle  promi- 
nent in  their  shoulders  and  somewhat  lacking  behind  the  shoulders, 
faults  which  are  being  rapidly  bred  out  of  them.  They  will  shear 
about  the  same  weight  of  fleece  as  a  Southdown.  The  head  of  a 
Dorset  should  be  w^hite,  and  well  covered  on  the  crown  and  about  the 
jaws  with  wool.  Both  male  and  female  have  horns,  those  of  the  ram 
being  large  and  heavy,  and  curving  rather  closely  in  front  of  the 
head,  and  those  of  the  ewes  being  Tighter  and  curving  toward  the 
front. 

The  peculiarity  which  stamps  the  Dorset  is  their  unrivalled 
fecundity.  They  will  breed  at  almost  any  time  of  the  year,  and 
under  efficient  management,  can  be  made  to  produce  two  crops  of 
lambs  a  year,  a  practice  not,  however,  to  be  commended.  The  ewes 
also  rival  all  other  breeds  as  milkers.  Possessing  these  qualities, 
Dorsets  are  particularly  popular  in  those  sections  of  the  country 
where  breeders  cater  to  the  Christmas  or  "Hothouse"  lamb  trade. 
In  America  they  are  found  in  largest  numbers  in  the  vicinity  of 
thickly  populated  and  wealthy  areas,  where  the  people  are  prepared 
to  pay  a  sufficiently  high  price  for  early  lambs. 

The  Cheviot. — This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  hardy  of 
all  the  British  breeds.  The  breed  is  of  Scotch  origin,  "being  a  native 
of  the  Cheviot  Hills,  in  Southeastern  Scotland.  Legend  traces  their 
ultimate  ancestry  to  sheep  that  swam  ashore  from  the  shipwrecked 
vessels  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  The  Cheviot  Hills  are  clothed  with 
short,  sweet  herbage  right  to  their  summit.  At  the  same  time,  they 
are  snow-covered  for  a  large  part  of  the  year,  and  the  high  altitude 
exposes  them  to  severe  storms,  so  that  the  Cheviot  sheep  have  become 
inured  to  exposure,  being  inferior  in  this  particular,  however,  to  the 
Black-faced  Highland  sheep. 

In  size,  the  Cheviots  are  about  the  same  as  the  Shropshire.  They 
are  not  unlike  the  Leicester  in  appearance,  but  are  more  stylish  sheep, 
carrying  their  heads  higher,  and  with  greater  fire  in  their  eyes,  and 
grace  in  movement.  The  face  and  legs  are  bare  of  wool,  but  should 
be  well  covered  with  short,  hard,  wnry,  pure  white  hair,  which  should 
extend  over  the  ears  and  well  back  over  the  head.  Horns  on  rams, 
though  not  always  present,  are  not  objected  to,  being  considered  a 
sign  of  hardiness.  The  ears  are  carried  rather  more  erect  than  those 
of  the  Leicester.  The  nose  is  somewhat  Roman,  the  nostrils  black, 
and  the  eyes  dark,  very  full  and  bright.  The  wool  is  moderately 
long,  and  should  be  dense,  and  neither  open  nor  curly,  but  straight 
(somewhat  like  the  Down  breeds).  The  Cheviot  is  a  nardy  sheep,  a 
good  grazer,  and  of  splendid  mutton  form. 

The  Black-Faced  Highland  Breed. — ^They  are  essentially  the 
sheep  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  where  no  animal  can  take  their 
place.  They  are  mountain  sheep,  hardy,  vigorous,  active,  and  hence 
capable  of  gathering  a  living  on  the  exposed  Highlands,  where  other 
breeds  would  perish,  either  from  starvation  or  exposure.  They  are 
a  comparatively  new  breed  in  Scotland,  having  been  there,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  for  not  more  than  one  hundred  and  forty  yeaii*. 
Their  ultimate  origin  is  shrouded  in  mystery,  some  tracing  it  to 


344  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

sheep  from  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  others  to  English  sheep  that 
traveled  northward.  Whichever  is  correct,  the  type  is  now  dis- 
tinctive, and  is,  no  doubt,  the  result  of  generations  of  living  under 
the  severe  conditions  prevailing  in  the  Highlands. 

The  breed  is  naturally  small,  but  of  good  mutton  form,  covered 
vsdth  a  long,  flowing  fleece,  the  fibres  of  which,  under  a  system  of 
good  feeding,  sometimes  grow  to  20  to  24  inches  in  a  single  year. 
The  wool  is  coarse  and  valued  mostly  for  the  manufacture  of  strong, 
coarse  fibres.  Black-faces  make  good  mutton,  which  commands  the 
highest  prices  in  the  British  market.  Both  sexes  are  homed,  the 
horns  of  the  ram  being,  of  course,  much  heavier  than  those  of  the 
ewe.  The  face  may  be  black,  or  black  with  white  mottles  with  a  top- 
knot of  wool  on  the  forehead  and  small  ears.  The  body  is  of  mutton 
type  and  the  fleece  so  long  as  to  sweep  the  ground. 

The  management  of  a  Black-faced  flock  is  comparatively  sim- 
ple, as  they  can  subsist  on  very  bare  pastures  and  withstand  much  ex- 
posure. In  ordinary  years,  on  their  native  heath,  they  can  tide  over 
the  winter  without  any  auxiliary  feed  at  all;  and  in  deep  storm,  a 
small  quantity  of  natural  hay  is  enough  to  supply  their  wants.  For 
a  time  the  popularity  of  this  breed  in  the  Highlands  was  threatened 
by  the  Cheviots,  but  the  severity  of  the  winter  of  1859-60  proved  the 
greater  hardiness  of  the  Black-faces,  and  since  then  they  have  fully 
held  their  own  ground.  A  few  of  these  sheep  have  been  imported  to 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. — (Annual  Report  Sec'y  Agr. 
of  Nova  Scotia,  1907.) 

SHEEP   FEEDING. 

In  feeding  all  classes  of  sheep  there  are  general  details  that  con- 
tribute toward  satisfactory  results.  Among  these  may  be  included 
all  those  things  that  are  conducive  to  the  general  health  of  the  sheep, 
such  as  considerate  treatment,  cleanliness  of  troughs  and  racks, 
healthfulness  of  the  quarters  in  which  the  sheep  are  kept,  regularity 
in  feeding,  and  the  use  of  such  accessories  as  salt,  pure  water,  and 
sulphur. 

Feeding  Breeding  Ewes. — ^To  enter  into  detailed  discussion  of 
the  feeding  of  breeding  ew^  it  will  be  best  to  divide  the  topic  ac- 
cording to  the  season,  and  in  this  way  present  the  subject  of  winter, 
spring,  summer,  and  fall  feeding.  Under  climatic  conditions  per- 
mitting the  breeding  flocks  to  have  pasture  throughout  the  year, 
what  may  be  termed  summer  feeding  would  largely  prevail  at  all 
times,  so  with  such  an  understanding  local  conditions  will  not  neces- 
sitate much  variation  from  the  course  of  feeding  suggested. 

Winter  Feeding  of  Breeding  Ewes. — ^Breeding  ewes  require  10 
to  15  square  feet  of  space  in  a  building,  and  ewes  weighing  from  150 
to  200  pounds  should  have  an  allowance  of  1.5  feet  at  the  feeding 
rack.  Less  than  this  causes  too  much  crowding  at  feeding  time, 
which  often  results  in  the  birth  of  dead  lambs.  Breeding  ewes  need 
not  be  fed  more  than  twice  daily.  It  is  a  good  practice,  however,  to 
feed  them  some  fodder  outside  during  the  winter  sea.son,  for  in  this 
way  they  are  induced  to  take  some  exercise.    With  this  in  view  the 


SHEEP  345 

fodder  may  be  taken  some  distance  from  the  building  in  which  the 
sheep  are  housed. 

In  a  practical  way,  the  shepherd  should  regulate  the  quantity  of 
food  according  to  the  condition  of  the  ewes.  If  they  have  gone  into 
winter  quarters  in  thin  condition,  they  should  be  fed  more  heavily 
than  if  they  were  fat  at  that  time.  Handling  the  ewes  at  intervals 
furnishes  the  best  indication  as  to  their  condition,  and  this  will  in- 
dicate the  quantity  of  food  that  should  be  fed.  In  the  author's  ex- 
perience the  aim  has  always  been  to  keep  the  breeding  flocks  in  a 
condition  which  the  general  farmer  would  term  fat,  and  only  good 
results  in  lambs  have  come  from  this  management.  When  ewes  are 
finii  fleshed,  through  abundant  feed  and  exercise,  they  are  vigorous, 
and  a  healthy  flock  of  lambs  is  likely  to  be  the  outcome.  In  general, 
a  breeding  ewe  weighing  150  pounds  requires  daily  about  one-half 
pound  of  such  grain  as  bran  and  oats,  2  pounds  of  succulent  food, 
and  the  same  weight  of  such  dry  fodders  as  clover  hay  or  cut  com 
fodder.  As  lambing  time  approaches,  twice  this  amount  of  grain 
will  be  required.  The  quality  of  the  fodder  and  grain  will  have  an 
influence  on  the  amounts  to  be  fed,  but  the  controlling  factor  should 
be  the  condition  of  the  ewes.  Overfeeding,  especially  if  associated 
with  lack  of  exercise,  will  be  productive  of  disease  in  the  flock,  and 
it  is  likely  to  result  in  the  birth  of  large  weak  lambs,  while  under- 
feeding is  equally  favorable  for  disease  and  the  birth  of  undersized 
larabs.  Overfeeding  may  produce  sterility,  while  underfeeding  de- 
lays the  breeding  season.  The  vigorous,  firm-fleshed  condition  which 
results  from  liberal  feeding  and  unlimited  exercise  is  the  aim  of  the 
experienced  flock  master. 

Among  the  fodders  for  winter  feeding  may  be  mentioned  clover 
hay,  pea  straw,  corn  fodder,  oat  hay,  oat  straw,  and  millet.  As  to 
their  relative  merits,  based  on  cost,  the  nourishment  in  them  for 
sheep  and  more  especially  the  preference  of  the  sheep  for  them  are 
about  in  the  order  given. 

Pea  and  bean  straw  are  greatly  relished  by  sheep.  In  Canada, 
where  the  pea  crop  is  a  general  one,  the  straw  is  put  away  especially 
for  the  sheep,  and  it  is  fed  more  extensively,  perhaps,  than  anv  other 
fodder,  with  good  results.  The  hardness  of  the  stems  of  timothy  hay 
seems  to  be  one  of  the  reasons  why  sheep  do  not  care  much  for  this 
fodder.  They  never  appear  to  be  eager  for  it,  and  if  given  any  lati- 
tude in  choice  they  will  leave  it  untouched  in  favor  of  any  of  the 
other  fodders,  with  the  possible  exception  of  oat  straw. 

For  the  best  results  in  thrift,  wool  growth,  and  lamb  produc- 
tion, the  breeding  ewes  should  get  some  grain  during  the  winter 
season.  They  can  hardly  be  kept  in  proper  condition  otherwise.  A 
good  plan  is  to  feed  oats  the  first  part  of  the  winter,  and  then  bran  as 
lambing  time  approaches.  About  0.5  pound  of  oats  during  the  first 
of  the  winter,  and  near  lambing  time  1  pound  of  bran  per  head 
daily  will  be  sufficient  for  breeding  ewes  weighing  from  150  to  200 
pounds.  These  are  the  two  most  satisfactory  grain  foods  that  are 
generally  available,  both  in  respect  to  cost  and  results.  Com  is  not 
Q  satisfactory  grain  to  feed  ewes,  as  it  produces  too  much  fat,  which 


346  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

apparently  tends  to  accumulate  internally  and  impair  the  breeding 
qualities  and  lessen  the  general  vigor,  instead  of  imparting  tone  to 
the  system. 

Some  succulent  food  should  be  fed  to  breeding  ewes  at  all  times, 
though  it  is  very  easy  to  feed  them  too  much  just  previous  to  lamb- 
ing. When  turnips  or  silage  are  fed  to  breeding  ewes  in  too  liberal 
quantities,  weak  lambs  are  likely  to  result.  Before  lambing,  3  pounds 
of  any  succulent  food,  such  as  mangel-wurzels,  sugar  beets,  corn  or 
clover  silage,  will  be  found  sufficient.  After  lambing,  unlimited 
quantities  of  these  may  be  fed,  to  stimulate  the  milk  flow. 

Turnips  are  relished  by  the  sheep,  and  many  prefer  them  for 
sheep  feeding  to  any  other  roots.  Sheep  are  very  fond  of  any  of  the 
varieties  of  Swedish  turnips,  and  also  relish  mangel-wurzels  near 
springtime.  Sugar  beets  are  satisfactory  if  fed  in  small  quantities. 
In  some  trials  it  has  been  found  that  a  ewe  would  eat  daily  3.3  pounds 
of  sugar  beets,  with  1.5  pounds  of  hay  and  0.5  pound  of  oats  or  bran, 
costing  about  1.3  cents.  The  ewes  that  were  fed  this  ration  averaged 
from  150  to  160  pounds. 

Com  or  clover  silage,  w^hen  well  preserved,  is  a  succulent  food 
that  may  be  fed  to  sheep  with  satisfactory  results.  It  is  cheap,  is 
liked  by  the  sheep,  and  if  fed  in  quantities  not  exceeding  3  or  4 
pounds  per  head  daily  it  will  give  satisfaction.  The  corn  kernels  in 
the  silage  are  one  of  the  drawbacks  to  feeding  it  liberally. 

As  between  mangel-wurzels  and  corn  silage,  the  lambs  sucking 
the  ewes  fed  roots  made  slightly  better  gains  than  those  sucking  ewes 
fed  silage,  although  the  silage  appeared  to  be  the  cheaper  ration. 
As  between  beets  and  corn  silage,  the  lambs  of  the  ewes  fed  silage 
made  slightly  the  larger  gain  in  weight.  These  results  show  but  a 
meager  difference  in  the  feeding  value  of  these  foods. 

Spring  Feeding  of  Breeding  Ewes. — If  the  ewes  lamb  before  the 
conditions  are  such  that  they  may  be  turned  out  to  pasture,  they  will 
require  liberal  feeding,  which  means  about  1  to  1.5  pounds  of  bran, 
2  pounds  of  hay,  and  as  much  succulent  food  as  they  wnll  eat.  It  is 
very  desirable  to  maintain  a  heavy  flow  of  milk,  and  to  do  this,  grain 
feeding  and  the  free  use  of  succulent  food  are  necessary  while  the 
sheep  remain  in  the  sheds. 

It  is  generally  good  management  to  turn  the  ewes  and  lambs 
out  to  pasture  as  soon  as  possible,  provided  some  grain  is  fed  to  the 
ewes  while  the  grass  is  in  a  very  succulent  state.  There  is  not  suffi- 
cient nourishment  in  it  at  this  time  to  properly  support  the  ewes  that 
are  suckling  lambs.  It  is  advisable  to  so  stock  the  pastures  with 
sheep  that  none  of  the  grass  may  grow  too  coarse.  On  the  other 
hand,  overstocking  injures  the  pasture.  Frequent  change  from  one 
pasture  to  another  will  be  found  advisable.  When  the  pasture  ceases 
to  consist  altogether  of  a  fresh  growth  peculiar  to  an  early  spring, 
there  is  no  advantage  in  feeding  the  ewes  grain. 

Summer  Feeding  of  Breeding  Ewes. — In  the  summer  manage- 
ment of  the  breeding  flock  there  is  nothing  of  more  importance  than 
a  provision  of  some  green  fodder  to  supplement  the  dry  and  parched 
pastures  that  are  common  in  most  sections  in  the  summer  months. 


SHEEP  347 

For  this  purpose  the  crops  most  commonly  utilized  are  rape,  rye, 
corn,  and  vetches. 

This  crop  is  one  that  has  many  advantages  for  summer  feeding 
breeding  ewes.  It  grows  rapidly,  produces  a  large  quantity  of  succu- 
lent food,  and  is  greatly  relished  by  sheep.  About  two  months  is 
required  for  the  growth  of  a  crop.  It  remains  fresh  in  the  field  for 
over  a  month  under  usual  conditions  after  the  firet  cutting  has  been 
made.  Sixty-two  ewes,  26  ewe  lambs,  and  5  rams  were  fed  from  300 
to  350  pounds  of  rape  daily  throughout  the  drought  of  August  and 
September.  From  August  16  until  September  17,  9.75  tons  by  ac- 
tual weight  were  cut  from  0.5  acre,  or  at  the  rate  of  19.5  tons  per 
acre.  In  cutting  rape  at  different  heights,  the  best  results  were  ob- 
tained from  cutting  about  4  inches  from  the  ground.  Two  cuttings 
•were  made  from  the  piece  so  treated,  one  August  29  and  the  other 
November  6,  and  the  yield  was  at  the  rate  of  36  tons  per  acre. 

Rye  pasture  has  been  known  to  be  in  good  condition  after  being 
used  six  years  for  pasturing  sheep.  The  rye  was  never  allowed  to 
grow  beyond  the  second  joint  of  the  stalk.  If  the  sheep  did  not  keep 
it  down,  it  was  cut.  It  furnished  unusually  early  pasturage  for 
sheep,  and  was  at  all  times  acceptable.  Rye  grows  quickly,  will 
establish  itself  in  poor  soil,  and  is  eagerly  eaten  by  sheep  if  it  is  not 
allowed  to  become  rank.  It  may  be  used  as  a  soiling  crop  at  any 
time,  but  with  special  advantage  if  sown  in  the  com  at  the  last  culti- 
vation, so  as  to  be  ready  in  the  spring  before  the  pastures  are  in  con- 
dition to  turn  the  sheep  on  them. 

These  are  not  as  indifferent  to  climatic  conditions  as  the  crops 
previously  mentioned,  but  where  they  can  be  grown  they  are  invalu- 
able for  soiling  sheep.  They  are  very  nutritious,  and  sheep  thor- 
oughly relish  them.  Mixed  with  one-third  oats,  with  the  object  of 
supplying  supports  for  the  vines,  they  can  hardly  be  surpassed  as  a 
soiling  crop.  In  the  drier  sections,  where  the  need  of  soiling  crops 
is  greater,  the  vetches  can  not  be  made  to  produce  the  amount  of 
fodder  that  rape  does. 

When  the  lambs  have  been  taken  away  from  the  ewes,  the  lat- 
ter should  be  put  on  scanty  pastures  or  given  the  range  of  a  field  of 
grain  stubble,  to  dry  up  the  milk  as  soon  as  possible.  The  ewes,  if 
they  have  done  well  by  their  lambs,  will  be  in  poor  condition  at  this 
time,  but  it  is  not  advisable  to  give  them  full  ^  feed. 

Fall  Feeding  of  Breeding  Ewes. — It  is  a  general  impression 
among  shepherds  that  the  condition  of  the  ewes  at  the  time  of  breed- 
ing has  a  marked  influence  on  the  succeeding  crop  of  lambs.  If  the 
ewes  are  in  vigorous  condition  and  improving  in  flesh,  the  prospects 
are  thought  to  be  favorable  for  the  production  of  a  large  percentage 
of  lambs.  It  is  equally  accepted  that  the  conditio^  of  the  ewes  in  the 
fall  prior  to  going  into  winter  quarters  has  an  effect  on  the  suscepti- 
bility of  the  flock  to  such  diseases  as  are  more  or  less  prevalent  dur- 
ing the  winter  season.  It  is  certain  that  the  ewes  may  be  gotten  into 
vigorous  condition  much  more  cheaply  and  easily  in  the  early  fall 
than  at  any  time  later,  and  it  is  equally  true  that  a  vigorous  condi- 
tion is  the  best  preventive  of  disease. 


348  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

As  the  breeding  season  approaches  (it  usually  begins  in  Octo- 
ber), the  ewes,  being  in  thin  condition,  require  some  grain.  The 
best  grain  for  this  time  is  clean  sound  oats,  about  0.5  pound  per  head 
daily.  If  the  ewes  are  brought  into  a  uniformly  good  condition  by 
grain  feeding  they  will  breed  uniformly,  which  of  itself  is  an  appre- 
ciable advantage. 

It  is  advisable  to  keep  some  fresh  pasturage  for  late  fall  feeding. 
Exercise  in  the  fall  is  conducive  to  thrift  in  winter  and  healthy 
lambs  in  the  spring.  In  our  northern  climate  sheep  are  housed  too 
much  at  best.  The  ewes  may  obtain  more  food  than  would  be  sup- 
posed from  a  field  of  fresh  blue-grass  pasture  that  has  been  in  part 
retained  for  them.  It  is  becoming  an  opinion  among  shepherds  that 
when  ewes  are  fed  on  clover  aftermath  they  are  more  difficult  to  get 
with  lamb  than  if  fed  on  other  pastures  or  fed  soiling  crops.  In  ad- 
dition there  is  danger  that  the  sheep  may  bloat  on  it.  The  best  plan 
is  to  save  the  second-crop  clover  for  the  lambs  that  have  been  weaned ; 
and  to  prevent  bloating  pasture  them  for  a  part  of  the  day  on  blue- 
grass  pasture,  and  after  they  have  satisfied  their  appetites  to  some 
extent,  to  change  them  to  the  clover. 

Feeding  Lambs  Intended  for  Breeding  Purposes. — ^When  the 
ewe  has  lambed,  if  the  lamb  after  becoming  dry  is  not  able  to  obtain 
ewe's  milk  of  its  ow^n  accord,  it  should  be  assisted  in  doing  so.  Some 
of  the  milk  should  be  drawn  from  the  udder  to  see  that  the  milk 
escapes  freely,  and  then  the  lamb  held  so  that  it  may  reach  the  teat. 
If  it  is  too  weak  to  stand,  the  ewe  may  be  thrown,  but  it  is  perhaps 
better  to  draw  some  of  the  milk  from  the  udder  and  feed  it  to  the 
lamb  from  a  spoon.  By  feeding  a  teaspoonful  every  hour  for  a  half 
day  or  so,  most  weak  lambs  soon  become  strong  enough  to  get  to  the 
teat  themselves.  It  should  be  seen  that  there  is  no  dirty  wool  around 
the  udder  or  any  filth  about  the  teats  to  prevent  the  lamb  from  suck- 
ing. In  the  case  of  young  ewes  it  is  especially  necessary  that  atten- 
tion be  paid  to  these  matters.  It  is  advisable  to  keep  the  ewe  and  her 
lamb  in  a  pen  by  themselves  for  at  least  three  days. 

For  feeding  lambs  to  be  used  for  breeding  purposes  preference 
should  be  given  to  bran,  oats,  and  linseed  meal.  These  are  preferable 
to  corn  meal,  which  tends  to  fatten  and  does  not  produce  growth  to 
the  same  extent  as  the  other  foods.  The  bran  is  relished  by  the 
lambs,  and  they  may  eat  large  quantities  of  it  without  danger  or 
detriment  of  any  kind.  Linseed  meal  is  best  fed  in  a  mixture  wdth 
the  bran,  as  it  is  very  rich  and  concentrated.  Oats  are  seemingly 
liked  by  the  lambs,  but  they  will  not  eat  them  as  freely  as  the  other 
foods  mentioned.  If  the  oats  are  ground,  the  lambs  leave  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  the  chaff  untouched.  The  best  results  will  likely  be 
obtained  by  giving  an  equal  mixture  by  weight  of  bran,  oats,  and 
linseed  meal. 

At  first  the  lambs  will  take  only  small  quantities  of  grain.  By 
feeding  them  very  little  at  a  time  and  always  taking  away  what  they 
may  leave  they  soon  begin  to  eat  eagerly  and  look  forward  to  feed- 
ing time.  To  give  young  lambs  all  they  have  capacity  for  requires 
frequent  feeding  in  small  quantities,   When  the  lambs  are  yet  in 


SEEEP  349 

the  shed  and  not  on  pasture,  good  practice  in  feeding  has  been  about 
as  follows:  In  the  morning  about  6  o'clock  they  are  fed  a  small 
quantit}'^  of  grain,  in  the  trough.  After  the  other  sheep  are  fed,  if 
the  lambs  have  eaten  their  grain  more  is  put  in  the  trough.  At 
noon  they  receive  another  allowance.  In  the  evening  they  are  fed 
twice  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  morning,  and  they  are  left  at 
night  with  some  grain  in  their  troughs. 

Hand-feeding  Lambs. — In  rearing  lambs  that  have  lost  their 
mothers,  or  when  the  latter  do  not  give  enough  milk  to  nourish  the 
lambs  properly,  it  is  best  to  feed  cow's  milk  from  a  bottle  that  has  a 
small  rubber  nipple  attached  to  it.  A  newly  dropped  lamb  only  re- 
quires 2  teaspoonfuls  at  a  time,  given  every  hour.  It  has  not  been 
found  necessary  to  sweeten  the  milk  with  sugar  or  dilute  it  with 
water,  but  it  is  strongly  recommended  to  heat  the  milk  and  feed  it  at 
a  temperature  of  100°  F.  The  lambs  seem  to  like  it  hot,  and  they 
certainly  thrive  better  upon  it.  It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  nipple, 
the  bottle,  and  the  vessel  in  which  the  milk  is  heated  thoroughly  free 
from  any  disagreeable  taste  or  odor,  such  as  that  of  sour  milk,  else 
the  lambs  will  refuse  the  milk.  When  the  lambs  are  about  2  months 
old  they  are  able  to  take  in  two  feeds  2  pints  per  head  daily,  in  addi- 
tion to  such  grain  and  grass  as  they  may  eat. 

Feeding  After  Weaning. — ^The  time  for  weaning  the  lambs  de- 
pends greatly  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  lambs  are  obtaining  milk 
from  the  ewes.  When  they  are  four  months  old  they  may  usually 
be  weaned  with  advantage.  If  they  have  been  fed  grain  previous  to 
weaning  they  will  not  be  checked  in  their  growth  by  it  and  they  will 
be  almost  unconscious  of  the  weaning,  but  if  they  have  not  received 
grain  they  will  lose  in  weight  and  be  checked  in  their  growth. 

It  will  be  advisable  to  separate  the  ewe  lambs  from  the  ram  and 
wether  lambs.  If  allowed  to  run  together  the  ram  lambs  will  annoy 
the  others  and  the  gains  will  not  be  satisfactory.  The  wether  and 
the  ewe  lambs  may  be  kept  together. 

After  weaning,  the  lambs  should  be  gradually  made  to  rely  on 
oats  as  their  grain  ration.  If  on  pasture  of  only  ordinary  quality, 
0.5  pound  of  oats  daily  may  be  fed  if  needed,  but  if  on  good  after- 
math clover  or  blue-grass  pasture  less  will  be  required. 

When  the  lambs  have  just  been  weaned  they  should  get  the  best 
pa.?ture  obtainable,  and  if  possible  the  field  should  be  some  distance 
from  the  ewes.  There  is  nothing  better  for  lambs  just  weaned  than 
second-growth  clover  that  has  grown  up  a  few  inches  and  has  lost 
some  of  the  freshness  characteristic  of  new  growth.  There  is  not 
much  danger  of  lambs  of  this  age  bloating  on  such  food.  Rape  is  an 
excellent  food  for  the  ram  lambs,  and  if  managed  with  judgment 
there  is  no  danger  in  giving  them  free  range.  If  neither  of  these 
can  be  secured  for  the  lambs,  they  should  at  least  have  a  clean  piece 
of  blue-grass  pasture  that  has  not  been  eaten  down  by  other  stock. 

The  best  practice  among  shepherds  giving  close  attention  to  the 
growth  of  their  lambs  is  to  sow  r>'e  in  the  fall  for  early  food  in  the 
spring  for  the  ewes  and  lambs,  followed  by  vetch  and  oats  and  by 


350  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

vetch  sown  alone  at  intervals  of  two  weeks.  These  last  until  the 
lambs  are  weaned  and  the  clover  aftermath  is  ready  for  them.  Suc- 
ceeding this  comes  the  rape  crop  and  fall  turnips. 

During  the  first  winter  the  ewe  and  ram  lambs  should  receive 
special  care.  The  aim  should  be  to  encourage  growth  as  much  as 
possible  by  good  feeding  without  making  them  fat.  Some  grain, 
preferably  oats,  and  wholesome  fodders,  such  as  clover  hay,  cut  corn 
fodder,  and  others  that  they  relish,  should  be  fed.  Until  they  become 
matured  the  ewe  and  ram  lambs  should  be  fed  liberally,  for  any  loss 
in  growth  that  they  may  suffer  through  scrimped  or  neglected  feed- 
ing can  never  be  regained  in  later  life. 

Feeding  Rams. — In  feeding  mature  rams  it  is  desirable  to  main- 
tain them  in  a  thrifty  and  vigorous  condition  without  fattening. 
This  implies  wholesome  food  and  exercise.  If  rams  are  made  too 
heavy  in  flesh  at  any  time,  impotency  or  inability  to  serve  ewes  fre- 
quently results,  and  if  they  are  once  overfed  and  made  too  fat  it  is 
a  very  hard  matter  to  reduce  them  without  serious  injury  to  their 
vitality.  Exercise  and  not  the  reduction  of  their  ration  is  the  best 
remedy  for  reducing  the  flesh. 

During  the  winter  the  object  should  be  to  maintain  the  weight 
if  the  ram  is  mature,  and  if  a  shearling  or  young  ram  to  make  con- 
tinuous improvement.  Oats  are  probably  the  best  grain  food,  though 
the  addition  of  some  bran  is  advisable.  A  mature  ram  will  need  from 
0.5  pound  to  1  pound  of  grain  daily  to  keep  him  in  proper  condition. 

The  fodders  should  be  chosen  so  as  to  give  as  much  variety  as 
possible.  They  may  include  clover  hay,  pea  straw,  corn  fodder,  and 
others,  fed  at  different  intervals,  or,  perhaps  better,  one  in  the  morn- 
ing and  another  in  the  evening.  Some  succulent  food  should  also 
be  fed,  such  as  turnips  or  silage.  Experienced  shepherds  are  very 
decided  upon  the  danger  from  feeding  mangel-wurzel.  A  great  many 
rams  have  died  from  a  formation  of  crystals  in  the  bladder,  and  these 
have  frequently  been  traced,  it  is  believed,  to  the  feeding  of  mangel- 
wurzels. 

To  secure  the  best  results  in  the  breeding  season  it  is  not  ad- 
visable to  let  the  rams  run  with  the  ewes  before  that  time  They 
should  be  pastured  as  much  as  possible,  for  in  this  way  they  will  keep 
healthier  and  stronger  on  their  legs.  Though  the  fleeces  of  the  rams 
that  run  out  may  not  appear  to  as  good  advantage  as  if  housed,  yet 
for  results  in  breeding  it  is  much  the  better  plan  to  keep  them  on 
pasture  as  much  as  possible.  They  should  get  some  grain,  the 
amount  depending  on  their  condition. 

The  feeding  of  the  rams  during  the  breeding  season  is  very  im- 

Eortant.  The  grain  should  be  mostly  oats,  with  the  addition  of  some 
ran  and  linseed  meal.  Such  fodders  as  vetches  and  rape,  fed  in  the 
shed,  are  recommended.  The  breeding  season  is  a  severe  strain  on 
the  vitality  of  the  ram,  which  has  to  be  met  by  liberal  feeding  of  grain 
and  other  foods  in  as  great  variety  as  possible.  About  1  pound  of 
grain  daily  will  be  required,  with  as  much  green  food  as  the  ram  will 
eat.— (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  49.) 


SHEEP  351 

FATTENING  LAMBS  AND  WETHERS  IN  WINTER. 

When  wethers  and  lambs  are  bought  at  the  same  price  per  pound 
and  are  fattened  under  similar  conditions,  the  lambs  are  likely  to 
bring  considerably  more  profit.  This  increased  profit  is  likely  to 
arise  first,  from  the  greater  relative  advance  at  which  the  lambs  will 
probably  be  sold,  and  second,  from  the  greater  relative  gains  which 
the  lambs  are  likely  to  make  on  a  given  amount  of  food.  And  this 
profit  may  be  expected  to  increase  with  the  decrease  in  the  difference 
between  the  weight  of  the  wethers  and  lambs  respectively  at  the  time 
of  purchase,  because  of  the  influence  which  weight  at  the  beginning 
of  an  experiment  exercises  upon  any  advance  made  in  mutton  values. 
—(Minn.  B.  59,  69.)    . 

Shearing  Wether  Lambs  Before  Fattening  Them. — When 
lambs  are  being  fattened  early  in  the  fall  or  in  preparing  them  for 
winter  fattening  it  is  a  profitable  practice  to  shear  them  before  the 
fattening  begins.  Shearing  the  wether  lambs  before  fattening  them 
in  January  proves  to  be  of  slight  advantage.  The  wethers  that 
w^ere  shorn  made  7  pounds  more  gain  than  those  left  unshorn,  but 
the  cost  of  gain  was  $4.44  per  100  pounds  in  comparison  with  $4.17 
in  the  case  of  those  that  were  not  shorn.  One  advantage  noted  was 
the  rapid  fattening  of  the  shorn  wethers  after  shearing  and  during 
the  first  half,  or  first  eight  weeks,  of  the  feeding  period. 

It  was  found  decidedly  beneficial  to  shear  lambs  in  October 
before  fattening  them.  Five  wethers  were  shorn  October  14  and  fed 
for  fifteen  weeks  against  another  lot  of  5  left  unshorn.  The  shorn 
lot  gained  225.5  pounds  and  the  unshorn  210.5  pounds,  or  an  aver- 
age weekly  gain  per  head  of  3  pounds  for  the  shorn  and  2.8  pounds 
for  the  unshorn.  The  cost  of  100  pounds  of  gain  was  $6.11  with  the 
shorn  lot  and  $6.67  with  the  unshorn. 

Fattening  Wether  Lambs  to  Maturity. — ^It  Is  the  common  prac- 
tice on  many  farms  to  withhold  grain  from  the  lambs  for  a  time 
before  and  after  weaning,  in  the  belief  that  they  will  make  quicker 
and  more  profitable  gains  while  being  fattened  later.  The  evidence 
is  clear  that  the  greatest  and  most  profitable  gain  is  made  in  the 
younger  days  of  the  lamb,  and  that  the  feeding  of  such  food  as  bran, 
linseed  meal,  and  oats  before  weaning  and  a  small  quantity  of  oats 
after  weaning  not  only  pays  in  direct  profit  if  the  lambs  are  sold  at 
any  of  these  times,  but  the  fattening  later  is  none  the  less  profitable 
because  of  this  management. 

Feeding  grain  before  weaning  has  produced  an  average  of  61 
cents  per  head  more  profit  at  weaning  time  than  where  no  grain  was 
fed.  With  lambs  sold  in  the  fall,  feeding  grain  both  before  and  after 
weaning  produced  an  average  of  34  cents  per  head  more  profit  than 
where  no  grain  was  fed. 

One  of  the  most  profitable  features  of  grain  feeding  lambs  pre- 
vious to  fattening  was  observed  to  be  the  earlier  maturity  of  those 
that  had  had  grain  from  birth.  For  instance,  in  one  trial  the  lambs 
fed  grain  from  birth  attained  an  average  weight  of  113  pounds  seven 
weeks  earlier  than  those  that  had  had  no  grain  previous  to  fattening, 


352  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

and  this  weight  was  reached  at  a  smaller  cost  in  the  instance  of  the 
lambs  fed  grain  from  the  start. 

There  is  unlimited  variation  in  general  practice  in  regard  to  this 
point.  It  has  been  customary  to  feed  the  grain  first,  then  the  suc- 
culent food,  and  last  the  dry  fodder.  In  feeding  fattening  sheep  of 
the  age  indicated  the  aim  should  be  to  induce  the  wethers  to  eat  as 
much  as  possible.  At  this  time  they  should  receive  all  the  grain 
they  will  eat  up  eagerly.  To  secure  the  best  results  it  is  a  good  plan, 
where  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  to  feed  the  grain  in  two  or  even  three 
feeds.  This  may  be  done  easily  when  less  than  100  are  fed  together, 
but  with  more  than  that  it  is  not  a  commendable  plan.  By  feeding 
only  one-third  of  the  full  feed  intended  it  is  easy  to  gauge  the  appe- 
tites of  the  wethers,  which  is  a  very  important  matter.  The  smallest 
degree  of  overfeeding  is  certain  to  react  on  the  gain  of  the  sheep,  for 
in  some  instances  it  will  probably  cause  scouring,  in  others  constipa- 
tion, and  it  may  even  result  in  the  loss  of  some  of  the  lambs. 

There  are  two  essentials  that  contribute  to  cheap  and  rapid  gains, 
and  these  are  quietness  and  confinement.  The  least  excitement 
brought  on  by  the  appearance  of  dogs,  haste,  or  abuse  on  the  part  of 
the  attendant  is  certain  to  be  shown  by  the  scales.  For  some  time  the 
Wisconsin  Station  used  yards  in  connection  with  the  fattening  pens, 
but  for  the  last  two  years  they  have  been  removed,  and  better  results 
seem  to  have  followed. 

Quantity  to  Feed. — Careful  attention  must  be  given  to  the 
amount  of  grain  that  is  fed.  This  part  of  the  ration  costs  most,  gives 
the  quickest  returns,  and  is  the  most  likely  to  produce  some  disorder 
in  the  digestion  of  the  sheep.  For  the  first  two  weeks  it  is  much  bet- 
ter to  give  them  only  one-half  what  they  need  than  to  feed  them  too 
much ;  especially  is  this  true  if  over  50  sheep  are  being  fed  together. 
Starting  the  sheep  safely  and  well  on  a  ration  brings  the  feeder's 
skill  into  play,  particularly  if  the  sheep  have  been  accustomed  to 
grain.  There  are  some  foods  that  are  safer  than  others  to  feed  at  the 
beginning,  and  among  these  oats  or  bran  have  a  general  preference. 
Wheat  is  comparatively  safe,  while  corn  is  probably  the  most  dan- 
gerous to  feed  alone.  One  pound  per  head  daily  of  either  bran  or 
oats  is  liberal  feeding  for  sheep  that  are  accustomed  to  grain,  and  a 
slightly  smaller  quantity  will  be  sufficient  for  those  that  have  not 
been  accustomed  to  it.  The  quantity  of  grain  may  be  gradually  in- 
creased as  the  capacity  of  the  sheep  to  consume  it  becomes  greater. 
The  careful  and  successful  feeder  trains  his  sheep  to  eat  with  as  much 
carefulness  as  the  trainer  teaches  a  colt  to  trot.  It  is  safe  to  assume 
that  wethers  at  this  age  may  be  fed  all  the  grain  that  they  will  eat, 
as  it  is  usual  for  them  to  profitably  utilize  it  in  making  gain,  unless 
they  are  unhealthy  or  the  management  is  defective.  It  is  a  hard 
matter  to  estimate  the  amount  of  grain  to  feed,  owing  to  the  variation 
in  the  consuming  capacity  of  sheep.  In  starting  it  has  been  cus- 
tomary with  some  herdsmen  to  feed  from  0.5  pound  to  1  pound.  A 
month  later  the  wethers  will  probably  be  taking  1.5  to  2  pounds,  and 
during  the  last  month  from  2  to  3  pounds  per  head  has  been  the 
capacity  of  most  sheep. 


SHEEP  353 

Cost  and  Value  of  the  Increase. — In  comparing  foods  for  fat- 
tening sheep  it  has  been  the  custom  to  compare  them  on  the  basis  of 
the  cost  of  100  pounds  of  gain,  overlooking  the  increased  value  per 
pound  which  the  sheep  realizes  in  the  market  because  of  the  increase 
that  has  been  made  during  the  feeding  period.  It  is  but  a  moderate 
advance  to  accept  3  cents  per  pound  as  the  cost  price  of  feeders  and 
4  cents  per  pound  as  the  selling  price  when  ready  for  market.  Thus 
each  pound  that  cost  3  cents  when  the  feeding  began  becomes  worth 
4  cents  at  the  close  of  the  feeding,  owing  to  the  better  condition  of 
the  sheep,  which  increases  the  percentage  they  will  dress.  This  bet- 
ter condition  is  produced  by  the  foods  that  are  fed,  so  that  in  esti- 
mating the  profits  from  any  ration  the  ration  should  be  credited  with 
this  increased  value  per  pound  of  the  sheep.  Calculations  of  profit 
in  succeeding  experiments  here  mentioned  have  been  made  on  this 
basis. 

Fodders  for  Fattening  Lambs. — There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the 
preference  of  the  sheep  in  the  choice  of  fodders,  but  there  is  no  ex- 
perimental data  upon  which  {o  base  conclusions  as  to  their  relative 
values.  Clover  hay  seems  to  be  the  fodder  they  relish  most,  then 
pea  straw,  corn  fodder,  and  timothy  hay.  The  condition  of  the  fod- 
der will  materially  influence  the  gain,  for  if  it  is  musty,  burned,  or 
dusty,  or  has  been  allowed  to  grow  too  coarse,  they  will  neglect  it. 
Two  or  three  pounds  of  any  of  the  fodders  mentioned  will  be  about 
the  quantity  that  wether  lambs  9  or  10  months  old  will  eat  daily 
through  the  fattening  period.  When  being  fattened  wether  lambs 
should  have  some  succulent  food  in  their  ration,  for  the  reason  that 
they  will  remain  healthier  and  not  be  troubled  with  the  common 
disorder  called  stretches,  and  they  will  usually  make  a  better  gain. 
It  is  very  seldom  that  a  group  of  sheep  may  be  fattened  on  dry  food 
■without  some  of  them  dying  or  suffering  with  constipation. 

At  the  New  York  Cornell  Station  two  lots  of  5  lambs  each,  about 
8  months  old,  were  fed  alike,  except  that  one  lot  had  com  silage  and 
the  other  hay.  In  nineteen  weeks  the  lot  on  silage  gained  a  total 
of  132.5  pounds;  the  other  lot  gained  124  pounds  in  the  same  time. 
I'he  silage  ration  was  estimated  to  be  the  cheapest.  Four  pounds  of 
silage  were  considered  to  be  equivalent  to  1  pound  of  hay.  The  value 
of  roots  in  a  ration  was  shown  by  trials  at  the  Michigan  Station,  in 
which  corn  and  hay  were  compared  with  corn,  roots,  and  hay.  Ten 
sheep  on  the  former  gained  328  pounds  in  fifteen  weeks,  as  compared 
with  397  pounds  on  the  corn,  roots,  and  hay.    The  profit  was  about 

3  cents  per  head  more  for  the  latter  lot. 

At  the  Wisconsin  Station  a  ration  of  oats,  corn,  and  linseed 
meal  with  hay  was  fed  against  a  similar  ration  containing  roots.  The 

4  lambs  fed  the  former  ration  made  a  weekly  average  gain  of  2.64 
pounds  per  head  and  those  fed  the  ration  witli  roots  made  a  weekly 
gain  of  2.48  pounds  per  head.  The  profit  was  about  2  cents  per  head 
more  from  the  ration  without  roots.  These  results  do  not  show  a  de- 
cided difference  in  favor  of  either  ration,  but  in  feeding  large  num- 
bers the  advantage  more  decidedly  appeal's  in  favor  of  the  succulent 
ration  because  of  the  decreased  risk  of  deaths  due  to  digestive  de- 


354  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

rangements.  Roots  and  silage  have  been  compared  for  fattening 
wether  lambs  without  any  marked  difference  in  their  value  becom- 
ing apparent.  If  there  is  any,  the  rate  of  gain  is  in  favor  of  the  roots, 
and  the  cost  of  gain  is  favorable  to  the  silage. 

Grain. — This  is  assuredly  the  most  fattening  farm  food  that 
may  be  fed  to  sheep.  In  relying  on  it  alone,  however,  there  is  much 
difficulty  in  maintaining  the  appetites  of  the  sheep  and  in  prevent- 
ing disorders  and  deaths.  Corn,  roots,  and  hay  were  fed  in  a  ration 
at  the  Michigan  Station  against  different  rations,  and  the  corn  ration 
gave  a  weekly  gain  per  head  of  2.6  pounds,  which  was  only  equaled 
by  a  mixture  of  corn  and  oats.  Corn  and  hay  were  fed  for  fifteen 
weeks  in  trials  conducted  at  the  Michigan  Station.  The  10  wether 
lambs  ate  1,579  pounds  of  corn  and  1,095  pounds  of  hay  and  gained 
a  total  of  328  pounds,  giving  a  profit  of  59  cents  per  head.  At  the 
Wisconsin  Station  5  wether  lambs  ate  in  eight  weeks  427.75  pounds 
of  corn  and  288.5  pounds  of  hay  and  gained  104.5  pounds,  giving  a 
profit  of  87  cents  per  head.  Cracked. corn  and  hay  were  fed  at  the 
Minnesota  Station  to  10  wether  lambs  weighing  710  pounds,  and  in 
twelve  weeks  they  ate  1,103  pounds  of  corn  and  849  pounds  of  hay 
and  gained  211  pounds,  or  an  average  weekly  gain  per  head  of  1.75 
pounds.    This  ration  returned  a  profit  of  44  cents  per  head. 

In  beginning  to  fatten  wether  lambs  it  is  safe  to  feed  oats.  The 
lambs  like  them  and  they  wdll  begin  to  eat  them  at  once.  Fed  alone, 
however,  they  do  not  produce  as  great  a  gain  as  corn.  Hence,  as 
the  fattening  proceeds,  the  quantity  of  oats  should  be  gradually  de- 
creased. At  the  Ontario  Station  4  wether  lambs  were  fed  for  fifteen 
weeks  on  oats,  hay,  and  roots  and  gained  156  pounds,  or  a  weekly 
increase  of  2.6  pounds  per  head.  At  the  Michigan  Station  10  lambs 
fed  for  seventeen  weeks  on  oats,  hay,  and  roots  gained  379  pounds, 
or  a  weekly  average  per  head  of  2.2  pounds.  At  average  prices  there 
was  no  profit  in  either  case.  Oats  and  Swedish  turnips  were  fed  to  5 
wether  lambs  weighing  548  pounds  at  Rothamsted,  England,  for 
ninety-seven  days.  The  lambs  gained  130.9  pounds,  or  an  average 
weekly  increase  of  1.9  pounds  per  head,  giving  a  profit  of  only  3 
cents  per  head. 

The  results  of  many  trials  declare  corn  to  be  the  most  profitable 
grain  for  fattening  sheep.  But  practice  teaches  that  other  grains 
must  be  fed  with  it  to  maintain  the  appetites  of  the  sheep  and  keep 
them  otherwise  healthy.  Tt  will  likely  be  safest  and  best  under  most 
conditions  to  start  the  fattening  with  oats  or  bran,  then  introduce  as 
much  corn  as  possible,  and  finish  the  fattening  with  a  mixture  con- 
taining one  part  oats,  one  part  oil  meal,  and  three  parts  corn  by 
weight.  The  data  given  in  the  trials  described  will  indicate  what 
the  advantage  may  be  in  using  other  foods  under  special  circum- 
stances. 

In  the  beginning  to  fatten  wether  lambs  it  is  safe  to  feed  oats. 
The  lambs  like  them  and  they  will  begin  to  eat  them  at  once.  Fed 
alone,  however,  they  do  not  produce  as  great  a  gain  as  corn.  Hence, 
as  the  fattening  proceeds,  the  quantity  of  oats  should  be  gradually 
decreased.    Crushed  oats  were  fed  in  feeding  trials  at  Wobum,  Eng- 


SHEEP  365 

land,  in  connection  with  Swedish  turnips  and  hay  chaiff,  with  the  re- 
sult that  8  wethers  increased  380  pounds  in  one  hundred  and  twelve 
days,  or  an  average  weekly  gain  of  2.9  pounds  per  head.  This  high 
rate  of  gain  appears  to  have  been  due  to  the  crushing  of  the  oats. 
The  best  satisfaction  will  be  obtained  from  feeding  peas  when  they 
are  split  or  crushed  and  fed  with  other  foods. 

In  an  experiment  at  Woburn,  England,  with  different  rations, 
including  linseed  cake,  linseed  cake  and  undecorticated  cotton-seed 
cake,  crushed  oats  and  barley  meal,  crushed  oats  and  split  beans,  and 
lastly  wheat,  the  wheat  gave  the  largest  gains.  During  the  first  pe- 
riod of  the  experiment  it  was  fed  in  the  form  of  meal,  but  was  after- 
wards fed  whole,  with  a  very  noticeable  increase  in  the  gains  result- 
ing. The  6  wethers  fed  wheat  for  one  hundred  and  six  days  ate  558 
pounds  of  wheat,  and,  as  nearly  as  can  be  estimated,  12,720  pounds 
of  roots  and  277  pounds  of  hay  chaff,  and  on  this  they  gained  313 
pounds,  or  an  average  of  3.4  pounds  per  head  weekly. 

Sheep  of  all  kinds  and  ages  appear  to  be  very  fond  of  wheat 
bran,  probably  on  account  of  its  flavor  and  the  fact  that  they  digest 
it  easily.  Many  of  the  large  feeders  in  the  West  consider  bran  one 
of  the  safest  and  best  foods  to  begin  the  feeding  of  large  numbers, 
though  they  only  rely  on  it  alone  for  a  few  weeks. 

In  the  feeding  experiments  that  have  been  made  with  beans 
as  the  only  grain  the  results  have  been  unsatisfactory.  In  a  trial 
at  Rothamsted,  England,  ground  beans  were  fed  with  mangels  in 
comparison  with  other  grains,  and  a  very  unsatisfactory  opinion  was 
formed  of  their  value,  the  sheep  refusing  to  eat  the  beans  and  losing 
weight,  so  that  the  food  had  to  be  changed. 

A  very  healthy  food  for  sheep  is  linseed  meal,  and  they  eat  it 
eagerly,  especially  if  it  is  not  ground  too  fine.  When  crushed  into 
pieces  about  the  size  of  peas  sheep  eat  it  with  relish.  There  is  much 
difference  in  the  different  grades  of  linseed  cake,  and  for  this  reason 
its  feeding  value  varies  greatly.  In  an  experiment  in  England  w4th 
linseed  cake  containing  6  or  7  per  cent  of  fat  and  others  containing 
15  or  16  per  cent,  the  wethers  ate  very  nearly  the  same  amount  of 
food  of  both  kinds,  while  the  gain  with  the  linseed  cake  rich  in  fat 
was  much  the  greater.  It  is  estimated  that  this  was  worth  $5  per  ton 
more  than  the  linseed  cake  low  in  fat. 

From  the  results  presented  in  the  outline  of  what  had  been  ac- 
complished in  the  feeding  of  single  grain  foods,  it  is  evident  that 
there  are  but  a  few  of  them  that  give  profitable  returns  when  fed 
aJone.  Some  give  a  high  rate  of  gain,  but  the  cost  absorbs  the  profit, 
and  others  yield  satisfactory  gains  so  long  as  the  sheep  will  eat  them 
and  continue  in  good  health.  At  the  average  current  prices  the 
indications  of  the  experiments  are  that  corn  is  much  the  most  profit- 
able single  grain  to  feed,  next  to  which  rank  such  as  wheat,  cotton- 
seed meaJ,  or  linseed,  while  most  of  the  others  enumerated  barely  pay 
returns  equal  to  their  market  prices,  and  some,  such  as  beans  and 
bran,  fail  to  do  this. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  indicating  that  the  merit  of  a  grain 
mixture  as  a  part  of  the  ration  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  sheep  like  it 


856 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


better  than  the  unmixed  grains,  eat  more  of  it,  and  as  a  result  gain 
more.  The  fact  that  they  eat  more  seems  to  be  the  chief  element  in 
making  the  profit  less  than  in  the  feeding  of  some  of  the  foods  un- 
mixed.—(Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  49.) 

Feeding  Beet  Pulp  to  Lambs. — Owing  to  the  bulky  nature  of 
the  pulp  not  enough  of  it  can  be  consumed  by  lambs  to  produce  suf- 
ficient fat  to  finish  them ;  hence  it  should  be  fed  to  the  greatest  ex- 
tent at  the  commencement  of  feeding.  What  is  fed  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  feeding  period  should  be  used  as  an  appetizer  and  a  regu- 
lator of  the  bowels  rather  than  for  the  fat  it  produces.  Pulp  fed  in 
large  quantities  produces  a  soft  flesh.  The  matter  of  transportation 
is  a  very  essential  one  for  the  farmer  to  consider  in  the  utilization  of 
pulp.  For  the  profitable  use  the  yards  must  be  near  the  factory  or  to 
railway  facilities.  When  large  quantities  of  pulp  are  fed  to  animals 
confined  in  small  lots  the  lots  become  very  foul,  much  to  the  discom- 
fort of  the  animals  and  loss  to  the  feeder. —  (Colo.  B.  76.) 

Sorghum  as  a  Forage  and  Grain  Ration. — Under  conditions 
where  alfalfa  can  not  be  grown  to  advantage,  as  on  saline  soils, 
when  water  for  irrigation  is  scant,  or  following  a  crop  of  grain, 
sorghum  may  be  grown  as  a  forage  plant  to  supplement  the  usual 
alfalfa  ration.  Alfalfa  alone  produces  the  greater  gain  in  weight  per 
unit  of  feed.  Sorghum  in  combination  with  alfalfa  makes  the  most 
economical  ration,  and  the  gains  made  are  nearly  equal  to  those 
with  alfalfa.  Sorghum  alone,  both  hay  and  grain,  is  inferior  to 
alfalfa  and  at  best  makes  little  more  than  a  maintenance  ration. — 
(Ariz.  Timely  Hints  for  Farmers  84.) 

LAMBS  PREFERRED  IN  THE  MARKETS. 

The  market  also  favors  the  younger  animal.  On  this  account  it 
is  generally  more  profitable  to  finish  sheep  for  market  under  ono 
year  of  age  than  to  hold  them  longer  unless  an  abundance  of  cheap 
feed  is  available,  as  is  the  case  where  lands  are  cheap  or  free  range 
accessible.  In  a  slaughter  test  lambs  dressed  the  following  per- 
centages of  net  carcass  to  live  weight: 

Percentages  of  Yield  of  Dressed  Mutton. 


Breed. 

First 
test. 

Second 
test. 

Southdown 

55.4 
56.3 
55.2 
53.8 
55.7 
57.8 
54.9 
52.6 
51.8 
53.7 

55.26 

Shropshire 

52.88 

Oxford 

50.08 

Suffolk 

52.54 

Lincoln 

51.08 

Leicester 

51.87 

Cotswold 

53.57 

Dorset 

54.11 

Merino 

49.57 

Crossbred 

RELATIVE  COST  OF  PRODUCING  MUTTON  AND  BEEF. 

A  summary  of  results  published  bj'-  the  Ohio  Experiment  Star 
tion,  compiled  from  experiments  conducted  with  a  large  number  of 
cattle  at  various  stations  in  the  United  States,  gives  the  average  num- 
ber of  pounds  dry  matter  per  pound  of  increase  in  live  weight  at 
10.24,  and  a  recently  published  report  of  the  work  of  Lawes  and 


Oxford  Down  Ram.     Dept.  of  Agr. 


Border  Leicesier  Ram.    Dti»i.  o¥  Agr. 


SHEEP  359 

Gilbert  gives  11  pounds  for  cattle  and  9  pounds  for  sheep.  This  in- 
dicates that  a  pound  of  mutton  can  be  made  on  lambs  at  less  ex- 
penditure for  feed  than  is  required  to  produce  a  pound  of  beef  on 
cattle  at  the  ordinary  age  of  finishing  for  market. 

It  is  sometimes  asserted  that  cattle  and  sheep  require  the  same 
amount  of  feed  per  thousand  pounds  of  live  weight.  This  statement 
seems  not  to  be  well  founded.  In  recent  experiments  cattle  con- 
sumed 19.6  pounds  of  dry  matter  per  thousand  pounds  of  live  weight, 
against  an  average  of  29.07  by  the  sheep.  Both  sheep  and  cattle 
were  on  full  feed.  The  sheep  made  a  daily  gain  of  3.73  pounds  per 
thousand  pounds  live  weight,  and  the  cattle  2.14.  In  summing  up 
this  comparison,  we  find  that  while  the  sheep  ate  48  per  cent  more 
than  the  cattle,  they  also  gained  nearly  75  per  cent  more. 

AVith  older  sheep  a  larger  amount  of  feed  is  required  in  propor- 
tion to  increase  in  live  weight.  This  was  quite  clearly  demonstrated 
in  the  experiment  conducted  by  the  Iowa  Stations  in  which  the 
costs  of  producing  gain  on  pure-bred  Shropshire  wethers  and  lambs 
under  the  same  conditions  and  on  the  same  ration  were  compared. 
It  cost  56  per  cent  more  to  produce  gain  on  yearlings  than  on  Iambs 
of  the  same  breed ;  perhaps  this  difference  is  somewhat  greater  than 
would  ordinarily  occur  on  account  of  the  wethers  being  somewhat 
fatter  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  than  the  lambs,  although 
the  comparison  from  month  to  month  shows  a  wide  difference  in  each 
case.  It  always  costs  proportionately  less  to  make  gains  on  young 
animals  than  on  older  ones. — (Ohio  St.  B.  60;  Iowa  St.  B.  33.) 

GESTATION. 

1.  From  the  breeding  records  of  514  ewes  it  is  concluded  that 
the  normal  period  of  gestation  ranges  from  144  to  150  days  after 
the  date  of  service  and  that  more  ewes  will  lamb  146  days  after 
service  than  at  any  other  time.  2.  There  is  no  appreciable  difference 
in  the  period  of  gestation  for  male  and  female  offsprings  in  sheep. 
3.  There  is  an  apparent  relation  between  the  duration  of  the  period 
of  gestation  and  the  period  required  for  reaching  maturity.  Quick 
maturing  breeds  appear  to  carry  their  young  for  a  shorter  period  than 
those  breeds  requinng  more  time  to  mature.  4.  Large  lambs  are  on 
the  average  carried  in  utero  for  an  appreciable  longer  period  than 
small  or  medium  lambs.  5.  Lambs  dropped  before  the  144th  and 
aft^r  the  149th  day  of  pregnancy  are  lacking  in  strength  and  vital- 
ity at  birth.  6.  Shropshire  ewes  were  more  prolific  than  any  of  the 
other  breeds  and  crosses  except  the  fourth  cross  of  Shropshire  rams 
on  a  Merino  ewe  foundation.  7.  From  the  data  presented  it  is  appar- 
ent that  twins  are  the  normal  increase  for  ewes  of  the  mutton  type. 
8.  One  year  old  rams  are  not  so  prolific  as  those  two  or  three  years 
old.  Ewes  also  average  a  larger  percentage  of  increase  in  lambs 
after  they  reach  full  maturity  at  three  years  of  age  until  after  they 
are  six  years  old,  when  the  rate  of  increase  diminishes.  9.  The 
amount  of  service  required  of  the  ram  in  breeding  has  an  influence 
on  the  percentage  increase  in  offspring  of  the  ewes  that  produce 
lambs.    Ewes  bred  early  in  the  season  of  mating  to  a  single  ram 


860  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

dropped  a  larger  percentage  of  lambs  than  those  near  the  latter 
end  of  the  season. — (Utah  B,  78.) 

LOSS  OF  WINTER-FED  LAMBS. 

A  trouble  resembling  apoplexy  in  human  beings  has  for  several 
years  been  causing  large  losses  among  winter-fed  lambs  near  Ba- 
tavia,  N.  Y.,  a  region  where  feeding  lambs  for  the  winter  market  is 
a  large  industry.  The  lambs  are  bought  largely  in  Buffalo  or  Chi- 
cago, fed  for  a  period  of  three  and  one-half  to  four  months  on  a 
highly  fattening  ration,  and  when  fat  are  shipped  back  to  Buffalo  to 
be  slaughtered.  Two  crops  of  lambs  are  fed  each  year.  The  first  lot 
is  bought  about  November  1  and  is  marketed  in  February.  They 
weigh  about  60  pounds  at  purchase.  It  is  considered  that  the  great- 
est profit  is  realized  when  they  are  marketed  in  90  to  120  days  at  a 
weight  of  80  to  85  pounds.  If  the  feeders  are  not  able  to  dispose  of 
their  first  crop  early  in  February,  they  usually  get  another  lot  to  be 
finished  as  early  as  possible  up  to  June  1.  The  feeders  utilize  the 
hay  from  their  farms,  alfalfa,  clover,  or  timothy,  together  with  bean 
fodder,  if  they  have  it,  and  mill  feeds,  with  a  relatively  large  part  of 
the  rations  made  up  of  corn  and  linseed-oil  meal.  Usually  the  corn 
is  fed  whole  and  the  oil  meal  preferably  in  the  form  of  the  oil  cake 
broken  up  into  pieces  a  little  larger  than  peas. 

The  trouble  appears  suddenly  and  does  its  work  quickly.  It  is 
sometimes  accompanied  by  paralysis.  It  nearly  always  proves  fatal, 
only  about  1  or  2  per  cent  of  those  afflicted  ever  having  been  known 
to  recover.  The  disease  seems  to  accur  only  where  lambs  are  being 
fed  heavily,  and  it  then  attacks  the  strongest  and  most  vigorous. 
While  this  disease  has  been  prevalent  for  some  years,  its  exact  cause 
has  not  yet  been  determined.  Two  opinions  have  been  set  forward : 
First,  that  the  disease  is  caused  by  feeding  an  excess  of  protein  in 
the  ration;  second,  that  the  disease  is  caused  by  overfeeding. — (Dep. 
Agr.  O.  E.  S.  Vol.  IV.  No.  6.) 

Investigations  by  the  department  of  animal  husbandry  of  Cor- 
nell University  Experiment  Station  indicated  that  the  trouble  was 
caused  mainly  by  sudden  overfeeding  rather  than  from  feeding  a 
narrow  (high-protein)  ration.  The  best  results  were  obtained  on 
rations  with  a  relatively  narrow  nutritive  ratio — that  is,  1:5.  It 
seemed  to  be  clearly  shown  that  in  a  fattening  ration  for  lambs  a 
relatively  large  amount  of  protein  is  necessary  to  keep  the  lambs  up 
on  the  heavy  grain  ration  required  for  the  best  results  in  fattening. 

In  the  opinion  of  those  who  conducted  the  experiments  on  the 
subject  there  should  not  be  the  wholesale  loss  from  overfeeding  that 
some  feeders  have  experienced  if  proper  precautions  are  taken  to 
keep  the  rack  spaces  all  occupied  and  to  distribute  the  grain  equally, 
although  there  may  be  an  occasional  loss  from  the  heavy  feeding 
or  from  nervous  excitement,  which  is  thought  to  be  one  cause  of 
apoplexy.— (Dep.  Ag.  0.  E.  S.  Vol.  IV.  No.  6.) 

DIPPING. 

Nearly  all  range  sheep  are  affected  with  scab,  though  it  is  fre- 
quently held  in  check  so  as  to  be  scarcely  noticeable  when  the  sheep 
first  arrive  from  the  range.     Its  development  appears  a  few  weeks 


SHEEP  861 

later,  however,  and  unless  proper  precautions  are  taken  it  becomes  a 
serious  interference  with  good  resuhs  in  fattening,  besides  a  source 
of  infecting  the  yards  and  premises  with  the  germs  of  this  disease. 
On  this  account  it  i^  generally  considered  best  to  dip  all  range  sheep 
brought  to  the  farming  sections  for  feeding.  The  dipping  should  be 
done  immediately  or  at  least  very  soon  after  arrival,  and  repeated  in 
about  ten  days  to  insure  effective  work.  Sheep  may  be  dipped  even 
at  a  zero  temperature  with  less  menace  to  the  flock  than  to  allow 
the  disease  to  go  unchecked  for  a  few  weeks.  When  necessary  to  dip 
in  severe  weather,  the  work  should  be  done  under  shelter  in  a  liquid 
slightly  warmed  and  the  dipped  animals  placed  immediately  in  dry, 
warm  quarters  and  kept  in  for  several  days  until  the  fleeces  have  had 
time  to  dry. 

There  are  various  dips  on  the  market  and  in  common  use. 
Lime  and  sulphur  and  the  tobacco  dips  are  effective  and  popular 
where  the  work  is  done  on  a  large  scale.  A  number  of  the  prepared 
dips  on  the  market  are  equally  effective,  and  they  have  the  addi- 
tional advantage  of  promoting  a  more  favorable  condition  of  the 
fleece.  All  fann  flocks  should  also  be  dipped  at  least  once  a  year  for 
the  general  good  effects  resulting  from  dipping  regardless  of  the 
existence  of  scab.— (B.  A.  I.  B.  21;  Col.  E.  S.  B.  38.) 

FEEDING  OF  ILVNGE  AND  PURE-BRED  LAMBS  COMPARED. 

The  range  lambs  averaged  only  about  half  as  much  gain  per 
head  daily  as  the  pure-bred  mutton  lambs.  This  marked  difference 
is  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Western  sheep,  reared  under  semi- 
arid  conditions  and  scanty  vegetation,  have  only  about  one-half  as 
much  digestive  capacity  as  our  larger  breeds,  accustomed  to  more  lib- 
eral feeding.  In  this  experiment  the  range  lambs  consumed  more 
feed  (dry  matter)  for  a  pound  of  gain  man  those  of  the  mutton 
breeds. 

WHAT  CONSTITUTES  A  GOOD  SHEEP. 

The  value  of  good  blood  has  been  emphasized  in  preceding 
pages.  Not  all  the  animals  belonging  to  any  of  the  improved  breeds, 
however,  are  possessed  of  a  high  degree  of  excellence.  No  graver 
error  can  be  made  than  the  assumption  of  uniform  excellence  in  the 
stock  constituting  any  breed,  no  matter  how  much  prominence  it 
may  have  attained.  Individual  animals  always  differ  more  than 
breeds ;  and  there  are  relatively  few  really  good  animals  in  any  breed. 
This  seems  to  be  strikingly  true  of  the  mutton  sheep.  The  chief 
trouble  in  mutton  production  is  and  always  has  been  the  scarcity  of 
stock  sheep,  particularly  sires,  that  have  sufficient  merit  to  fill  the 
standard  of  excellence  for  a  strictly  prime  carcass.  Until  we  reach 
this  higher  degree  of  excellence  the  mutton  sheep  will  not  assume  its 
rightful  place  in  American  agriculture.  The  American  market  has 
become  the  most  discriminating  in  the  world  on  beef  products,  and 
it  will  demand  a  corresponding  superiority  in  mutton.  With  this  in 
view  a  brief  consideration  of  what  constitutes  a  good  mutton  sheep 
may  be  of  interest. 

First,  let  there  be  pronounced  masculinity  in  the  male  and  fem- 
ininity in  the  female.    Sheep  should  be  neither  sexless  nor  character- 


362  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

less.  They  should  bear  the  stamp  and  character  of  the  breed  they 
represent.  This  breed  character  is  a  mark  of  good  blood,  and  it 
should  be  manifest  in  no  unmistakable  manner.  The  sire  should  be 
impressive,  resolute,  and  of  noble  bearing.  He  should  be  distinctly 
the  head  of  the  flock  in  every  sense  of  the  word.  To  meet  these  re- 
quirements he  must  have  good  constitutional  and  vital  powers.  With- 
out these  no  animal  is  fit  to  head  a  herd  or  flock.  In  selecting  a  sire, 
look  first  at  the  head.  If  deficient  there,  look  no  further,  but  reject 
at  once.  Insist  upon  a  head  that  faces  you  boldly  with  a  wide  face, 
a  clear,  prominent  eye,  and  a  robust  character  throughout.  The 
head  should  be  joined  to  a  well-filled,  round,  muscular  neck,  wide  at 
the  poll  and  back  of  the  ears  and  gradually  enlarging  in  all  lines  to 
a  strong,  full  junction  at  the  shoulder,  as  seen  from  top,  sides,  or 
bottom.  This  should  be  accompanied  by  a  wide  chest,  a  prominent, 
well-filled  brisket,  and  a  full  heart  girth,  giving  straight,  even  lines 
from  the  shoulders  back.  A  depression  either  in  front  of  or  behind 
the  shoulder,  whether  at  the  top,  side,  or  bottom  line  is  an  indication 
of  weakness.  The  back  should  be  strong,  wide,  and  well  meated 
from  shoulder  point  to  tail.  The  hind  quarters  should  be  full  and 
well  let  down  in  the  leg  and  flank,  in  order  to  yield  well  of  high- 
priced  meat.  The  legs  should  be  placed  wide  apart  and  stand 
straight.  Sickle^shaped  hocks  and  weak,  sloping  pasterns  afford  suf- 
ficient reason  for  condemning  an  otherwise  good  sheep. 

RANGE  LAMB  FEEDING. 

The  territory  west  of  the  one  hundredth  meridian,  known  as 
the  Range,  is  the  great  breeding  ground  for  sheep.  They  have  been 
rapidly  crowding  the  cattle  off  of  the  northern  portion  of  this  Range 
territory,  and  it  is  quite  generally  recognized  that  the  range-cattle 
industry  is  gradually  disappearing,  except  in  the  southern  section. 
While  this  territory  is  favorable  to  the  grazing  of  stock  in  large  num- 
bers, the  natural  conditions  will  not  permit  of  the  production  of 
sufficient  feed  to  properly  fatten  and  finish  the  stock  grown  there. 
The  finishing  can  only  be  done  by  drawing  on  the  surj^lus  grain 
crops  of  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley  States.  This  has  been  largely 
practiced  during  the  past.  Owing  to  the  shortage  of  good  feeding 
stock  in  the  farming  sections,  the  surplus  of  grain  products,  and 
prevailing  low  prices,  there  is  a  general  interest  in  the  character  and 
feeding  value  of  the  sheep  raised  on  the  Range. — (Col.  E.  S.  B.  32.) 
These  sheep  have  been  classified  as  follows: 

Old  Mexico  Sheep. — These  sheep  are  the  direct  descendants  of 
the  original  Spanish  Merinos,  brought  over  two  hundred  years  ago 
by  the  Spaniards  to  Old  Mexico.  They  have  been  bred  with  scarcely 
any  outcross  and  are  very  distinctly  marked.  They  have  long  legs ; 
a  long  thin  body,  not  very  deep;  small,  rather  long  neck,  and 
a  long  thin  head,  carried  high.  The  wool  is  fine  and  thin.  To  the 
eye  they  appear  almost  worthless  as  mutton  sheep,  and  of  still  less 
value  for  wool.  Their  good  points  are  that  they  are  hardy,  excellent 
travelers,  will  keep  in  good  condition  on  the  poorest  and  driest  of 
ranges,  are  fairly  prolific,  and  can  be  herded  in  bunches  of  almost 
any  size.    They  fatten  easily,  though  never  looking  plump  and  fat, 


SHEEP  363 

like  the  Northern  sheep.  When  they  reach  the  Chicago  market,  if 
in  good  condition,  they  outsell  all  other  sheep,  for  they  shrink  very 
little  in  dressing,  the  meat  has  an  excellent  flavor,  and  the  hide  is  so 
thin,  firm,  and  soft  as  to  command  the  highest  price.  A  well-fat- 
tened bunch  of  Mexican  lambs  will  weigh,  on  the  Chicago  market, 
from  78  to  81  pounds.  Yearlings,  ewes,  and  old  wethers  of  this 
breed  are  in  good  condition  if  they  weigh  90  pounds  in  Chicago. 

New  Mexico  Sheep. — These  original  Mexican  sheep  have  been 
largely  graded  with  Merino  rams  in  New  Mexico  and  southern  Colo- 
rado, and  for  some  years  were  run  there  as  grade  Merinos  for  wool. 
They  have  not  the  thick  wrinkly  fleece  of  the  typical  Merino  and 
show  decidedly  their  Mexican  origin,  being  intermediate,  in  length 
of  leg,  body,  neck,  and  head,  between  the  true  Merino  and  the  Mex- 
ican. They  are  a  small-bodied,  quick-maturing  sheep,  and,  although 
never  growing  very  large,  they  get  very  fat.  It  takes  them  longer  to 
fatten  than  the  better  bred  sheep.  Never  less  than  five  and  usually 
six  months  elapse  from  the  time  they  are  put  on  feed  until  they  go 
to  market. 

The  bunches  of  lambs  brought  from  New  Mexico  run  quite  even 
in  size  and  appearance.  They  are  all  kept  under  the  same  condi- 
tion, and  but  few  of  the  flocks  have  as  yet  been  topped  with  mutton 
breeds  so  as  to  present  any  great  variation  from  the  general  type. 
"When  brought  to  Colorado  in  the  fall,  about  the  1st  of  November, 
the  lambs  weigh,  in  bunches,  from  48  to  53  pounds.  When  shipped 
to  Chicago,  in  May,  they  weigh  from  80  to  84  pounds.  Their  frames 
are  then  not  much  larger  than  in  the  fall,  but  the  body  is  much 
deeper,  and  they  are  almost  as  thick  through,  making  them  very 
plump.  They  easily  get  the  highest  prices  on  the  Chicago  market, 
for  the  same  reasons  as  the  Mexican  sheep. 

Merinos. — Until  a  few  years  ago,  nearly  all  the  sheep  of  Colo- 
rado, Wyoming,  Utah,  and  Idaho  were  straight  Merino  sheep,  bred 
for  the  most  part  from  Merinos  brought  from  the  East.  Some  flocks 
originated  from  the  Mexican  or  New  Mexican  sheep,  but  they  were 
crossed  so  many  times  with  thoroughbred  Merino  rams  as  to  lose  the 
characteristics  of  the  southern  sheep.  So  long  as  these  flocks  were 
used  for  wool  they  were  carefully  bred  by  purchasing  high-priced 
rams  from  the  East.  As  the  price  of  wool  fell,  the  profits  decreased 
until  a  point  was  reached  where  the  sheep  for  mere  wool  ceased  to 
be  profitable.  Many  flocks  were  sold,  and  those  sheep  men  that  con- 
tinued in  the  business  turned  their  attention  to  wool  and  mutton. 
Many  of  them  still  continue  to  use  Merino  rams,  but  the  number 
of  these  flocks  is  constantly  decreasing,  and,  especially  from  west- 
em  Wyoming  westward,  the  use  of  rams  of  the  mutton  breeds  has 
become  almost  universal.  These  Merino  flocks  from  the  north  retain 
the  thick  fleece  of  the  original  Merino,  since  the  climate  is  not  hot 
enough  to  thin  out  the  fleece  as  it  docs  in  New  Mexico  and  Texas. 
Most  of  the  wrinkles  disappear,  but  a  few  remain  around  the  shoul- 
dei^,  and  the  face  has  the  Merino  colors  distinct,  being  thus  easily 
told  from  the  southern  sheep,  which  have  no  wrinkles  and  very  thin 
WQol  around  the  head.    The  lambs  are  short  legged  and  consequently 


364  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

not  such  good  travelers  as  the  southern  sheep,  nor  do  they  need  to  be, 
for  the  Wyoming  ranges  will  average  much  better  than  the  New  Mex- 
ican. The  lambs  appear  larger  than  the  New  Mexican,  but  will  not 
weigh  quite  so  much.  From  42  to  47  pounds  is  an  average  weight  on 
the  1st  of  December.  They  grow  a  little  more  rapidly  when  put  on 
feed  than  southern  sheep,  and  will  stand  a  little  heavier  feeding.  In 
May  they  will  weigh  in  Chicago  just  about  the  same  as  the  southern 
lambs,  yet,  if  equal  bunches  were  put  on  the  market  together,  the 
southern  would  more  rapidly  find  a  purchaser.  The  ewes,  yearling 
wethers,  and  older  wethers  of  the  Merino  are  heavier  than  those  of 
the  southern  sheep.  Yearling  wethers  the  first  of  December  should 
weigh  from  80  to  90  pounds;  old  wethers  occasionally  go  over  100 
pounds.  They  fatten  more  quickly  than  the  lambs — much  more 
quickly  than  the  southern  lambs.  Four  months'  feeding  is  always 
sufficient,  and  many  bunches  will  be  ready  for  market  after  three 
months.  They  should  weigh  in  Chicago  from  115  to  125  pounds. 
— (Agr.  Dept.  F.  B.  96.) 

In  selecting  lambs  for  winter  feeding,  their  age  and  size  are 
not  of  as  much  importance  as  that  the  lambs  be  thrifty  and  grow- 
ing. It  is  unsafe  to  buy  stunted  lambs,  or  those  that  are  losing  flesh, 
unless  they  can  be  purchased  early  in  the  fall  and  allowed  the  run 
of  a  good  pasture  for  a  month  or  more  before  the  heavy  feeding 
commences. 

Buying  Lambs. — Profit  in  lamb  feeding  depends  not  a  little  on 
the  price  paid  for  the  lambs.  They  must  be  bought  at  from  one- 
half  a  cent  to  one  cent  per  pound  live  weight  below  the  probable 
selling  price  if  profit  is  to  be  expected  on  the  venture.  The  begin- 
ner had  better  buy  by  the  pound,  and  if  he  cannot  buy  at  about 
the  figures  stated  it  would  be  safer  to  let  the  other  fellow  do  the 
feeding. 

Shelter. — The  general  testimony  is  that  sheep  do  not  suffer  seri- 
ously from  the  cold  if  the  weather  is  dry;  and  probably  experience 
bears  out  the  conclusion.  However,  wet  and  stormy  weather  affect 
them  seriously.  The  person  who  plans  to  take  up  the  work  of  feed- 
ing lambs  as  a  business  should  provide  sheds  under  which  the  sheep 
may  find  protection  from  the  wet.  These  sheds  need  not  be  expen- 
sive, yet  they  should  be  substantially  built. 

Grading  the  Flock. — If  a  large  number  of  sheep  and  lambs  are 
to  be  fed  it  will  pay  to  grade  the  flock,  and  feed  according  to  the 
condition  of  each  bunch.  Merino  sheep  generally  feed  well  in  large 
flocks  but  the  mutton  types  do  better  in  comparatively  small  flocks. 
—(Utah  B.  78.) 

Regular  Feeding  Essential. — Regularity  and  uniformity  in 
feeding  are  of  prime  importance.  Some  of  the  most  successful  feed- 
ers manage  a  large  feeding  establishment  with  absolute  regularity 
and  precision.  The  system  generally  practiced  consists  in  having  a 
feeding  yard  separate  from  the  other  quarters.  One  feeding  yard 
serves  for  five  to  ten  lots  of  sheep  ranging  from  three  to  five  hundred 
in  number.  The  grain  ration  is  placed  in  the  troughs  and  the  sheep 
admitted  and  returned  to  their  regular  quarters  in  ten  or  fifteen  mill- 


SEEEP  365 

utes  after  the  grain  is  eaten.  The  sheep  themselves  become  wonder- 
fully punctual  and  regular  in  their  habits.  When  properly  managed, 
the  feeding  begins  at  precisely  the  same  time  and  proceeds  in  regu- 
lar order  each  day.  This  procedure  becomes  so  well  understood  by 
the  sheep  that  they  always  expect  their  ration  promptly  on  time,  and 
they  will  take  their  place  at  the  gate  admitting  them  to  the  feed 
yard  in  regular  order  by  lots.  For  instance,  lot  one  at  its  feeding 
time  will  be  waiting  for  admittance  while  lot  two  in  the  pen  adjoin- 
ing five  minutes  before  feeding  time  will  be  lying  contentedly 
and  taking  no  notice  of  what  is  going  on  outside ;  a  few  minutes  later, 
however,  they  will  be  crowded  at  the  gate  and  eagerly  waiting  their 
turn.  When  the  feeder  is  a  quarter  of  an  hour  late,  every  animal  in 
the  lot  seems  to  recognize  and  resent  his  tardiness. 

Attention  to  these  and  numerous  other  minor  details  have  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  the  profits  resulting  from  extensive  feeding 
operations.  The  loss  from  indigestion  and  other  troubles  frequently 
reaches  4  or  5  per  cent  under  negligent  methods,  but  in  careful,  ju- 
dicious handling  this  can  be  reduced  to  less  than  1  per  cent. 

Restricting  the  amount  of  grain  to  a  very  limited  quantity  at 
the  beginning  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  best  results  in  fatten- 
ing western  sheep ;  a  lighter  grain  feed  should  then  be  used  in  pref- 
erence to  one  that  is  more  concentrated,  and  during  the  finishing 
stages  a  heavier  and  richer  grain  ration  will  be  productive  of  good 
results. 

Feeding  Three  Times  a  Day. — On  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
successful  feeding  ranches  in  the  West,  near  Jansen,  Nebr.,  2,500 
head,  in  lots  of  about  300  each,  were  being  fattened  on  a  grain 
ration  consisting  of  1^2  pounds  of  shelled  com  and  one-eighth  of  a 
pound  of  oil  meal  per  head  daily  at  the  time  of  the  writer's  visit  there 
in  February.  They  were  being  fed  grain  three  times  daily  in  sepa- 
rate feeding  yards  adjoining  their  other  quarters,  according  to  the 
system  previously  described  in  this  bulletin.  The  manager  of  the 
sheep  at  this  farm  recommends  feeding  three  times  a  day,  although 
it  is  not  common  to  feed  more  than  twice.  Those  who  have  practiced 
feeding  three  times  a  day  claim  as  an  advantage  for  this  method 
that  larger  quantities  of  grain  may  be  consumed  with  less  danger  of 
injurj'  than  by  feeding  only  twice.  One  feeder  who  has  recently  in- 
troduced this  method  stated  that  he  was  able  to  safely  feed  300 
pounds  more  grain  per  day  to  2,500  head  of  sheep.  A  striking  illus- 
tration in  favor  of  careful  methods  is  furnished  in  the  following  rec- 
ord: Three  lots,  ranging  from  500  to  1,500  each,  all  selected  from 
the  same  large  bunch  shipped  in  from  the  range  together,  went  into 
the  hands  of  different  feeders.  One,  the  largest  lot,  made  an  aver- 
age gain  of  20  pounds  in  five  months,  another,  13,  and  the  third,  9. 
They  went  to  market  at  about  the  same  time  and  sold  for  $4.55, 
$4.40,  and  $4.35,  respectively.  The  difference  in  gain  and  value  of 
the  sheep  on  the  market  when  finished  was  enough  to  return  a  lib- 
eral profit  on  the  best  lot,  while  it  was  with  difficulty  that  the  others 
were  able  to  balance  accounts.  These  differences  prevail  in  other  lo- 
calities and  demonstrate  tho  advantage  and  increased  profit  that 


366  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

always  result  where  right  methods  are  applied.  Careful  feeders  by 
giving  strict  attention  to  all  essentials  are  able  to  make  average  gains 
of  8  or  10  pounds  per  head  monthly  on  range  lambs  and  10  to  15 
pounds  on  well-bred  mutton  lambs. 

Requisites  of  a  Good  Shepherd. — A  flock  of  sheep  can  not  be 
handled  or  fattened  successfully  without  a  close  observance  of  their 
habits  and  peculiarities.  There  are  a  great  many  little  things  that 
enter  into  the  attention  and  management  by  a  successful  shepherd 
that  may  seem  trivial,  yet  they  have  much  to  do  with  the  comfort, 
thrift,  and  profit  of  the  flock.  The  axiom  that  "The  eye  of  the  mas- 
ter fattens"  is  nowhere  more  applicable  than  in  the  sheepfold.  The 
competent  feeder  acquires  a  trained  eye,  that  detects  at  a  glance  any 
evidence  of  disorder  that  will  be  manifest  if  a  single  animal  is  ofif  of 
feed  or  out  of  condition.  To  the  unobserving  or  inexperienced  feeder 
sheep  all  look  alike,  but  when  rightly  studied  no  class  of  stock  pre- 
sents more  marked  individual  peculiarities  or  so  clearly  manifests 
evidence  of  thrift  and  well-doing  or  the  reverse.  Attention  to  these 
little  details,  accompanied  by  regular  habits  and  a  quiet  manner, 
constitutes  the  keynote  of  successful  sheep  feeding.  Nothing  con- 
tributes more  to  good  results  than  contentment  and  quiet  surround- 
ings. The  feeder  who  disturbs  the  quiet  and  comfort  of  the  flock 
every  tim©  he  goes  about  it  should  quit  the  sheep  business  at  once. 
Rough  manners  and  harsh  treatment  absolutely  disqualify  any  man 
for  success  in  this  work.  The  natural  timidity  and  nervous  tem- 
perament of  the  sheep  necessitate  gentle  treatment.  Their  dainty 
habits  about  eating  and  drinking  must  also  be  indulged  as  fully  as 
practicable.  No  animal  naturally  selects  a  wider  variety  of  feed, 
particularly  of  rough  forage  and  vegetation ;  but  two  essentials  are 
always  exacted,  viz.,  cleanliness  and  palatability.  Never  give  a  sheep 
any  stale  or  undesirable  feed,  nor  expect  it  to  eat  any  feed  left  over 
from  a  previous  meal.  The  ration  should  be  always  wholesome  and 
tempting  to  the  appetite.  The  barn  or  stabling  quarters  should 
never  be  without  a  fresh,  pure  atmosphere  and  an  ample  supply  of 
dry  bedding.  Sheep  rarely  suffer  from  cold  if  kept  dry  and  pro- 
tected from  direct  drafts.  The  open  air  is  better  than  a  poorly  kept 
shed  or  bam. — (Agr.  Dept.  F.  B.  96.) 

SHEEP  ON  THE  RANGE. 

A  great  difference  exists  between  eastern  Nevada  sheep  ranges 
and  those  of  the  Sierras.  In  the  former,  only  about  one-quarter  the 
number  of  sheep  are  grazed  on  the  same  area  of  range.  This  is  due 
to  some  extent  to  the  greater  scarcity  of  water  and  to  the  fewer  num- 
ber of  sheep  men  occupying  the  territory.  They  have  also  access  to 
the  great  free  range  country  in  northern  Nevada  in  the  region  of 
Gold  creek  and  the  Bruneau  river,  so  that  a  number  of  bands  can  be 
kept  there  during  the  summer  months  and  then  brought  down  to 
the  home  range  to  be  topped  off  and  shipped.  As  most  eastern  Ne- 
vada sheepmen  have  from  one  to  ten  bands  of  sheep  on  this  free 
range,  and  about  sixty  or  seventy  thousand  sheep  from  Idaho  also 
summer  in  northern  Nevada,  it  stands  to  reason  that  there  must  be  a 
continuous  struggle  for  the  best  camping  and  feeding  grounds, 


SHEEP  387 

Probably  more  feed  is  wasted  by  trampling  than  is  eaten.  This, 
however,  is  not  so  injurious  to  the  range  as  if  it  were  eaten  off  close 
and  the  forage  plants  destroyed  permanently.  In  no  place  on  the 
home  ranges  had  the  grasses  suffered  from  trampling  and  overstock- 
ing to  such  an  extent  as  shown  by  Dr.  Griffiths  in  his  investigation 
in  the  Steins  mountains  in  Oregon.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by 
the  facts  that  usually  the  sheep  only  feed  over  the  ground  once  ex- 
cept in  the  vicinity  of  the  sheepherder's  camp.  Sometimes  a  lazy 
or  incompetent  herder  will  bring  his  sheep  back  to  his  cooking  camp 
every  evening  so  that  they  may  be  more  easily  watched  and  he  may 
not  have  so  far  to  go  for  his  meals.  A  few  instances  of  this  kind  were 
noticed  which  showed  that  the  soil  was  ground  up  into  a  fine  powder 
and  the  plants  eaten  and  trampled  upon  excessively.  Cattle  had 
done  considerable  damage  along  the  creeks  where  they  went  daily 
for  water  for  many  months  in  the  year  by  trampling  many  paths 
in  their  journey  to  and  fro.  The  soil  is  not  merely  loosened  m  these 
cases  but  innumerable  paths,  from  one  to  three  inches  deep,  are  cut 
into  the  ground  making  it  impossible  for  any  vegetation  to  grow 
in  them.  The  nature  of  the  soil  on  much  of  the  region  investigated 
is  such  that,  when  loosened  by  the  feet  of  the  sheep,  it  forms  a  sort  of 
sponge  which  readily  soaks  up  the  summer  rains,  and,  when  this  is 
not  carried  to  excess,  it  is  an  easy  means  of  cultivation  which  aids 
rather  than  retards  the  future  growth  of  the  plant.  There  are  some 
steep  hillsides,  however,  which  cannot  be  classed  under  this  head. 
The  soil  is  of  a  more  gravelly  nature  and  the  rains  are  not  readily 
soaked  up  by  it.  Sheep,  however,  traverse  these  hillsides  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction  and  form  narrow  trails,  while  the  rains  descend 
perpendicularly,  and,  beating  upon  these  flattened  paths,  are  hin- 
dered from  making  any  deep  erosions  in  the  hillsides.  This  was  not 
the  case  in  the  Sierras,  where  the  timber  had  been  cut  and  the  soil 
of  a  light  nature.  There  the  rains  cut  miniature  gorges  into  the 
steep  banks,  which,  in  time,  will  form  passageways  through  which 
the  water  will  rapidly  be  carried  down  to  the  lower  levels. 

The  plants  which  appear  to  have  suffered  most  in  this  region 
are  those  of  a  shrubby  nature,  such  as  the  Indian  currant  or  snow- 
berrj'',  wild  currants,  rosebushes,  service-berry  and  chokecherry.  The 
sheep  are  responsible  for  the  most  part  for  the  total  destruction  of 
numerous  Indian  currant,  wild  currant  and  rose  bushes.  They  eat 
them  extensively  duing  the  fall  months,  feeding  on  the  leaves  and 
tender  young  shoots  until  finally  the  main  stems  die  and  a  bunch  of 
dry  sticks  remains.  Cattle,  however,  are  exceedingly  destructive  to 
the  service  berry  and  chokecherry.  While  lazily  enjoying  the  shade 
of  the  willows  along  the  creeks  during  the  heat  of  the  day  before 
ascending  the  higher  mountains  to  feed  on  the  bunch  grasses,  they 
seem  to  enjoy  nibbling  at  the  young  twigs  of  these  bushes  until, 
as  in  the  ca=:e  with  the  currant  and  rose  bushes,  the  main  stems  re- 
fuse to  send  forth  any  shoots  and  gradually  die  back.  Many  thou- 
sands of  dry  sticks  from  four  to  seven  feet  high  were  seen,  being 
remnants  of  once  healthy  senice  berry  and  chokecherry  bushes. 
Several  plants,  such  as  the  poverty  weed   (Iva  axillaris)   and  the 


368  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

nettle-leaved  mint  (Lophanthus  urticifolius) ,  which  are  of  no  value 
for  forage  and  are  not  eaten  to  any  extent  by  sheep  or  cattle,  occupy 
considerable  areas,  the  former  growing  on  poor  soil  and  the  latter 
on  the  very  best  soil  the  region  affords.  Owing  to  their  being  left 
undisturbed  and  allowed  to  seed  abundantly,  they  seem  to  be  in- 
creasing out  of  proportion  to  the  more  valuable  forage  plants.  From 
the  fact  that  sheep  prefer  weeds  and  browse  to  grasses,  it  was  no- 
ticed that  on  this  range  the  grasses  were  allowed  to  seed  and  no  sign 
of  overgrazing  by  sheep  of  these  valuable  forage  plants  for  cattle 
was  seen.  Cattle,  however,  do  not  care  to  feed  on  ground  over  which 
sheep  have  passed,  so  that,  as  far  as  that  particular  season  is  con- 
cerned, the  grasses  are  not  eaten  by  cattle.  As  already  stated,  owing 
to  the  range  being  controlled  and  the  scarcity  of  water  in  some  sea- 
sons permitting  only  a  portion  of  the  land  oeing  grazed  by  sheep, 
there  is  always  plenty  of  grass  for  cattle  on  these  ungrazed  portions. 
This  statement  is  corroborated  by  the  fact  that  hundreds  of  cattle 
were  seen  on  this  sheep  range  which  were  in  very  good  condition. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  grazing  of  sheep  over  this  particular 
range  is  a  benefit  rather  than  a  menace  to  the  grasses,  as  they  insure 
protection  to  them  while  seeding. 

Methods  of  Handling. — About  the  1st  of  March  the  sheep  leave 
the  white  sage  flats  in  Nye  and  White  Pine  counties  south  of  Eureka 
and  come  slowly  northward  through  the  valleys,  obtaining  water 
from  the  melting  snow  or  by  eating  the  snow  itself.  They  usually 
reach  the  shearing  grounds  by  the  railroad  about  the  1st  of  April. 
Their  chief  feed  at  this  time  is  the  bud  sage  (Artemisia  spinescens) 
and  the  young  grass  sprouting  from  their  stools.  The  sheep  are  then 
separated  into  ewe  bands  and  wether  bands,  the  ewes  and  their  lambs 
of  the  previous  year  having  run  together  during  the  winter.  Those 
which  have  been  bred  to  coarse-wooled  bucks,  like  the  Shropshires, 
are  kept  together  to  sell  for  mutton  later,  while  those  which  have 
been  bred  to  fine-wooled  bucks  like  the  Rambouillet's,  are  kept  as 
stock  sheep.  This  is  done  in  order  to  keep  up  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  wool,  and,  at  the  same  time,  obtain  a  fair  price  for 
the  mutton.  Two  crops  of  wool  are  also  obtained  from  each  lamb 
as  they  are  not  usually  sold  until  about  two  years  old,  which  differs 
from  the  practice  in  the  Sierras,  where  the  lambs  are  marketed  when 
from  four  to  five  months  old.  Eastern  Nevada  sheepmen  are  unable 
to  compete  with  the  lambs  raised  on  the  Sierras  as  their  sheep  lamb 
later,  the  country  being  colder  in  spring  and  the  difference  in  the 
character  of  the  forage  preventing  rapid  development.  The  lambs 
also  shrink  too  much  in  shipping,  being  too  far  from  both  the  East- 
em  and  Western  markets.  Different  customs  prevail  as  to  the  time 
of  dipping  and  shearing,  some  preferring  to  dip  before  shearing  and 
others  after.  The  advocates  of  the  latter  method  claim  that  the 
lime  which  is  used  in  the  dip  mixture  is  harmful  to  the  wool.  When 
the  mixture  is  properly  made,  however,  no  bad  results  need  be 
feared.  Those  who  dip  before  shearing  claim  that  the  sheep  are 
weak  at  this  time  of  the  year  and  that  dipping  increases  this  weak- 
ness, and,  if  a  cold  storm  comes  when  the  sheep  are  not  protected 


SHEEP  369 

by  their  wool,  they  are  apt  to  lose  a  great  many.  Still  others  prefer 
to  wait  until  after  lambing  before  shearing  and  dipping,  as,  if  there 
should  be  a  cold  spell,  the  ewes  will  stay  with  their  lambs  better. 
This,  however,  necessitates  dipping  the  lambs  also  and  results  in 
setting  them  back  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  The  sheep  are  sheared 
before  lambing,  if  the  weather  permits.  The  custom  is  to  make  a 
contract  with  a  shearing  outfit,  the  price  being  seven  cents  per  sheep 
with  board,  or  eight  cents  per  sheep  without  board,  there  being 
usually  twenty  to  twenty-four  men  in  an  outfit.  If  the  sheep  are  not 
too  wrinkled  a  good  man  will  shear  on  an  average  about  one  hun- 
dred in  a  day. 

^  The  wool  is  of  medium  grade,  having  about  sixty-five  per  cent 
shrinkage.  From  six  and  a  half  to  eight  pounds  of  wool  per  head 
is  secured,  according  to  the  grade  of  the  sheep.  The  wool  is  usually 
put  up  in  sacks  of  from  275  to  350  pounds  each  and  consigned  to 
local  warehouses  in  Reno  and  Elko  or  else  sold  direct  to  Eastern 
buyers,  most  of  it  going  to  Boston.  In  a  few  instances,  where  the 
wool  has  to  be  hauled  some  distance  to  the  railroad,  it  is  put  up  in. 
bales.  The  price  received  by  Messrs.  Anderson  &  Duborg  at  Beo- 
wawe  by  selling  to  Eastern  buyers  direct  was  thirteen  and  one-eighth 
cents  *J)er  pound.  The  warehouses  usually  sell  by  auction  to  the 
highest  bidder,  but  a  movement  is  on  foot  to  do  away  with  the  mid- 
dleman and  sell  the  wool  direct  to  the  firms  in  Boston,  the  only  ex- 
pense being  the  storage  and  shipment  to  the  warehouse. 

After  shearing,  the  sheep  are  driven  about  a  distance  of  five 
miles  to  a  natural  hot  spring  where  a  dipping  plant  has  been  in- 
stalled. The  water  from  the  spring  is  boiling  and  is  carried  through 
a  ditch  to  the  tank.  WTien  all  the  sheep  have  been  dipped,  the  eweg 
start  for  their  lambing  grounds,  and  the  wethers  for  their  summer 
range.  On  account  of  the  young  sheep  being  separated  from  their 
mothers,  it  is  necessary  to  have  two  men  to  take  care  of  a  band  of 
2,500  or  3,000  sheep.  The  camp  tender  has  a  wagon,  pitches  camp 
and  cooks  the  meals,  one  camp  tender  attending  to  two  bands.  Dry- 
ground  on  the  lower  foothills  is  selected  for  lambing  purposes  and 
five  or  six  men  are  put  in  charge  of  each  band.  When  lambing  com- 
mences the  sheep  do  not  travel  more  than  a  mile  a  day,  the  lambs 
dropped  during  the  day  being  rounded  up  into  a  bunch  by  them- 
selves and  a  man  put  in  charge  of  them,  the  rest  of  the  band  feeding 
off  a  short  distance.  Each  day's  lambing  is  thus  rounded  up  into  a 
separate  bunch  until  all  the  ewes  in  the  band  have  dropped  their 
iambs.  Sometimes  the  ewes,  more  especially  the  young  ones,  will 
not  claim  their  lambs,  so  they  are  tied  by  means  of  a  short  rope  to 
the  nearest  bush  in  order  that  the  lambs  may  be  fed.  Shropshires 
retain  their  well-known  characteristics  on  the  range  by  being  better 
mothers  and  producing  hardier  lambs  than  the  Merinos.  When 
the  lambs  are  two  or  three  days  old  the  ewes  are  gradually  brought 
together  into  larger  bunches  until  they  number  about  700,  which, 
with  their  lambs,  makes  a  band  of  about  1,400.  They  remain  this 
way  for  about  two  weeks  when  the  lambs  are  branded,  their  tails  cut 
and  the  males  castrated,  processes  which  are  commonly  known 


370  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

among  sheepmen  as  "marking."  Branding  consists  of  making  some 
kind  of  cut  or  slit  on  the  ear,  using  the  left  ear  for  weathers  and 
the  right  for  ewes,  which  makes  an  easy  method  for  separating  when 
the  sheep  are  being  prepared  for  shipment.  In  addition  to  this,  they 
are  stamped  with  a  letter  or  sign  indicating  the  owner.  This  is  done 
with  a  liquid  made  of  linseed  oil  and  lampblack,  or  more  commonly 
one  of  the  prepared  inks,  a  number  of  which  are  on  the  market,  is 
used.  Tar  will  answer  the  purpose,  but  it  will  not  come  out  in 
scouring,  and  is  considered  a  defect  in  the  wool.  It  is,  however, 
cheaper  and  lasts  longer.  Marking  in  this  way  is  necessary,  as  the 
bands  of  different  sheepmen  frequently  get  mixed  together,  when 
they  are  taken  to  the  nearest  corral  and  separated  by  the  distinguish- 
ing brand. 

After  marking  about  1,400  ewes  are  put  together,  which,  with 
their  lambs,  make  a  band  of  about  2,600.  Ninety  to  a  hundred  per 
cent  of  lambs  is  a  good  average  for  grade  Shropshires  and  from 
eighty  to  ninety  per  cent  for  Merinos  in  a  good  year.  In  exceptional 
cases  as  high  as  one  hundred  and  twenty  per  cent  have  been  raised 
on  the  ranges  in  Nevada  and  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  per  cent 
on  pasture,  as  in  the  latter  case,  there  is  no  loss  from  coyotes  and 
strays.  In  a  pasture  where  there  is  no  danger  of  becoming  tied  up 
in  the  brush  the  twin  lambs  are  frequently  tied  together  by  their 
necks  to  prevent  straying.  If  the  previous  winter  has  been  a  dry 
one  the  number  of  dry  ewes  is  greatly  increased,  especially  if  they 
are  only  one  and  two  years  old.  The  younger  the  sheep  the  smaller 
the  percentage  of  lambs,  as  they  are  frequently  dry  and  seldom  pro- 
duce twins.  Sometimes  a  lamb  will  survive  and  its  mother  die,  and 
a  ewe  frequently  loses  her  lamb.  It  is  the  custom,  then,  to  take  the 
pelt  off  the  dead  lamb  and  put  it  on  the  motherless  one,  or,  as  it  is 
commonly  called,  the  "bum"  lamb,  and  give  it  to  the  ewe  to  bring 
up,  the  pelt  being  removed  after  a  few  days. 

The  greatest  loss  among  the  lambs  is  caused  by  the  coyote,  not 
less  than  five  per  cent  every  year  and  sometimes  more.  Although 
many  hundreds  are  killed  during  the  winter  by  the  rifle,  by  poison- 
ing and  with  traps,  yet  they  seem  to  be  on  the  increase.  They  are 
extremely  prolific,  having  from  six  to  eight  young  ones  in  a  litter. 
The  spring  of  1903  was  a  remarkable  one  in  regard  to  the  numerous 
losses  sustained  by  the  depredations  of  this  animal  all  over  the  State. 
Some  sheepmen  are  indifferent  in  regard  to  the  destruction  of  the 
coyote,  leaving  it  to  the  more  energetic  to  do  their  work  for  them. 
There  is  a  fifty  cent  bounty  given  by  the  State  for  the  scalp  of  every 
coyote,  but  this  should  be  increased  to  one  dollar,  as  the  bounty  is 
hardly  sufficient  for  anyone  to  make  a  business  of  killing  them. 

When  the  lambing  season  is  over  the  bands  are  ranged  over  the 
lower  areas,  feeding  on  the  spring  flowers,  young  grass,  onions,  dan- 
delions, chaenactis,  phlox,  carrots,  hop  sage,  bitter  brush  and  other 
plants.  One  sheepherder  is  put  in  charge  of  each  band  of  about 
2,500  sheep.  He  has  a  "burro,"  or  donkey,  which  goes  with  the 
sheep  and  carries  his  bed  for  him,  the  camptender  supplying  the 
camp  and  the  necessary  victuals  and  moving  to  a  fresh  portion  of 


SHEEP  371 

the  range  about  every  week,  or  when  he  thinks  it  is  necessary.  It  is 
the  camptender's  business  also,  to  bring  the  salt  to  the  sheep  in  the 
mountains  on  pack  horses.  He  has  no  time  to  cook  meals  for  the 
sheepherder,  as  was  the  custom  in  the  Sierras,  but  is  kept  on  a  con- 
tinuous journey  from  the  main  source  of  supplies  to  his  two  or  three 
bands  over  which  he  has  charge  and  back  again. 

The  bands  of  dry  ewes  and  wethers  are  herded  in  the  same 
manner,  two  or  more  bands  being  sent  to  the  free  range  country, 
about  fifty  miles  to  the  north,  to  compete  in  the  struggle  for  feed. 
These  are  brought  down  about  the  middle  of  August,  fed  on  the 
home  range  for  a  short  time  and  shipped.  Beginning  usually  about 
the  first  of  September,  the  ewe  bands  are  brought  into  the  corrals 
and  examined  and  the  lambs  separated  from  them.  This  examina- 
tion is  commonly  termed  "mouthing,"  and  consists  of  opening  the 
mouth  and  observing  the  condition  of  the  teeth.  These  sometimes 
commence  to  open  or  they  may  have  become  worked  down  to  the 
gums,  or  some  of  them  lost,  in  which  case  they  are  unable  to  bite 
off  the  feed  and  cannot  do  well,  so,  if  they  are  in  condition,  they  are 
shipped  as  soon  as  possible.  Ewes,  however,  generally  have  a  good 
mouth  until  they  are  six  or  seven  years  old,  and  sometimes  eight  and 
nine.  The  wether  bands  are  started  to  be  shipped  about  the  middle 
of  August  and  continued  until  all  are  shipped.  Those  shipped  be- 
fore October  the  first  usually  go  to  the  San  Francisco  market  direct, 
while  those  shipped  after  are  put  on  alfalfa  pasture  in  the  vicinity  of 
Lovelock  and  later  fed  hay,  about  one  hundred  thousand  sheep  from 
eastern  Nevada  being  fed  on  the  Lovelock  pastures  every  fall.  This 
part  of  the  enterprise  is  looked  after  by  the  butchers,  who  pay  half 
cent  a  head  per  day  for  pasture  and  six  and  a  half  dollars  per  ton 
for  hay,  the  price  of  the  latter  varying  from  season  to  season.  These 
sheep  are  kept  for  the  winter  market  and  shipped  by  the  butchers  as 
the  occasion  demands. 

The  sheep  that  are  to  be  held  over  during  the  winter  are 
usually  dipped  in  the  fall  to  prevent  infection  from  the  sheep  scab. 
These  consist  of  the  ewes  which  are  to  be  used  for  breeding  purposes 
and  the  wethers  that  are  too  young  to  sell  profitably.  On  account  of 
the  excellent  work  done  by  the  county  and  Government  inspectors 
the  dreaded  sheep  scab  is  fast  disappearing  in  this  State. 

About  the  first  of  November  the  bands  are  made  ready  for  the 
winter  range,  the  ewes  and  wethers  being  separated.  Generally,  the 
older  ewes  are  bred  to  coarse-wooled  bucks  to  raise  mutton  lambs 
and  the  young  ewes  to  smooth  Merinos  for  wool  production  and 
stock  sheep.  The  bucks  are  put  with  the  ewes  while  on  the  trail  to 
their  winter  quarters,  remaining  with  them  for  about  ten  days  or 
until  snow  comes. 

Several  sheepmen  usually  nm  their  bucks  together  during  the 
summer.  In  the  fall  they  are  separated  by  the  different  brands  and 
put  on  pasture  and  fed  barley  or  oats.  From  this  time  on  the  sheep 
are  cared  for  in  the  largo  white  sage  valleys  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  State. 


372  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Suggestions. — Attention  should  be  given  by  all  sheepmen  to  the 
more  valuable  plants  on  their  range  and  a  particular  effort  should 
be  made,  not  only  to  preserve  these,  but  also  to  increase  them.  Plants 
of  no  value,  like  the  nettle-leaved  mint  and  the  poverty  weed,  should 
be  replaced  by  either  native  or  introduced  forage  plants  of  value. 

The  fenced  areas  along  the  creeks  could  be  made  to  produce 
more  grass  and  less  of  the  sedges  and  rushes  by  a  more  scientific  use 
of  the  flood  waters  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  This  could  be  done  by 
a  better  system  of  ditches  and  drainage,  giving  a  more  even  distrib- 
ution of  the  water.  Much  land  at  present  receives  too  much  water  in 
spring  and  none  during  the  summer.  This  accounts  for  the  great 
preponderance  of  the  almost  worthless  rush,  commonly  known  as 
"wire  grass"  (Juncus  balticus),  in  the  native  hay,  which  can  with- 
stand these  conditions,  while  the  valuable  native  blue  grasses  must 
have  drained  land.  Every  possible  means  should  be  used  in  this  re- 
gion to  retain  the  layer  of  soil  on  the  hillsides,  which  at  best  is  not 
over  abundant,  in  order  that  the  water,  falling  in  the  form  of  rains, 
may  soak  up  into  the  soil  and  gradually  ^ve  up  its  moisture  as  un- 
derground water  for  months  after  the  rams  have  ceased.  We  well 
know  that,  if  the  soil  is  removed,  a  hai*d  impervious  surface  is  the 
result,  and  the  rains  falling  on  this  run  off  rapidly,  cutting  gullies 
everywhere.  This  problem  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  this  re- 
gion, as  the  area  of  land  which  contains  forage  is  far  in  excess  of  the 
amount  of  water  remaining  in  the  creeks  during  the  months  of 
July,  August,  and  September.  Unlike  the  Sierras  and  other  wooded 
regions,  there  are  few  trees  which  are  annually  shedding  their  leaves 
and  producing  a  layer  of  spongy  soil.  Red  top  and  the  native  clovers 
which  are  not  abundant  here,  but  in  similar  situations  in  other 
parts  of  the  State,  might  be  sown  within  the  fenced  areas  to  the 
great  improvement  of  the  hay.  Where  only  a  moderate  amount  of 
water  can  be  obtained,  the  smooth  brome  grass  {bromus  inermis) 
will  prove  of  great  value  for  early  pasture.  The  wheat  grasses, 
chiefly  the  bunch  or  Western  wheat  grass  (Agropyron  spicatum) 
and  the  slender  wheat  grass  (Agropyron  tenerum)  are  also  worthy 
of  a  place  in  these  enclosed  areas. 

The  springs  should  be  protected  from  being  trampled  into 
bogs  by  cattle,  cutting  down  a  few  of  the  cottonwoods  close  by  and 
fencing  in  the  mouth  of  the  spring.  Troughs  should  also  be  made 
for  the  sheep  and  cattle  to  drink  out  of.  », 

Stockmen,  whether  sheep  or  cattlemen,  snould  own  and  control 
absolutely  the  land  over  which  they  graze  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
others.  This  control  should  last  for  a  long  number  of  years,  so  that 
they  may  get  the  benefits  of  a  judicious  use  of  their  ranges.  There 
should  be  no  free  public  range.  The  arguments  given  forth  that  by 
the  use  of  the  free  range  great  additions  are  made  annually  to  the 
country's  wealth  is  a  good  one.  This  would  be  well  and  good  if  a 
guarantee  could  be  given  to  the  people  of  the  United  States  that  these 
lands  would  continue  to  produce  the  same  amount  of  wealth  in  fu- 
ture  generations.  We  know  that  this  has  not  been  the  case  with  the 
ranges  in  Texas,  Arizona,  and  even  in  our  own  State.    An  author- 


SHEEP  878 

ity  (Bui.  10,  Div.  of  Agr.  U.  S.  Dep.  of  Agr.)  speaks  of  the  condi- 
tions in  Texas  as  follows :  "In  a  short  time  every  acre  of  free  grass 
was  stocked  beyond  its  fullest  capacity.  Thousands  of  cattle  or 
sheep  were  crowded  on  the  ranges  where  half  the  number  was  too 
many.  The  grasses  were  entirely  consumed;  their  very  roots  were 
trampled  into  dust  and  destroyed.  In  their  eagerness  to  get  some- 
thing for  nothing  speculators  did  not  hesitate  at  the  permanent  in- 
jury, if  not  total  ruin,  of  the  finest  grazing  country  in  America. 
There  is  need  in  the  first  place  of  the  enactment  of  more  beneficient 
lease  laws  to  govern  the  use  of  county  and  State  lands.  Perma- 
nency of  tenure  is  essential,  for  it  is  only  through  such  a  condition 
that  stockmen  can  be  made  to  see  that  it  is  to  their  own  interest  to 
improve  the  carrjang  capacity  of  the  range." 

What  has  ruined  the  grazing  lands  in  Texas  is  going  on  in 
Nevada  to-day,  but  to  a  less  extent.  Many  of  the  lands  which  are 
now  being  used  without  cost,  if  needed  in  future  years,  will  not  be 
worth  even  the  smallest  amount,  if  the  present  methods  of  using 
the  public  range  continue. — (Nevada  B.  55.) 

PASTURAGE  SYSTEM  FOR  HANDLING  RANGE  SHEEP. 

These  pages  contain  the  results  of  experimental  work  during 
1909  to  determine  the  efficiency  of  the  pasturage  system  of  handling 
sheep,  with  a  view  to  the  best  utilization  of  grazing  lands.  The 
studies,  for  the  most  part,  were  conducted  in  the  coyote-proof  pas- 
ture at  Billy  Meadows,  in  the  Wallowa  National  Forest,  Oregon.  In 
addition,  observations  to  determine  the  feasibility  of  the  pasturage 
system  for  lambing  ewes  were  made  on  the  lambing  grounds  on 
open  range  as  well  as  in  pasture.  The  coyote-proof  pasture  com- 
prises 2,560  acres  in  the  form  of  a  square,  2  miles  on  a  side,  made 
up  of  1,300  acres  of  heavy  timber,  400  acres  of  open  timber,  and  860 
acres  of  untimbered  scab  land  and  meadows. 

In  these  pages  is  disciissed  the  durability  of  the  coyote-proof 
fence  and  the  cost  of  maintaining  it;  the  efficiency  of  the  fence  as  a 
protection  against  predatory  animals,  especially  coyotes;  the  actions 
of  a  band  of  Merino  ewes  with  lambs  sired  by  Shropshire  rams  when 
unmolested  in  pasture;  the  effect  of  such  a  system  of  grazing  upon 
the  sheep  and  upon  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  range ;  the  factors 
that  bring  about  the  increase  in  weight  of  the  sheep  and  the  increase 
in  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  range ;  and  a  supplementary  compar- 
ative discussion  of  lambing  ewes  under  the  prevalent  methods  of  the 
herding  system  and  lambing  them  in  pasture. 

Repairing  the  Fence. — The  cost  of  keeping  a  coyote-proof  fence 
in  proper  repair  will  depend  upon  the  thoroughness  of  construction 
and  the  locality  in  which  it  is  built.  Unless  the  construction  work 
is  well  done  in  every  detail  there  will  be  a  constant  need  for  repair  of 
loose  and  broken  wires  and  holes  under  the  fence.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  fence  constructed  with  proper  care  on  an  untimbered  area 
will  require  little  attention,  and  the  cost  of  maintenance  during  the 
first  few  years  will  be  almost  negligible.  In  a  heavily  timbered  area 
the  damage  done  will  vary  with  the  intensity  of  snow  and  wind 
storms.     Great  loads  of  wet  snow  may  throw  a  few  trees;  accom- 


374  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

panied  by  heavy  wind  they  may  throw  a  good  many.  Wind  alono 
will  do  little  damage  except  during  the  rainy  season,  when  the 
ground  is  saturated  to  a  considerable  depth  and  shallow-rooted  trees 
overturn  easily. 

In  1908  thirty-eight  trees  fell  across  the  wires  along  the  5  miles 
of  the  coyote-proof  pasture  fence  that  runs  through  a  heavy  lodge- 
pole  and  yellow  pine  forest.  They  were  removed  and  the  fence  was 
repaired  at  a  cost  of  $10.  An  additional  $10  was  expended  in  repair- 
ing holes  made  by  the  spring  run-off  and  by  badgers.  During  1909 
only  ten  trees  fell  across  the  fence.  They  were  removed  and  the 
fence  repaired  by  one  man  in  one  and  one-half  days,  at  a  cost  of 
$3.75.  Badgers  had  dug  under  the  wire  during  the  fall  and  early 
spring  in  fifteen  places.  This  damage  was  repaired  by  driving  stakes 
into  tile  holes  and  then  filling  in  with  dirt.  Stakes  placed  dose  to- 
gether will  discourage  coyotes  from  attempting  to  scratch  out  the 
loose  dirt  and  crawl  through.  The  entire  work  of  removing  trees 
and  filling  holes  required  only  two  days'  labor  for  one  man,  at  a 
cost  of  $5.  The  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  8  miles  for  the  first  year 
was  $20;  for  the  second  year,  $5. 

Efficiency  of  the  Fence  Against  Predatory  Animals. — To  enable 
the  reader  to  recall  the  details  of  the  experimental  coyote-proof  fence 
at  Billy  Meadows,  the  specifications  are  repeated:  Posts  set  2i/^  feet 
in  the  ground  and  16  feet  apart;  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  a 
barbed  wire;  3  inches  higher  a  42-inch  woven-wire  fence,  having  a 
4-inch  triangular  mesh;  6  inches  higher  a  barbed  wire;  8  inches 
above  this  a  second  barbed  wire.    Total  height,  59  inches. 

Plan  of  Observation. — The  fence  was  repaired  between  May  10 
and  May  15,  before  the  coyotes  drifted  back  to  the  summer  range 
from  the  winter  and  spring  ranges  below.  Before  the  holes  were 
filled  up  and  the  gates  closed  the  inclosure  was  carefully  hunted  with 
hounds.  The  only  animals  tracked  were  bears,  deer,  badgers,  and 
porcupines.  Coyotes  had  been  inside,  but  had  gone  out  before  the 
hounds  appeared.  For  three  days  before  June  22,  when  the  sheep 
were  put  in,  the  area  was  again  carefully  hunted  for  predatory  ani- 
mals. Bears  had  been  passing  through  at  will,  and  deer  were  still 
inside,  but  no  coyotes  had  entered,  although  there  were  many  in 
the  neighborhood  after  June  1. 

When  the  sheep  were  turned  loose,  June  22,  the  hunter  began 
his  work  of  patrolling  the  fence  with  hounds.  From  that  date  until 
September  27,  with  a  few  exceptions,  the  8  miles  of  line  was  in- 
spected each  morning  and  a  record  made  of  all  animals  that  came  to 
the  pasture  and  the  attitude  of  each  toward  the  fence.  This  was 
done  both  to  protect  the  sheep  against  bears  and  to  determine  the 
efficiency  of  the  fence  against  each  kind  of  predatory  animal. 

The  Hounds. — Without  hounds  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  de- 
termine whether  predatory  animals  were  in  the  pasture  or  not,  un- 
less sheep  were  killed.  Accordingly,  the  hunter  was  provided  with 
one_ foxhound,  two  mixed  foxhound,  bloodhound,  and  bulldog,  and 
during  part  of  the  sea.son  two  dogs  of  staghound  and  foxhound  breed. 
For  the  work  of  patrolling  the  foxhound  was  relied  upon  almost  en- 


Cheviot  Ram 


Champion  Lincoln  Ram  at  Argentine  Rural  Societie's  Show,   September,  iqo8. 
Lambed  Aug.  i,  1907.    Sired  by  an  Imported  Ram.    Dam  Bred  in  Argentina. 


SHEEP 


377 


tirely.  His  scent  was  very  keen  and  his  ability  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  forward  track  and  the  back  track  was  seldom  at  fault. 

The  Trail. — Any  animals  that  came  to  the  fence  during  the 
night  could  be  trailed  on  the  following  day  if  the  track  was  reached 
before  the  dew  entirely  evaporated.  When  the  hounds  "picked  up" 
a  trail,  the  hunter  endeavored  to  find  out  what  kind  of  animal  had 
passed  and  what  had  been  its  attitude  toward  the  fence.  Occasion- 
ally the  dogs  would  follow  a  hot  track  for  miles  from  the  pasture. 
On  such  occasions  the  fence  inspection  was  completed,  but  a  com- 
plete record  of  animals  could  not  be  secured  without  the  hounds. 
Many  trails  around  the  fence  were  missed  in  this  way. 

The  following,  compiled  from  the  daily  reports  of  the  hunter, 
shows  the  number  and  kind  of  animals  actually  observed  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  coyote-proof  fence  as  a  protection  against  them. 

Efficiency  of  the  Fence. 


Period. 


1909. 
June25-Sept.  26..., 
May  1-Sept.  26 

Do 

June25-Sept.  26.... 

Do 


Animal. 


Coyotes 

Grizzly  bear. 
Brown  bears. 

Lynx 

Badgers 


Came  to 
fence. 


166 
0 
4 
1 
3 


Got 

through 
fence. 


Turned 
away. 


166 

0 

^3 

^1 

0 


Killed  by 
hunter. 


7 
al 
«7 

O 

2 


a  Killed  near  pasture:  no  attempt  to  go  through  fence. 

3  Apparently  no  attempt  to  go  through  fence.  , 

f  Six  taken  near  pasture;  three  were  cubs  not  killed. 

Attitude  of  Animals  Toward  the  Fence. — Coyotes. — From  one 
to  five  coyotes  were  recorded  for  each  of  eighty  days  out  of  the  ninety 
days  of  test.  Many  times  they  were  on  every  side  of  the  pasture  in 
one  night,  and  occasionally  one  would  follow  the  fence  line  for  5  or 
6  miles.  Seven  were  shot  or  trapped  along  the  line  between  June  22 
and  September  26,  yet  not  one  passed  through,  over,  or  under  the 
fence  during  the  experimental  period.  However,  when  the  fence  was 
repaired  in  May  there  was  some  indication  of  attempts  by  coyotes 
to  scratch  under  the  wire.  The  animals  were  those  that  had  gone 
in  on  the  deep  snow  and  had  found  themselves  inclosed  when  the 
snow  melted.  Apparently  they  considered  it  a  trap  and  began  work- 
ing to  get  out.  In  one  place  there  was  evidence  of  one  having  tried  to 
scratch  under  in  five  places  within  a  space  of  3  rods.  Where  the  final 
effort  was  made  the  hole  was  somewhat  larger  than  the  others,  and 
there  was  a  good  deal  of  fur  left  on  the  bottom  barbed  wire.  Evi- 
dently the  animal  had  succeeded  in  forcing  his  way  through.  Later, 
during  the  experimental  period,  June  22  to  September  29,  there  was 
evidence  of  one  having  attempted  to  scratch  under  from  the  outside, 
but  a  pole  nailed  securely  to  the  bottom  wire  on  the  inside  was  an 
effective  barrier,  and  the  coyote  turned  away.  This  data,  added  to 
observations  on  the  depth  to  which  coyotes  often  dig  to  find  field 
mice,  leads  to  the  belief  that  they  can  dig  under  such  a  fence. 
Should  they  do  so,  an  extra  wire  placed  on  the  ground  on  the  inside 
face  of  the  fence  posts  would,  in  all  likelihood,  keep  them  out.    A 


878  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

better  arrangement  would  be  to  have  the  extra  barbed  wire  on  the 
outside  6  inches  from  the  fence  and  just  above  the  ground  surface, 
though  this  might  result  in  injury  to  hoi-ses  and  cattle  on  the  out- 
side range.  With  the  wire  on  the  outside  the  coyote  could  not  work 
near  the  fence,  and  in  either  case  it  is  doubtful  if  he  would  be  per- 
sistent enough  to  dig  the  distance  that  would  be  necessary  in  order 
to  go  under  both  wires. 

Loss  of  Sheep  During  the  Pasture  Period,  June  22  to  September 
j^p, — September  29,  7  a.  m.,  the  experiment  was  closed  and  the  sheep 
counted  and  turned  over  to  the  owner. 

Count  turned  into  the  pasture,  June  22,  1909 1,942 

Count  turned  into  the  pasture,  July  6.  1909 98 

Loss  during  season,  June  22  to  September  29,  99  days : 

a.  By  poisonous  plants — 

Ewe  (One  ewe,  poisoned  before  entering  pasture, 

died  immediately  afterwards) o 1 

Lambs    0 

b.  From  "bluebag,"  ewes 2 

c.  On  back  between  logs,  ewe 1 

d.  Sickness,  undetermined,  lamb 1 

e.  For  mutton 3 

Total    8 

.Count  when  taken  from  the  pasture  September  29,  1909, . . . ;  2,032 

Total  count 2,040 

Actual  loss  in  the  pasture 4 

Per  cent  loss  in  the  pasture 0.2 

Separating  into  Small  Bunches. — In  order  to  handle  a  band  of 
ewes  and  lambs  under  the  pasturage  system  in  a  way  best  both  for 
the  forage  crop  and  for  the  sheep  it  is  essential  to  know :  First,  the 
extent  to  which  the  ewes  and  their  lambs  will  naturally  be  separated 
from  each  other  and  remain  apart;  second,  to  what  extent  the  ewes 
and  their  lambs  may  separate  and  remain  apart  without  retarding 
the  growth  of  the  lambs,  or  without  loss  of  ewes  from  inflammation 
of  the  udder,  caused  by  an  excess  of  milk ;  and,  third,  to  what  extent 
they  should  remain  in  small  bunches  in  order  to  secure  the  best 
utilization  of  the  forage  crop. 

During  most  of  the  time  for  the  first  twenty  days  after  the 
sheep  were  turned  loose  in  the  pasture  they  were  in  one  band.  They 
would  scatter  widely  and  occasionally  separate  into  two  or  three 
bunches  for  a  short  time  during  the  day,  but  toward  evening  they 
would  invariably  work  together.  Except  on  two  occasions  they  were 
together  on  the  oed  ground  at  night.  This  action,  no  doubt,  was  in 
part  due  to  the  fact  that  there  was  no  heavy  timber  grazing  during 
the  period,  but  in  greater  degree  to  the  tendency  of  each  ewe  to  look 
after  her  lamb,  and  to  the  fact  that  the  band  had  not  yet  outgrown 
the  habits  acquired  while  herded.  As  the  season  advanced  the  actions 
of  the  sheep  were  characterized  by  greater  freedom.    The  number 


SHEEP  379 

of  bunches  was  from  1  to  8,  the  number  of  sheep  in  each  bunch 
varying  from  10  to  2,040  head. 

After  the  first  month  the  sheep  were  constantly  coming  to- 
gether and  separating  again,  the  size  of  bunches  varying  with  each 
separation.  They  were  seldom  in  one  band  for  any  length  of  time. 
As  soon  as  the  lambs  had  been  suckled  they  were  content  to  wander 
off  again.  During  the  last  six  weeks  of  the  test  the  ewes  and  lambs 
cared  very  little  whether  they  were  together  or  not.  The  band  was 
usually  in  many  small  bunches  so  widely  distributed  over  the  2,560 
acres  that  it  was  difficult  even  to  keep  track  of  them. 

The  number  and  size  of  bunches  as  well  as  the  time  that  they 
are  apart  ^^^ll  depend  upon  the  size  and  topography  of  the  inclosure, 
the  acreage  and  distribution  of  heavily  forested  areas,  the  length 
of  time  that  the  sheep  have  been  without  a  herder,  the  condition  of 
the  forage  crop,  atmospheric  conditions,  and  especially  the  age  of  the 
lambs. 

On  an  untimbered  area  the  sheep  would  scatter  widely,  but 
would  seldom  be  apart  any  length  of  time.  In  a  heavily  forested 
inclosure  they  would  separate  more  frequently,  and  would  not  come 
together  as  easily.  After  having  been  herded,  it  takes  them  some 
time  to  depart  from  their  old  habits  and  accommodate  themselves  to 
the  freedom  of  the  pasture.  When  the  forage  is  plentiful  and  of 
choice  quality  they  are  quickly  satisfied,  and  the  tendency  to  run 
about  is  not  so  great  as  it  is  when  the  main  crop  dries  and  a  sparse 
growth  of  green  grass  appears  in  the  fall.  The  main  factor,  how- 
ever, is  the  tendency  of  each  ewe  to  look  after  her  lamb.  This  at- 
tention on  the  part  of  the  ewe  gradually  becomes  less  as  the  season 
advances  and  the  lamb  becomes  less  dependent  upon  the  mother 
for  support.    Consequently,  the  tendency  to  separate  increases. 

As  a  rule,  when  a  band  the  size  of  the  one  on  the  experimental 
area  diAniles  into  small  bunches  many  lambs  are  separated  from  their 
mothers.  Usually,  however,  the  bunches,  in  grazing  about,  come 
together  often  enough  to  prevent  weaning  the  lambs  and  thereby 
retarding  their  growth,  although  occasionally  it  was  necessary  to  put 
them  together.  During  the  entire  month  of  August  they  were, 
together  on  the  bed  ground  only  three  times,  yet  it  was  tnought' 
necessary  on  only  four  occasions  to  drive  small  bunches  to  the  main 
band  on  account  of  the  lambs.  In  this  connection  it  is  essential  to 
know  to  what  extent  they  may  remain  apart  without  detrimental 
effect  to  themselves  and  to  the  range. 

The  time  that  a  ewe  and  her  lamb  may  be  left  apart  depends 
upon  the  age  of  the  lamb.  For  the  first  two  days  after  birth  he  will 
make  the  best  progress  if  he  is  suckled  at  intervals  not  exceeding  two 
hours.  The  time  between  feeds  may  then  gradually  increase.  After 
he  begins  to  eat  green  succulent  forage,  the  milk  is  not  so  necessary 
in  satisfying  hunger,  but  is  still  essential  to  rapid  growth,  and  he 
should  not  be  away  from  the  ewe  for  more  than  four  or  five  hours. 
At  4  months  of  age  he  lives  for  the  most  part  upon  forage,  but  still 
the  milk  gives  a  roundness  and  beauty  of  growth  that  is  not  attained 
without  it.    However,  at  this  age  he  can  go  all  day,  and  occasionally 


380  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

longer,  without  being  suckled,  provided  there  is  sufficient  tender  for- 
age to  satisfy  his  needs.  If  these  natural  requirements  are  kept  in 
mind  and  judgment  used  in  handling  a  band  of  ewes  and  lambs, 
there  will  be  little  danger  to  the  ewe  from  accumulation  of  milk,  and 
the  growth  of  the  lamb  will  not  be  retarded. 

If  the  sheep  are  contented,  the  bunches  can  not  be  too  small  for 
the  good  of  the  range.  But  until  the  lambs  are  from  4  to  5  months 
old  the  small  bunches  made  up  of  ewes  whose  lambs  perhaps  are 
in  some  other  bunch  and  lambs  whose  mothers  are  elsewhere  are 
restless  after  they  have  been  separated  from  the  band  for  several 
hours.  As  a  result  they  move  about  considerably,  to  the  detriment 
of  both  sheep  and  range.  Toward  the  close  of  the  season,  when  the 
lambs  are  practically  independent  of  their  mothers,  the  small  bunches 
are  contented  and  the  destruction  of  forage  by  trampling  is  at  a 
minimum.  The  aim,  always,  should  be  to  keep  the  sheep  contented 
and  grazing  quietly  and  openly.  It  may  be  advisable  and  even  nec- 
essary at  times  to  drive  small  bunches  to  the  main  band. 

Open  Grazing. — It  has  already  been  said  that  the  sheep  should 
be  contented  and  graze  openly  and  quietly.  Close  bunched  grazing, 
massing,  running,  and  trailing  should  be  prevented  if  possible.  The 
destruction  of  forage  by  trampling  is  greatest  when  sheep  are  in 
large  bunches,  under  herders  who  are  continually  using  the  dogs  on 
the  leaders  and  the  "drag  bunch"  to  make  them  keep  pace  with  each 
other.  It  is  least  when  the  sheep  are  in  small  bunches,  each  ewe  with 
her  lamb  at  her  side,  grazing  openly  and  quietly.  The  actions  of  the 
pasture  band  were  not  ideal  in  this  respect,  but  the  tendency  to  open 
quiet  grazing  was  much  more  pronounced  than  under  most  herders, 
and  it  increased  as  the  season  advanced. 

During  the  first  month  the  entire  band  was  together  most  of  the 
time,  but  it  spread  out  over  so  large  an  area  and  grazed  so  quietly 
that  the  unnecessary  damage  due  to  trampling  was  limited  to  occa- 
sional running  and  to  trailing  over  pine  grass  areas  from  one  choice 
glade  to  another.  As  the  season  advanced  the  sheep  grew  more  inde- 
pendent of  each  other,  were  less  easily  frightened  by  any  slight  noise, 
and  the  number  of  small  bunches  increased.  As  a  result,  close 
bunched  grazing  was  rare  and  there  was  very  little  trailing.  Before 
the  experimental  period  closed  it  was  almost  impossible  to  keep  them 
close  bunched  without  using  a  dog.  Bunch  them  up  and  immediately 
they  would  spread  out  in  every  direction.  They  simply  would  not 
graze  close  bunched. 

Rambling  About. — The  distance  covered  by  the  sheep  during 
twenty-four  hours  varied  from  one-fourth  mile  to  2%  miles,  the  usual 
distance  being  1  mile  or  less.  The  distance  traveled  varied  consid- 
erably, even  under  the  same  conditions  of  forage  crop  and  atmos- 
phere.^ In  general,  sheep  travel  less  when  the  forage  is  choice  than 
when  it  is  dry  or  scarce ;  less  on  hot  days  than  on  cool  days ;  less  in 
timber  than  on  the  untimbered  areas,  and  less  after  the  lambs  are  in- 
dependent of  the  mothers  than  when  they  are  from  3  to  4  months 
old.    When  the  lambs  are  very  young,  of  course,  the  ewes,  if  unmo- 


SHEEP  381 

lested,  will  move  about  very  little,  but  variations  and  exceptions  will 
occur  in  each  case. 

Usually,  small  bunches  move  a  shorter  distance  than  larger 
bunches.  A  small  bunch  in  some  instances  would  graze  for  two  or 
three  days  within  a  radius  of  one-fourth  mile.  The  larger  bunches 
would  do  this  only  when  they  were  on  a  meadow  area  where  there 
was  abundance  of  attractive  flowering  plants  and  clover.  The  shorter 
the  distance  traveled,  the  less  energy  is  expended,  but  the  distance 
covered  in  a  day  is  not  in  itself  a  measure  of  the  forage  destroyed 
by  trampling  or  needlessly  wasted  as  energy.  A  large  band  of  sheep 
will  destroy  more  forage  by  coming  together  on  the  run,  when  scat- 
tered over  100  acres  of  ground,  than  they  will  by  quietly  grazing 
in  one  direction,  well  spread  out,  all  day,  even  though  they  travel  2 
miles.  In  the  former  case,  twenty  hoofs  may  strike  the  same  plant, 
and  each  hoof  act  as  a  cutting  edge.  When  they  are  quietly  graz- 
ing, well  spread  out,  few  hoofs,  perhaps  only  one,  will  strike  a  plant, 
and  the  impression  of  the  foot  is  almost  imperceptible.  The  ground 
is  not  packed,  nor  the  seedlings  uprooted,  as  by  the  massing. 

There  were  times  when  the  pastured  sheep  did  more  trailing  than 
was  desirable.  During  the  first  month  the  scab  glades  were  covered 
with  a  luxuriant  growth  of  succulent  flowering  plants,  and  while 
they  lasted  the  sheep  would  eat  nothing  eLse.  They  would  sweep 
across  a  small  glade  area,  nipping  off  the  flowers  and  choice  leaves, 
then  trail  over  an  area  of  yellow  pine  land  to  reach  the  next  glade. 
As  a  rasult  considerable  pine  grass  and  clover  was  beaten  down  and 
left  to  wilt.  To  some  extent  this  damage  could  be  eliminated  if  a 
tender  had  been  present  to  check  the  leaders  in  their  rapid  march 
fpm  one  glade  to  another.  Aside  from  this  feature  there  was  oc- 
casional trailing  from  the  bed  ground  in  the  morning  and  to  it  at 
night.  On  the  whole,  however,  comparatively  little  forage  was  de- 
stroyed by  trampling. 

Bedding. — The  number  of  bunches  in  which  the  sheep  bedded 
varied  from  1  to  5 ;  that  the  number  of  bunches  bedded  increased  as 
the  season  advanced ;  that  the  number  of  bunches  bedded,  as  a  rule, 
was  less  than  the  number  during  the  day ;  that  the  number  of  beds 
used,  old  and  new,  for  a  given  period,  increased  as  the  season  ad- 
vanced; and  that  during  the  ninety-nine  days  of  test,  77  different 
beds  were  used. 

During  the  first  month  the  tendency  of  the  sheep  to  assemble  for 
the  night  was  very  marked,  but  gradually  decreased  until  it  was 
almost  negligible  at  the  close  of  the  season.  During  the  first  two 
weeks  of  test  the  band  was  separated  at  night  only  twice,  while 
during  the  entire  month  of  August  they  were  together  at  night  only 
three  times.  In  the  last  two  weeks  of  record  they  bedded  in  one 
band  five  times,  but  during  this  period  they  were  grazing  an  area 
with  few  natural  bed  grounds  and  with  barriers  of  dense  timber  that 
the  sheep  would  not  readily  pass  through  during  the  cold  weather 
of  late  September,  Naturally,  they  came  together  at  night  on  the 
few  suitable  bedding  places,    Dqring  the  first  week  of  test  4  beds 


382  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

were  used;  during  the  second  week,  6;  the  third,  5;  the  fourth,  6; 
and  the  fifth,  12. 

From  the  observations  made  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  when  the 
lam'bs  are  young  the  ewes  will  naturally  come  together  at  night,  if 
many  of  them  have  been  separated  from  their  lambs  during  the  day ; 
that  in  an  inclosure  similar  to  the  coyote-proof  pasture  the  general 
tendency  of  the  sheep  will  be  to  bed  where  night  overtakes  them, 
providing  the  place  affords  a  suitable  bedding  ground ;  and,  finally, 
that,  with  few  exceptions,  the  bedding  under  this  system  vnll  prove 
beneficial  rather  than  detrimental  to  the  forage  crop. 

In  the  small  untimbered  inclosure  a  band  would  be  together 
much  more  during  the  day,  and  would  bed  in  one  place  and  in  one 
bunch  more  frequently  than  was  the  case  at  the  experimental  pasture. 

Number  of  Sheep  One  Man  Can  Care  for  in  Pasture. — ^It  is 
evident  from  the  preceding  discussion  that  sheep  in  pasture  do  not 
require  a  great  amount  of  care,  provided  the  fence  is  coyote-proof. 
They  should  be  salted  at  regular  intervals,  not  exceeding  ten  days, 
preferably  five  days.  During  the  period  when  flies  are  bad  a  few 
sheep,  though  very  few,  will  need  treatment  to  prevent  loss  from 
flyblows.  Aside  from  this,  it  is  essential  to  see  that  ewes  and  their 
lambs  do  not  remain  too  long  apart  during  at  least  the  first  four 
months  of  the  lamb's  life.  Neither  should  be  disturbed  unless  it 
is  necessary,  and  the  need  for  interference  should  be  based  upon  the 
actions  of  both  ewe  and  lamb,  the  condition  of  the  ewe's  udder,  and 
the  appearance  of  the  lamb.  If  contented,  quiet,  and  making  good 
progress  they  should  not  be  molested.  If  any  of  the  lambs  appear 
to  be  gaunt  and  uneasy,  or  if  there  are  ewes  with  distended  udders 
caused  by  excess  of  milk,  care  should  be  given  them.  No  set  rules 
can  be  laid  down  to  govern  the  shepherd  in  such  cases.  If  he  is 
accustomed  to  handling  sheep  he  will  know  immediately  when  his 
flock  is  not  doing  as  well  as  they  should  do. 

In  timbered  areas  the  fence  should  be  inspected  frequently  and 
kept  in  good  repair.  A  well-trained  foxhound  will  aid  materially 
in  ascertaining  whether  predatory  animals  have  entered  the  inclosure. 
He  will  soon  learn  to  be  quiet  when  near  the  sheep,  and  may  be 
allowed  to  follow  the  attendant  about  the  pasture.  If  a  predatory 
animal  has  entered,  the  track  usually  will  be  crossed  somewhere 
during  the  rounds,  and  the  hound  will  immediately  make  the  fact 
known. 

It  is  probable  that  one  energetic  man,  who  understands  the  na- 
ture of  the  difficulties  that  may  arise,  can  properly  care  for  four 
inclosures  similar  to  the  experimental  coyote-proof  pasture,  inspect- 
ing two  each  day.  In  case  of  emergency,  the  four  inclosures  could 
be  looked  after  in  one  day.  Under  such  an  arrangement  one  man 
would  care  for  from  8,000  to  10,000  head  of  sheep.— (Dep.  Agr. 
Forest  Service  Cir.  178.) 

WASHING  AND   SHEARING  SHEEP. 

Washing  sheep  is  not  nearly  as  prevalent  as  formerly.  Most 
manufacturers  agree  that  wool  which  has  been  washed  in  the  coun- 
try is  not  as  desirable  as  that  which. has  been  sent  to  market  un- 


SBEEP  383 

washed.  It  is  an  unsatisfactory  process  at  best,  and  many  times  the 
^country  washing  makes  scouring  at  the  mills  more  difficult. 

Washing. — After  a  careful  investigation  of  the  subject  one  is 
convinced  that,  in  the  long  run,  it  is  more  profitable  to  dispense  with 
washing  altogether.  Better  results  have  been  secured  by  shearing 
sheep  during  the  first  half  of  April  than  later  in  the  season.  This, 
of  course,  makes  it  impossible  to  wash  sheep  before  shearing.  A 
hea\der  average  fleece  and  also  a  wool  of  better  strength  may  be  se- 
cured from  the  same  flock  by  shearing  during  the  first  half  of  April 
than  by  shearing  in  May  or  June.  If  reasonable  care  is  taken  to  keep 
the  wool  free  from  dirt  and  litter  while  on  the  sheep's  back  then 
there  is  little  to  be  gained  by  washing.  Wool  market  quotations 
show  a  class  of  unmerchantable  wools.  This  class  includes  wools 
poorly  washed.  A  large  per  cent  of  washed  wools  are  sold  as  un- 
merchantable, at  a  price  about  equal  to  that  of  unwashed  wools. 

The  custom  of  washing  the  sheep  is  of  doubtful  utility  on  ac- 
count of  injury  to  the  sheep.  Sheep  are  often  roughly  handled  and 
not  infrequently  more  injury  i?  done  to  the  sheep  than  good  to  the 
fleece.  The  sheep  will  suffer  no  inconvenience  from  early  shearing 
except  for  the  first  few  days,  if  they  are  properly  sheltered  and  pro- 
tected from  the  cold  and  more  especially  storms.  The  wool  makes  a 
rapid  growth  during  the  cool  months  of  spring  and  the  sheep  is  not 
sweltering  under  a  thick  blanket  of  wool.  In  the  latter  case  the  sheep 
is  not  only  uncomfortable,  but  the  wool  makes  but  little  if  any 
growth.  For  several  years,  in  a  majority  of  instances,  the  Eastern 
wool  markets  have  been  better  in  April  than  in  June.  This  would 
give  the  grower,  who  makes  a  practice  of  early  spring  shearing,  a 
slight  advantage  as  to  markets. 

Shearing. — The  best  job  of  shearing  is  that  which  secures  the 
largest  amount  of  wool  in  the  best  condition  for  market  without 
injury  to  the  sheep.  It  is  highly  desirable  that  the  sheep  be  closely 
shorn  and  that  there  should  be  no  second  cuts.  The  fleece  should 
be  kept  intact,  not  torn  apart,  and  the  skin  of  the  sheep  should  not 
be  wounded. 

Tying  Up  or  Packing  Wool. — It  will  be  observed  that,  almost 
without  exception,  commission  men  and  wool  dealers  agree  that  one 
of  the  greatest  faults,  if  not  the  greatest  fault,  of  wools  lies  in  the 
way  they  are  tied,  or  prepared  for  the  market.  To  sum  up  the  ob- 
jections they  would  be  something  as  follows: 

1.  Either  by  neglect  or  intent  tags  and  litter  are  often  incop- 
porated  in  the  fleeces.  2.  Too  much  twine  of  an  inferior  grade  is 
used.  3.  The  use  of  the  wool  box,  which  packs  the  fleeces  into  a 
square  bundle  that  is  too  compact. 

Let  us  consider  these  objections.  If  it  is  understood  that  tags 
refer  to  bunches  or  locks  of  manure  which  have  accumulated  on 
small  bits  of  wool  about  the  thighs  and  hocks,  then  by  all  means 
they  should  be  left  out  of  the  fleece,  and  cither  sold  separately,  as 
tags,  for  what  they  will  bring  or  used  as  manure.  Breeders  of  fine 
wool  sheep  who  have  thoroughly  washed  and  dried  the  tags  then  put 
a  handful  or  so  in  each  fleece.    There  is  no  great  objection  to  this, 


384  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

providing  the  tags  are  well  washed  and  thoroughly  dry.  It  is  be- 
lieved, however,  that  it  would  be  more  businesslike  to  sell  the  washed 
tags  separately,  as  the  wool  will  never  be  as  valuable  as  the  rest  of 
the  fleece.  It  is  perfectly  legitimate  to  tie  up  all  the  wool  that  grows 
on  the  sheep  in  the  fleece,  provided  that  the  wool  is  free  from  all 
foreign  substances  which  would  add  to  the  natural  weight  of  the 
fleece. 

There  are  two  distinct  classes  of  growers  who  put  tags  into  the 
fleece.  The  first  class  includes  growers  who  put  tags  into  the  fleece 
either  through  absolute  carelessness  or  with  the  evident  intent  of 
deceiving  the  buyer.  For  such  one  should  have  no  sympathy  and 
one  has  reason  to  believe  this  class  of  men  is  small.  The  second  class 
includes  growers  who  are  progressive  and  business  like.  This  state- 
ment sounds  inconsistent,  but  it  is  not.  These  men  have  cut  out 
tags  and  litter  very  carefully,  it  may  be  for  two  or  three  years,  they 
have  observed  that,  as  a  rule,  they  get  no  more  for  their  wool  than 
the  men  who  put  tags  and  all  into  their  fleeces.  This  suggests  that 
buyers  are  not  careful  enough  in  recognizing  careful  painstaking 
methods  on  the  part  of  the  progressive  growers.  Buyere  know  the 
extra  value  of  clean  wool.  Let  them  encourage  the  honest,  painstak- 
ing growers  in  a  substantial  manner  by  giving  more  per  pound  for 
their  wool,  a  thing  which  they  can  well  afford  to  do.  Let  them,  at 
the  same  time,  discriminate  against  wool  carelessly  tied,  or  that  con- 
tains chaff,  burrs  and  other  litter.  Until  buyers  rigidly  adhere  to 
the  above  policy  there  can  be  but  little  improvement  expected  among 
wool  growers. 

The  second  and  third  objections  are  so  closely  associated  that  it 
is  difficult  to  separate  the  two  in  a  discussion  of  them.  If  the  reader 
has  carefully  read  the  foregoing  pages  he  will  have  a  very  definite 
idea  in  regard  to  the  way  the  local  dealers,  commission  men  and 
manufacturers  consider  the  present  methods  of  growers  in  tying  up 
their  wool.— (Mich.  B.  178.) 

ESSENTIALS    OF   A   GOOD    PLEECE. 

The  modem  mutton  sheep  must  also  be  a  wool  producer.  Our 
future  wool  supply  must  come  largely  from  sheep  grown  primarily 
for  mutton.  It  is  essential,  then,  that  a  mutton  sheep  have  a  good 
fleece  as  well  as  a  good  carcass.  This  combination  is  both  prac- 
ticable and  profitable ;  and  it  is  no  longer  regarded  necessary  to  grow 
one  sheep  for  a  fleece,  another  for  a  carcass,  and  another  for  a  lamb. 
The  intelligent  flock-master  combines  them  all  in  one  class.  Some 
of  the  best  mutton  sheep  are  producing  as  profitable  fleeces  as  those 
kept  exclusively  for  wool,  and  their  lambs  are  decidedly  superior. 
One  of  the  first  essentials  in  a  good  fleece  is  compactness  or  density. 
This  quality  not  only  insures  a  better  yield  of  wool,  but  it  affords 
better  protection  against  storm  and  indicates  a  hardier  animal, 
better  able  to  withstand  exposure.  A  close,  even,  dense  fleece  with 
no  breaks  should  cover  all  parts  of  the  body,  including  the  head, 
limbs,  and  under  parts.  The  tendency  in  improvement  of  the 
wool-producing  qualities  of  all  modern  breeds  has  been  toward  car- 
rying the  fleece  more  completely  over  the  head,  face,  linabs,  an(J 


SHEEP  385 

lower  line.  The  advantage  is  not  so  much,  in  the  increased  yield  of 
wool  grown  on  these  parts,  as  that  is  of  little  consequence,  but  in 
the  accompanying  tendency  to  a  larger  and  better  yield  of  wool  in 
all  parts.  A  barefaced  and  barelegged  sheep  is  always  a  relatively 
light  shearer,  and  in  contrast  with  this  the  sheep  wooled  from  the 
eyes  to  the  toes  always  yields  a  heavy  fleece  and  the  wool  is  gener- 
ally of  a  better  quality  than  from  those  having  a  scanty  covering. 
Fineness,  length,  and  strength  of  fiber  are  essential  qualities  in 
a  good  fleece  that  should  always  have  prominent  consideration  in  the 
selection  of  breeding  stock,  as  these  qualities  largely  determine  the 
market  value.  Neglect  or  undue  exposure  of  the  flock,  a  period  of 
sickness,  or  anything  that  induces  unthrift  and  impaired  vitality 
invariably  results  in  diminishing  both  the  length  and  strength  of 
the  fiber.  Well  fed  sheep  always  produce  the  most  and  best  wool. 
Softness  and  pliancy  of  wool  usually  correspond  in  degree  with  fine- 
ness. Harshness  and  dryness  are  always  detrimental  to  the  quality, 
even  if  the  fiber  is  otherwise  good.  As  a  rule,  this  condition  may  be 
taken  as  an  indication  of  poor  breeding,  although  it  may  be  due  to 
disease,  old  age,  or  improper  treatment.  Generally,  a  fleece  begins 
to  decline  in  value  and  yield  after  a  sheep  becomes  4  years  old.  Soft- 
ness and  pliancy  are  to  a  considerable  extent  due  to  the  secretions 
of  the  skin.  A  clear  pink  or  yellowish  skin  is  an  indication  of  a 
good  quality  of  wool,  while  a  pale  or  bluish  skin  is  generally  accom- 
panied by  an  inferior  fleece.  The  yolk  is  the  oily  secretion  which 
gives  color,  softness,  pliancy,  and  luster  to  the  fleece.  The  composi- 
tion of  the  yolk  consists  of  a  soapy  matter,  principally  animal  oil 
and  potash,  which  promotes  the  growth  of  the  fleece  and  prevents 
friction,  wearing  of  the  fibers,  and  cotting.  Good  feeding,  shelter,  and 
care  promote  liberal  secretion  of  yolk,  while  exposure  and  alkali 
soils  result  in  injury  to  wool  by  diminishing  the  yolk.  The  secre- 
tions are  always  more  abundant  under  high  temperature,  hence 
blanketing  and  confinement  in  close,  warm  quarters  will  stimulate 
the  production  and  insure  a  finer  fiber.  A  liberal  secretion  of  yolk 
is  favorable  to  the  production  of  a  good  fleece,  but  the  yolk  should 
be  clear  and  transparent  and  not  too  thick  and  gummy.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  qualities,  a  fleece  should  possess  the  properties  of  even- 
ness and  uniformity;  this  refers  to  covering,  density,  and  quality. 
A  good  fleece  should  be  as  nearly  uniform  in  all  parts  as  practicable. 
Avoid  the  fleeces  that  run  to  coarse,  kempy  fibers  at  the  thighs  and 
along  the  lower  line.  The  best  grade  and  quality  of  wool  is  found 
on  the  rear  part  of  the  shoulder,  and  the  nearer  all  other  parts  of 
the  fleece  measure  up  to  this  standard  in  length  and  fineness  of  fiber 
the  higher  will  be  its  value.  Wrinkles  or  folds  of  the  skin  about  the 
neck  or  other  parts  of  the  body  are  detrimental,  as  the  wool  that 
grows  within  these  folds  is  unlike  the  other  parts  of  the  fleece,  and 
there  is  a  consequent  lack  of  uniformity. —  (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  96.) 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 

Mutton  Sheep. — All  sheep  and  lambs  sent  to  market  for  slaugh- 
ter, no  matter  what  the  condition,  age,  or  weight,  are  classed  as 
mutton  sheep.    Of  the  various  sub-classes,  the  one  known  as  lambs 


386 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


is  by  far  the  most  important,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  producer  can 
most  profitably  market  his  sheep  as  lambs  and  also  that  lamb  is 
preferred  to  mutton  by  the  consumer.  However,  mature  mutton 
sheep  will  always  be  a  feature  on  the  market  because  it  is  the  chan- 
nel of  disposal  for  surplus  and  spent  breeding  stock. 

Mutton  sheep  upon  the  Chicago  market  are  either  slaughtered 
at  the  Chicago  packing  houses  or  reshipped,  principally  to  Phila- 
delphia, New  York,  Baltimore,  Washington  and  Buffalo.  These 
live  shipments  are  usually  made  up  of  choice  grades.  The  sheep 
slaughtered  in  Chicago  are  disposed  of  locally  and  by  shipments 
to  other  consuming  centers.  The  following  sub-classes  mark  the 
divisions  under  which  mutton  sheep  are  graded:  Lambs,  Year- 
lings, Wethers,  Ewes,  Bucks  and  Stags. 


Clasaes. 


OUTLINE. 

Sub-Glasses. 


Lambs 


Yearlings 


MUTTON  SHEEP 

(Native  and  Western  Sheep) 


Wethera 


Ewea 


FEEDER  SHEEP 
(Western  Sheep) 


Bucks  and  Stags 


Lambs 


Yearlings 


Wethers 


Ewes 


Grades. 

Prime 

Choice 

Good 

Medium 

Common  or  Culls 


I  Prime 

J  Choice 

[Good 

(Prime 
Choice 
Good 
Common 

Prime 

Choice 

Good 

Medium 

Common  or  Culls 

rChoice 
^Good 
Common 


Fancy  Selected 

Choice 

Good 

Medium 

Common 

(  Choice 
J  Good 
[Common 

(Choice 
Good 
Medium 
Common 

(Choice 
Good 
Medium 
Common 


BEEEP  387 

OUTLINE  CONTINUED. 


BREEDING  SHEEP 

(Native  and  Western  Sheep) 


MISCELLANEOUS 

Hot  House  Lambs 
Export  Sheep 
Throw-outs 
Dead  Sheep 
Goats 


Ewes 
Bucks 


Fancy  Selected 
Choice 
Good 
Common 
(Not  graded) 


Lambs. — It  is  estimated  by  traders  upon  the  Chicago  market 
that  at  least  eighty  per  cent  of  the  sheep  received  at  that  place  are 
lambs.  This  observation  in  part  confirms  the  current  statement  that 
mutton  production  has  become  very  largely  a  lamb  proposition.  As 
stated  in  the  discussion  under  Mutton  Sheep,  both  the  producer  and 
the  consumer  prefer  lambs  to  older  sheep.  They  are  preferred  by 
the  producer  because  they  make  cheaper  gains  than  sheep,  and  by 
the  consumer  because  they  are  more  palatable  and  more  convenient 
to  use. 

At  from  twelve  to  fourteen  months  of  age  lambs  pass  into  the 
yearling  and  ewes  cla.sses.  But  it  is  the  degree  of  maturity  the  young 
animal  has  attained  rather  than  a  set,  definite  age  which  determines 
whether  or  not  it  belongs  to  the  lamb  class.  Native  lambs  usually 
reach  maturity  at  an  earlier  age  than  western  lambs  because  they 
receive  a  greater  abundance  of  feed,  and  they  are  generally  free 
from  Merino  blood.  Let  it  be  understood  that  the  above  statement  is 
no  disparagement  to  Merino  blood.  The  most  important  factors  in 
determining  the  grade  to  which  lambs  belong  are  form,  quality,  con- 
dition and  weight,  and  the  grades  recognized  on  the  market  are — 
Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common  or  culls. 

Prime  Lambs. — It  is  understood  that  when  lambs  are  graded  as 
prime  they  are  the  very  best  of  the  class  that  may  be  generally  ex- 
pected on  the  market.  Prime  lambs  are  taken  largely  for  fancy  city 
market,  hotel  and  restaurant  trade.  Such  lambs  are  practically 
above  criticism  in  quality,  condition  and  weight.  They  are  usually 
secured  by  sorting  the  b&st  out  of  a  band.  This  is  especially  true 
of  native  lambs  where  the  offerings  in  one  shipment  are  likely 
to  be  very  uneven.  Before  a  lamb  is  graded  as  prime  it  is  determined 
by  sight  and  touch  that  it  possesses  the  form,  quality,  condition  and 
weight  demanded  by  the  dealer  in  high-class  mutton. 

The  butcher  demands  the  form  that  shows  the  most  develop- 
ment in  the  loin,  back,  and  leg  of  mutton.  He  demands  develop- 
ment in  these  regions  because  they  are  the  parts  from  which  the 
high  priced  cuts  are  secured.  The  animal  should  show  a  great 
deal  of  depth  and  JDreadth  and  no  tendency  to  be  paunchy,  because 
paunchiness  adds  to  the  percentage  of  waste  in  slaughtering.  The 
prime  lamb  should  present  a  general  fullness  and  smoothness  of  out- 
line, both  of  which  indicate  thickness  and  evenness  of  flesh. 


388  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

The  degree  of  development  in  this  characteristic  is  one  of  the 
most  important  in  determining  the  value  of  fat  lambs.  General 
quality  is  indicated  by  a  medium  sized,  clean  cut  head,  ears  of  fine 
texture,  and  fine,  but  strong  bone,  a  light  pelt,  and  full,  well-rounded 
outlines.  All  these  suggest  a  freedom  from  that  coarseness  which 
adds  to  the  waste  in  dressing,  and  the  unattractiveness  which  works 
against  the  value  of  the  carcass.  Of  the  items  of  general  quality 
enumerated,  lightness  of  pelt  is  the  most  essential.  By  pelt  is  meant 
the  skin  and  wool  combined.  To  secure  a  pelt  of  light  weight,  the 
skin  should  be  comparatively  thin  and  free  from  folds  or  wrinkles, 
and  the  wool  should  not  be  very  dense  or  oily. 

The  terms  quality  and  condition  are  frequently  used  inter- 
changeably on  the  market,  and  chiefly  because  the  quality  of  flesh 
is  largely  dependent  upon  condition.  By  condition  is  meant  the 
degree  of  fatness  of  a  lamb.  The  reasons  why  a  lamb  should  be  fat 
are  (a)  Other  things  being  equal,  there  will  not  be  as  high  a  per- 
centage of  offal  as  in  the  half  fat,  or  the  thin  lamb;  (b)  the  fat  adds 
to  the  attractiveness  of  the  carcass,  and  thus  makes  it  more  inviting 
to  the  purchaser;  (c)  the  comparatively  fat  carcass  loses  less  in  weight 
in  the  process  of  cooling  out  in  the  refrigerator  and  also  in  cooking ; 
(d)  some  fat  on  the  outside  of  the  lean  meat  and  a  considerable 
amount  deposited  through  it  adds  to  its  palatability  by  making  it 
more  juicy  and  of  better  flavor. 

Desirable  quality  of  flesh  is  indicated  by  firmness  along  the 
back,  at  the  loins,  over  the  sides  and  at  the  leg  of  mutton.  Hard  &3 
a  board  is  a  favorite  phrase  with  many  sheepmen  to  describe  a  back 
having  desirable  quality  of  flesh. 

Weight  is  a  factor  that  varies  somewhat  with  the  different  sea- 
sons in  the  year,  but  in  general,  the  lamb  of  prime  quality  and  con- 
dition and  weighing  80  pounds  sells  at  the  highest  price.  When 
spring  lambs  first  appear  on  the  market  they  weigh  little  more 
than  60  pounds,  but  if  they  have  the  quality  and  finish  they  easily 
command  top  prices.  During  the  summer  months  consumers  of 
mutton  desire  small  cuts  because  they  do  not  eat  large  quantities  of 
meat  in  warm  weather,  and  this  gives  rise  to  a  strong  demand  for 
lambs  ranging  in  weight  from  65  to  70  pounds.  There  never  is  a 
time,  however,  when  lambs  weighing  80  pounds  will  not  sell  as 
prime,  provided  they  are  prime  in  form,  quality,  and  condition. 

Choice  Lambs. — This  is  the  grade  that  includes  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  the  better  offerings  upon  the  Chicago  market. 
To  grade  as  choice,  lambs  cannot  fall  below  the  requirements  for 
prime  lambs  to  any  marked  degree.  They  must  have  the  form, 
quality,  and  condition  that  make  them  desirable  as  mutton  of  a 
high  class.  They  usually  fail  to  sell  as  prime  lambs  because  they 
are  not  quite  up  to  the  standard  in  quality,  condition,  or  weight. 
While  lambs  frequently  fail  to  grade  higher  than  choice  because  of 
their  quality  or  their  weight,  a  lack  in  condition  is  most  often  the 
retarding  factor. 

Good  Lambs. — Upon  the  market,  buyers  and  salesmen  often 
prefer  to  speak  of  a  band  of  lambs  as  being  good  to  choice  rather 


SHEEP  389 

than  using  either  of  the  terms  separately  to  describe  them.  This 
doubtless  is  partly  due  to  the  unevenness  in  bands  of  lambs,  which 
suggests  two  grades  rather  than  one.  If  there  is  a  pronounced  un- 
evenness in  an  offering,  that  alone  is  sufficient  to  prevent  them  grad- 
ing better  than  good.  But  the  individual  lamb  must  be  noticeably 
deficient  in  form,  quality,  condition  or  weight,  or  slightly  deficient 
in  each,  thus  making  a  lower  grade  through  a  combination  of  de- 
ficiencies. In  discussing  the  choice  grade  it  was  pointed  out  that 
condition  is  the  factor  in  which  most  lambs  in  that  grade  fall  short 
of  prime,  but  in  the  grade  under  consideration  a  lack  of  quality  is 
almost  as  frequently  apparent  as  lack  of  condition.  No  matter  how 
much  fat  they  may  have,  lambs  having  heavy  pelts,  as  evidenced 
by  folds  or  wrinkles  over  the  body,  rarely  grade  higher  than  good. 

Medium  Lambs ,^^—Lamhs  of  this  grade  do  not  have,  by  a  great 
deal,  the  condition  and  quality  necessary  in  the  prime  lamb.  It  is 
in  thLs  grade  more  than  any  discussed  above  that  faulty  form  is  ap- 
parent. Long,  loosely  coupled  bodies,  with  little  spring  of  rib,  and 
rough  outlines  are  frequently  seen.  Because  they  are  coarse,  under- 
finished,  and  often  paunchy,  they  do  not  dress  a  high  percentage, 
and  what  they  do  produce  is  without  suflScient  fat  to  meet  favor  with 
dealers  who  handle  high  class  mutton.  Only  the  coarser,  heavier 
pelted  western  lambs  are  found  in  this  grade,  as  the  smoother,  tidier 
range  lambs  in  underfinished  condition  are  sold  to  go  to  the  country 
as  feeders. 

Common  or  Cull  Lambs. — Lambs  are  in  this  grade  chiefly  be- 
cause they  are  very  far  below  that  condition  of  flesh  that  would  make 
them  desirable  for  mutton.  Coarse,  ill-shaped  lambs  commonly  be- 
long to  this  grade,  but  not  unless  they  are  noticeably  lacking  in 
quality  of  flesh  and  amount  of  fat.  Offerings  in  this  grade  are  very 
light  in  weight,  the  range,  with  the  one  exception,  as  noted  below, 
being  from  30  to  50  pounds.  Occasionally  very  young  native  lambs 
reach  the  market  that  have  enough  quality  and  condition  to  place 
them  in  a  higher  grade,  but  because  of  their  very  light  weight  and 
tender  age  they  must  sell  as  common  lambs. 

Yearlings. — Yearlings  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  lambs  in  the 
meat  trade.  The  ability  of  the  animal  to  substitute  in  this  way  de- 
pends upon  its  weight,  quality,  condition,  and  immaturity.  An  in- 
dex greatly  depended  upon  for  identifying  the  carcass  of  a  young 
sheep,  or  lamb,  is  what  is  known  as  the  break  joint,  which  is  found 
immediately  above  the  pastern  joint.  The  leg  easily  severs  at  the 
break  joint,  leaving  a  reddish,  porous,  indented  surface  over  which 
there  is  a  slight,  viscid  like  secretion  easily  noticeable  to  the  touch. 
The  presence  of  this  joint  in  the  live  animal  is  best  determined  by 
feeling  just  above  the  pastern  joint  for  a  bony-like  prominence, 
which  is  a  true  indication  of  it.  It  disappears  when  the  sheep  be- 
comes mature,  and  a  sheep  that  does  not  have  it  cannot  class  as  a 
yearling.  The  yearling  class  is  composed  exclusively  of  wethers 
because  the  break  joint  disappears  in  ewes  at  about  the  time  tliey  pass 
out  of  the  lamb  class.    The  grades  are:    Prime,  choice,  good. 


390  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Prime  Yearlings. — ^Yearlings,  to  grade  as  prime,  must  be 
highly  developed  in  form,  quality,  and  condition,  and  of  a  light, 
handy  weight,  which  ranges  from  70  to  90  pounds.  The  form  of  the 
prime  yearling  embodies  symmetry,  compactness,  roundness,  and 
smoothness  with  no  suggestion  of  uneven  lines  or  prominent  parts. 
as  with  prime  lambs,  so  with  yearlings,  a  high  dressed  percent- 
age is  demanded,  and  this  is  not  possible  with  the  animal  having  very 
coarse  features  and  a  heavy  pelt. 

Choice  Yearlings. — Since  it  is  difficult  to  secure  the  most  de- 
sirable form,  quality,  condition,  and  weight  combined  in  one  animal, 
choice  yearlings  out-number  those  of  the  prime  grade.  Any  notice- 
able departure  from  what  is  considered  prime  in  any  of  the  above 
characteristics  is  sufficient  to  place  a  yearling  in  the  choice  grade. 
During  the  winter  season  when  the  offerings  of  sheep  are  almost 
wholly  grain  fattened  the  greater  number  of  yearlings  are  in  prime 
condition,  but  at  all  times  there  are  offerings  that  are  not  of  the  most 
desirable  form,  quality,  and  weight.  Those  of  more  than  90  pounds 
weight,  although  they  may  be  in  prime  condition,  rarely  grade  bet- 
ter than  choice. 

Good  Yearlings. — ^With  a  few  scattered  exceptions  this  is  the 
lowest  grade  of  yearlings  offered  as  mutton.  Undesirable  quality, 
weight,  or  condition  or  a  combination  of  deficiencies  in  any  two  or 
all  three  of  the  above  will,  if  readily  apparent,  place  a  yearling  in 
the  good  grade.  Yearlings  of  110  pounds  and  upwards  rarely  grade 
better  than  good,  even  though  they  be  prime  in  every  other  respect. 
Ill  form,  general  coarseness,  and  undue  weight  of  pelt  are  all  serious 
objections  and  those  having  such  defects  are  nearly  always  placed 
in  this  grade. 

Wethers. — This  sub-class  is  composed  of  mature  castrated 
males.  Since  comparatively  few  native  wethers  appear  upon  the 
market,  this  class  is  looked  upon  as  chiefly  a  western  product.  It  is 
claimea  that  there  are  fewer  wethers  reaching  the  markets  each 
year,  and  if  the  demand  for  dressed  lamb  continues  to  grow  at  its 
present  pace,  and  if  transportation  lines  are  extended  through  all 
range  districts  as  present  indications  would  lead  us  to  suppose  they 
will  be,  it  is  felt  that  the  proportionate  number  of  wethers  will  con- 
tinue to  decrease.  Just  now  the  rangeman  has  place  for  wethers  if 
his  location  is  such  that  the  shipment  of  animals  is  difficult  and  ex- 
pensive ;  if  he  has  very  cheap  grazing  lands,  and  can  produce  his  ani- 
mals at  very  low  cost ;  or  if  he  has  too  few  breeding  sheep  to  run  his 
ranch  at  its  full  capacity. 

As  a  mutton  product,  wethers  are  desired  in  hotel,  restaurant, 
dining  car.  and  steamship  trade,  or  in  any  place  where  the  com- 
paratively heavier  cuts  may  be  used  to  advantage.  The  following 
grades  include  the  offerings  appearing  on  the  markets:  Prime, 
choice,  good,  common. 

Prime  Wethers. — The  same  conformation,  quality,  and  condi- 
tion are  demanded  in  prime  wethers  that  have  already  been  noted 
as  characteristic  of  prime  yearlings.  The  most  desirable  weights 
range  from  95  to  110  pounds,  and  are  popularly  known  as  light, 


SHEEP  391 

handy  weights.  However,  wethers  weighing  140  pounds  and  up- 
wards frequently  grade  as  prime  if  their  heavy  weight  is  accompan- 
ied by  desirable  conformation,  quality  and  condition.  These  prime 
heavy  wethers  are  selected  for  export  and  for  a  limited  demand  in  a 
few  large  cities,  notably  Chicago,  New  York  and  Boston. 

Choice  Wethers. — Choice  wethers  must  possess  quality  and  con- 
dition to  a  marked  degree.  Quality  in  this  instance  applies  more 
particularly  to  lightness  of  pelt  and  to  freedom  from  paunchineea 
than  to  coarseness  of  features.  Wethers  of  this  grade  must  also  come 
under  the  light,  handy  or  the  heavy  weights.  Choice  wethers  are 
used  in  the  same  way  as  prime  wethers,  and  both  are  sought  by 
dealers  in  high  class  mutton. 

Good  Wethers. — Good  wethers  are  characterized  by  coarseness 
and  lack  of  prime  condition.  They  do  not  command  the  highest 
prices  because  they  do  not  dress  a  high  percentage  of  marketable 
meat,  nor  yield  a  quality  of  mutton  satisfactory  to  a  high  class  trade. 

Common  Wethers. — This  grade  is  made  up  of  wethers  of  in- 
ferior quality  and  in  perceptibly  underfinished  condition.  But  for 
their  undesirable  quality  they  would  sell  as  feeders.  They  help  to 
supply  a  cheap  city  trade. 

Ewes. — This  sub-class  is  composed  of  yearling  ewes,  surplus 
breeding  ewes,  and  those  no  longer  useful  for  breeding  purposes.  As 
these  different  sources  indicate,  there  are  wide  differences  in  the  age, 
condition,  and  weight  of  the  various  offerings  of  ewes  appearing  on 
the  market. 

Ewes  do  not  sell  on  a  par  with  wethers,because  they  have,  pro- 
portionately, a  greater  percentage  of  offal  and  a  smaller  amount  of 
lean  meat.  Except  in  times  of  urgent  demand  for  mutton,  prime 
wethers  sell  for  at  least  fifty  cents  per  hundred-weight  more  than 
prime  ewes.  However,  when  the  demand  for  mature  mutton  is 
strong  the  difference  is  often  no  more  than  twenty-five  cents.  Th^ 
higher  grades  of  eweg  are  used  by  dealers  in  high-class  mutton  for 
hotel  and  restaurant  trade,  but  they,  of  course,  are  not  as  desirable 
as  the  better  grades  of  wethers.  They  function  somewhat  as  a  supple- 
ment to  wethers.  The  lower  grades  are  used  in  cheap  city  trade  and 
in  districts  such  as  mining  camps,  where  there  is  a  call  for  cheap 
mutton.  Ewes  are  graded  as  follows:  Prime,  Choice,  Good,  Medium, 
Common  or  Culls. 

Prime  Ewes. — Smooth,  highly  finished  native  and  western  year- 
ling ewes,  and  a  very  small  number  of  well-bred,  aged  native  ewes 
of  prime  quality  and  in  prime  condition,  comprise  the  offerings  in 
this  grade.  Since  the  bulk  of  yearling  ewes  are  sold  for  breeding 
purposes  the  total  offerings  of  prime  ewes  are  small.  Prime  yearling 
ewes  may  be  not  entirely  above  criticism  in  quality  and  condition, 
but  because  they  are  light  in  weight,  they  meet  wnth  ready  sale.  The 
strongest  demand  is  for  weights  not  greater  than  100  pounds.  How- 
ever, large,  smooth,  aged  ewes  in  prime  condition  sell  as  prime  ewes. 
The  supply  of  such  ewes  is  meager  and  they  go  to  a  trade  that  could 
not  handle  manv  of  them. 


392  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Choice  Ewes. — Ewes  of  this  grade  must  show  development  to  a 
high  degree  in  form,  quality  and  condition,  as  they  are  placed  to  the 
same  use  as  prime  ewes.  They  may  be  slightly  faulty  in  quality, 
condition  or  weight,  but  they  are  usually  criticised  for  their  lack 
either  of  quality  or  condition.  Grain-fattened  western  ewes  fre- 
quently sell  as  choice. 

Good  Ewes. — Good  ewes  are  appreciably  open  to  criticism  in 
condition  and  often  in  quality.  In  most  seasons  of  the  year,  ewes, 
choice  in  condition  and  quality  but  of  the  unhandy  weights,  ranging 
from  115  to  130  pounds,  are  also  placed  in  this  grade. 

Medium,  Ewes. — Underfinished  condition  and  advanced  age  are 
usually  evident  in  this  grade.  Often  ewes  and  their  lambs  are  sent 
to  market  together.  Ewes  in  such  shipments  are  frequently  too  low 
in  condition  to  be  above  the  medium  grade.  The  mutton  from  this 
grade  goes  to  supply  a  cheap  trade. 

Common  or  Cull  Ewes. — Offerings  of  this  grade  are  pronounced 
in  their  lack  of  condition.  Toothless  old  ewes,  too  decrepit  to  make 
use  of  feed  and  thus  regain  desirable  oondition,  are  slaughtered  for 
the  cheapest  class  of  trade.  As  the  winter  season  advances  a  number 
of  ewes  appear  on  the  market  well  advanced  in  pregnancy.  Such 
ewes,  although  they  may  'be  of  choice  quality  and  condition,  sell  as 
common  ewes  because  of  their  high  percentage  of  waste  and  the  ill 
effects  pregnancy  is  said  to  have  upon  the  color  of  the  carcass. 

Feeder  Sheep. — It  must  be  obvious  to  everyone  that  the  one 
thing  which  determines  whether  a  sheep  or  lamb  belongs  to  the  feeder 
class,  is  condition.  Whenever  sheep  are  too  low  in  condition  to  suit 
the  needs  of  the  packer  they  fall  into  the  feeder  class,  unless  they  be 
extremely  coarse  in  quality  or  weakened  in  vitality  because  of  dis- 
ease or  advanced  age. 

The  heavy  run  of  feeder  sheep  occurs  in  the  months  of  Septem- 
ber, October  and  November,  when  rangemen  are  reducing  their 
flocks  and  preparing  for  the  winter  months.  However  buyers  are 
constantly  looking  for  thrifty,  underfinished  stuff  and  a  limited 
number  of  feeder  sheep  go  out  from  the  markets  every  week  in  the 
year.  As  the  shearing  season  approaches  buyers  of  feeders  from 
Michigan,  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois  make  strong  bids  for  well 
wooled  lambs.  Such  lambs  usually  make  large  gains  immediately 
after  being  shorn,  and  thus  are  made  prime  in  condition  in  a  short 
period. 

Practically  all  the  sheep  sold  as  feeders  .are  grown  on  the  west- 
em  ranges.  Occasionally  a  few  natives  are  taken  out  as  feeders  but 
so  rarely  and  in  such  small  numbers  that  they  cannot  be  listed  as 
belonging  to  the  feeder  class.  Experience  has  taught  sheep  feeders 
that  the  thin  natives  on  our  large  markets  are,  for  reasons  already 
mentioned,  rarely  profitable  in  the  feed-lot. 

The  following  are  the  recognized  sub-classes  of  feeder  sheep: 
Lambs,  Yearlings,  Wethers,  Ewes. 

Feeder  Lambs. — Feeder  lambs  are  those  thin  in  flesh  left  after 
sorting  out  those  in  a  band  in  suitable  condition  for  the  mutton 
trade.     A  great  percentage  of  the  feeder  lambs  reaching  the  markets 


Champion  Lincoln  Ram.    Dept.  of  Agr.  1907. 


Champion  Rambouillei  Ram.    Dept.  of  .\gr. 


'  if- 


SHEEP  395 

fall  into  that  class  because  of  certain  influences  under  which  they 
have  been  placed.  It  may  be  that  they  have  had  an  unequal  chance 
with  those  in  highest  condition  in  the  band  on  account  of  not  being 
so  well  nourished  by  their  dams;  they  may  have  been  born  too  late 
to  reach  that  degree  of  condition,  finish,  and  weight  demanded  by 
the  packer;  or,  they  may  have  been  held  too  long  at  the  shipping 
place  on  the  range  or  on  the  road  by  poor  train  service  without  the 
necessary  amount  of  feed,  so  that  the  deterioration  in  condition 
placed  what  would  have  been  mutton  lambs  in  the  feeder  class.  The 
grades  recognized  on  the  market  are :  Fancy  Selected,  Choice,  Good, 
Medium,  Common  or  Inferior. 

BREEDING   SHEEP. 

This  class  includes  both  native  and  western  ewes  in  about  equal 
proportions.     Breeding  bucks  are  exclusively  natives. 

The  ewes  most  sought  after  are  two,  three  and  four-year-old, 
dark  faced  natives  in  ordinary  field  condition.  Dark  faced  ewes 
sell  better  than  those  that  are  otherwise  their  equals,  because  their 
lambs,  being  dark  faced  sell  better  than  light  faced  lambs  on  the 
eastern  markets.  Western  ewes  are  very  popular  for  breeding  pur- 
poses in  certain  localities,  as  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  western  New  York, 
and  many  engaged  in  the  trade  think  they  should  be  preferred  over 
natives  because  they  are  more  hardy  and  comparatively  free  from 
internal  parasites.  Many  of  the  ewes  offered  for  breeding  purposes 
are  yearlings,  but  they  are  not  as  desirable  as  two  or  three-year-old 
ewes  because  they  are  immature  and  likely  to  bo  unsatisfactory  as 
mothers  at  their  first  lambing.  The  native  yearling  is  heavier  and 
more  nearly  mature  than  the  western  yearling  and  she  meets  with 
a  correspondingly  better  sale.  The  offerings  on  the  market  come 
under  the  following  grades:   Fancy  Selected,  Choice,  Good,  Common. 

Fancy  Selected  Breeding  Ewes. — Only  a  few  of  the  breeding 
ewes  sold  out  of  the  market  can  be  regarded  as  Fancy  Selected.  Oc- 
casionally an  order  is  placed  for  a  small  number  of  fancy  ewes. 
These  are  secured  by  making  individual  selections  from  different 
shipments  of  native  ewes  coming  to  the  market,  and  it  may  take  sev- 
eral days  to  get  together  a  shipment.  Such  ewes  are  high  grade  of 
some  of  the  Down  breeds,  usually  Shropshire,  and  in  addition  to 
being  thrifty  and  sound,  they  are  uniform  in  quality,  conformation, 
fleece  and  style.  Ewes  of  this  grade  are,  as  a  rule,  m  higher  condi- 
tion than  any  other  offerings  of  breeding  ewes  because  consideration 
for  the  requirements  demanded  makes  it  necessary  to  disregard  high 
condition  which  most  purchasers  would  rather  secure  through  cheap 
feeding. 

Choice  Breeding  Ewes. — Since  the  greater  number  of  the  more 
desirable  breeding  ewes  are  in  this  grade  a  detailed  description  ia 
undertaken.  The  selection  of  choice  ewes  is  based  upon  form,  con- 
stitution, age,  soundness,  breeding,  quality,  and  condition. 

As  stated  above,  the  most  desirable  ages  are  two,  three  and  four 
years,  and  more  particularly  two  and  three  years.  When  breeding 
ewes  go  to  the  country  it  is  the  thought  of  the  purchaser  that  they 
are  to  produce,  on  the  average,  three  crops  of  lambs  before  they  are 


396  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

sent  back  to  the  market  as  old. mutton  ewes;  hence,  if  the  age  is  any 
greater  than  four  years  the  ability  to  produce  profitably  for  three 
years  is  very  doubtful. 

Soundness  refers  to  the  condition  of  the  mouth  and  udder.  A 
broken  mouth,  which  means  missing  teeth  or  teeth  worn  down  short, 
indicates  advanced  age  and  although  ewes  may  otherwise  look  desir- 
able for  breeding  purposes  they  cannot  grade  as  choice  if  the  teeth 
are  not  intact.  It  is  necessary  that  the  choice  breeding  ewe  have  a 
sound  udder  and  it  is  pronounced  sound  when  it  is  soft  and  pliable 
to  the  touch  without  abnormal  development  on  either  side.  Any  ewe 
not  having  a  sound  udder  should  be  rejected  as  a  breeder,  but  in  the 
good  and  common  grades  some  carelessness  is  exhibited  in  this  re- 
spect. 

The  breeding  most  sought  after  is  some  one  of  the  Down  breeds, 
chiefly  because  of  the  dark  color  upon  the  face  and  legs.  Early  in 
the  season  of  the  breeding  ewe  trade,  when  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and 
Virginia  are  taking  large  numbers  of  breeding  ewes,  color  has  a  pro- 
nounced influence  upon  the  desirability  of  a  ewe.  Of  two  ewes,  one 
with  light  markings  and  the  other  with  dark,  but  equal  in  all  other 
respects,  the  one  with  dark  markings  is  placed  a  grade  higher  than 
the  other.  It  is  also  desirable  that  the  breeding  of  choice  ewes  be 
such  that  they  have  abundant  fleeces  of  medium  wool,  which  means 
that  the  wool  be  of  medium  fineness  and  length,  dense  and  evenly 
covering  all  parts  of  the  body.  Since  they  are  to  remain  in  the 
country  for  three  seasons  the  quality  and  quantity  of  wool  they  pro- 
duce is  no  inconsiderable  item. 

The  smooth,  low  set,  symmetrical  ewe  is  preferred  over  the  an- 
gular, upstanding  ewe  with  uneven  top  and  lower  lines.  Since  the 
breeding  ewe  is  to  produce  and  nourish  lambs  it  is  essential  that  she 
be  deep  and  wide  in  the  chest,  and  that  she  have  a  roomy  middle,  all 
of  which  indicates  that  she  has  a  strong  constitution  and  well  devel- 
oped assimilative  powers.  Choice  ewes,  unlike  fancy  selected,  do  not 
necessarily  have  to  be  of  stylish  carriage. 

Choice  breeding  ewes  should  have  smooth,  rather  refined  fea- 
tures and  bone  of  medium  size.  Ewes  of  this  grade  are  used  to  pro- 
duce choice  and  prime  lambs  for  the  spring  and  early  summer  mar- 
kets, and  without  a  great  deal  of  general  quality,  they  could  scarcely 
fulfill  their  mission.  It  is  well  to  distinguish  between  good  general 
quality  and  over-refinement,  as  delicate,  over-refined  ewes  are  with- 
out sufficient  constitution  to  be  profitable  producers. 

While  choice  breeding  ewes  should  be  thrifty  and  active,  fat 
is  not  desirable  as  the  purchaser  prefers  to  place  these  ewes  on  pa.s- 
ture  and  cheap  forage  feeds,  which  will  secure  the  condition  desired 
at  a  lower  cost  than  the  price  demanded  on  the  market.  Breeding 
ewes  are  somewhat  like  feeder  lambs  in  that  they  are  the  result  of  a 
sort  where  those  ewes  of  desirable  form,  quality,  breeding,  age, 
soundness,  and  thrift,  but  somewhat  lower  than  mutton  condition 
are  selected  out  from  those  that  are  fatter  and  desirable  for  mutton. 

Good  Breeding  Ewes. — Several  factors  combined  cause  breeding 
ewes  to  grade  as  good,  such  as  undesirable  markings,  age,  weight, 


SHEEP  397 

confonnation  and  condition.  Very  often  ewes  of  this  grade  are 
shipped  from  the  Chicago  market  to  parties  in  the  country  who  act 
as  dealers,  and  these  dealers  divide  the  shipment  into  small  lots  and 
sell  them  to  the  farmers.  In  this  way  small  uniform  lots  may  be 
secured  and  some  of  these  lots  may  grade  as  choice,  while  others 
would  grade  as  common,  and  still  others  w^ould  grade  as  good. 

Common  Breeding  Ewes. — The  general  run  of  this  grade  show 
no  single  line  of  breeding.  In  many  instances  they  are  so  noticeably 
advanced  in  age  that  it  is  evident  their  stay  in  the  country  as  pro- 
ducers will  be  short.  Perhaps  there  is  no  better  way  to  define  this 
grade  than  to  say  they  are  on  the  border  line  between  breeders  and 
feeders,  and  fortunately  they  are  not  sold  in  any  considerable  num- 
bers as  breeders. 

Breeding  Bucks. — ^W^hile  the  rams  sold  out  of  Chicago  market 
as  breeders  vary  in  age,  weight,  and  markings,  there  are  no  recog- 
nized grades.  Those  most  sought  after  are  dark  faced,  smooth,  low 
set,  vigorous  looking  rams  of  a  year  or  more  in  age.  In  times  of 
great  scarcity  ram  lambs  are  taken  out  for  breeding  purposes.  In- 
spection of  rams  selected  for  breeding  out  of  the  open  market  re- 
veals the  fact  that  the  greater  percentage  show  undesirable  form  and 
a  mixture  of  breeding.  It  is  unnecessary  to  point  out  to  intelligent 
breeders  the  effects  of  mating  grade  ewes  with  sires  of  the  type  gen- 
erally found  on  the  open  market. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Hot  House  Lambs  (Spring  Lambs) . — The  term  hot  house  lambs 
refers  to  those  produced  early  and  marketed  before  the  general  run 
of  spring  lambs  start  to  market,  which  is  ai)Out  May  20.  A  few 
shipments  of  these  lambs  reach  the  Chicago  market  but  they  are 
called  spring  lambs,  not  hot  house  lambs,  and  they  do  not  sell  as 
well  correspondingly  as  the  same  kind  of  lambs  do  on  the  eastern 
markets.  Those  w-no  specialize  in  producing  hot  house  lambs  usually 
contract  them  to  be  sent  in  small  shipments  of  dressed  carcasses  di- 
rect to  the  retailer  or  commission  man.  This  is  probably  the  most 
advantageous  way  to  market  them  because  they  are  slaughtered  be- 
fore they  are  old  enough  to  ship  well  alive  and  are  sold  per  head 
and  not  per  pound.  Hot  house  lambs  are  most  in  demand  from 
Christmas  until  Easter.  They  must  be  fat  and  weigh  between  40  and 
55  pounds  alive. 

Export  Sheep. — Most  of  the  sheep  selected  for  export  are  the 
heaviest  of  their  class.  They  are  usually  in  prime  condition  and  of 
the  choice  grade.  Wethers  are  preferred,  but  ewes,  yearlings,  and 
lambs  are  also  taken,  hence  the  term  export  cannot  be  said  to  apply 
to  any  particular  sub-class  of  mutton  sheep.  Many  buyers  use  the 
term  freely  to  designate  whethers,  yearlings,  ewes,  and  lambs  heavy 
in  weight  and  prime  in  condition  whether  they  be  taken  for  export 
or  not. 

Throiv-Outs. — This  is  a  term  applied  to  lambs  rejected  as 
feeders.  After  a  band  of  lambs  has  been  divided  into  the  mutton 
and  feeder  classes,  the  purchaser  of  the  feeder  end  usually  has  the 
privilege  of  rejecting  those  not  suitable  for  feeding  purposes.    Lame 


398  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

lam'bs,  those  appearing  unthrifty,  entire  males,  those  large  enough  to 
be  suspiciously  near  the  short  yearling  age,  and  frequently  black 
lambs,  make  up  the  rejections.  Black  lambs  are  not  always  rejected, 
but  a  number  of  Ohio  and  Michigan  feeders  object  to  them  because 
they  make  the  band  of  lambs  less  uniform  in  appearance. 

Throw-outs  sell  late  when  most  of  the  sales  for  the  day  have 
been  affected.  There  are  but  few  of  them  and  these  few  are  not 
uniform  in  weight  and  condition.  They  are  never  fat  enough  to 
be  turned  into  other  than  a  cheap  grade  of  mutton.  All  these  sur- 
rounding circumstances  make  them  the  quest  of  small  city  butchers 
who  cater  to  a  cheap  trade.  Throw-outs  are  often  called  ''rejects," 
but  they  are  never  known  as  culls  or  by  any  of  the  terms  which 
denominate  the  grades  under  the  regular  classification.  Sometimes 
they  sell  on  a  basis  of  cull  lamb  prices;  at  other  times,  upon  that 
for  medium  lambs. 

Dead  Sheep. — These  are  sheep  that  meet  with  death  in  transit. 
Losses  are  greatest  in  w^arm  weather  when  deaths  are  frequent  if 
close  crowding  in  the  car  is  practiced.  Native  shippers  often  experi- 
ence a  loss  of  sheep  in  transit  by  making  them  part  of  a  mixed  load 
with  either  swine  or  cattle.  They  usually  try  to  guard  against  such 
losses  by  partitioning  the  sheep  ofif  to  themselves,  but  the  bumping 
of  the  car  in  switching  often  breaks  down  the  partition  by  throwing 
the  animals  against  it. 

Dead  sheep  have  a  value  chiefly  for  their  wool.  The  best  are 
worth  twenty-five  cents  per  head.  It  is  claimed  that  fifty  per  cent 
of  them  are  worthless  on  account  of  the  wool  being  mangled  and 
trampled  off. 

Goats. — Goats  are  sold  for  slaughter  provided  they  are  in  good 
condition,  but  they  do  not  sell  on  a  par  with  sheep.  Only  a  few  are 
sold  on  the  Chicago  market,  and  hence  they  are  not  gTaded.  If 
they  are  too  thin  in  condition  to  sell  for  slaughter,  they  are  sold 
to  go  to  the  country  to  browse  over  brush  lands.  This  demand  is 
very  uncertain,  and  offerings  for  this  purpose  are  frequently  held 
for  several  days  before  they  can  be  sold. — (111.  B.  129.) 

Judging  Fat  Sheep. — It  is  the  ultimate  aim  of  all  breeders  of 
mutton  sheep  to  produce  that  type  best  suited  to  fill  the  demands  of 
the  butcher.  The  main  feature  demanded  in  a  sheep  by  dealers  in 
high-class  mutton  are,  proper  age  and  weight,  form,  condition,  and 
quality.  Each  of  these  features  will  now  be  taken  up  separately  and 
discussed.  These  discussions  will  aim  to  give  instructions  on  (a) 
what  constitutes  the  ideal;  (b)  how  to  examine  the  parts  to  deter- 
mine how  nearly  they  approach  the  ideal;  and  (c)  some  of  the  more 
common  faults  or  defects  that  are  often  present  and  should  be  dis- 
counted in  determining  the  true  merit  of  the  individual.  Therefore, 
we  will  firet  take  up  a  detailed  description  of  that  type  and  in  con- 
nection with  this  give  directions  as  to  the  best  method  of  examina- 
tion to  secure  a  definite  idea  whether  or  not  the  animal  fulfills  all  the 
requirement  of  the  fat  sheep  as  indicated  in  the  butcher's  or  market's 
ideal.    This  ideal  is  represented  in  the  score  card. 


SHEEP 


399 


MUTTON  SHEEP. 


SCORE  CARD. 


FAT. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS. 


1.  Age    

GENERAL.  APPEARANCE — 38  per  cent 

2.  Weight,  score  according  to  age 

8.     Form,  long,  level,  deep,  broad,  low  set,  stylish 

4.  Quality,  clean  bone,  silky  hair;  fine,  pink  skin;  light 

in  offal,  yielding  high  percentage  of  meat 

5.  Condition,    deep,    even   covering  of   firm   flesh,    espe- 

cially in  regions  of  valuable  cuts.  Points  indi- 
cating ripeness  are,  thick  dock,  back  thickly 
covered  with  flesh,  thick  neck,  full  purse,  full 
flank,  plump  breast * 

HEAD  AND  NECK— 7  per  cent 

6.  Muzzle,  fine,  mouth  large;   lips  thin;  nostrils  large 

and  open    

7.  Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 

8.  Face,  short ;  features  clean-cut 

9.  Forehead,   broad,   full 

10.  Ears,   fine,   alert 

11.  Neck,  thick,  short,  free  from  folds 

FOREQUARTERS — 7  per  cent 

12.  Shoulders,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top;  snug 

13.  Brisket,  neat,  proportionate ;   breast  wide 

14.  Legs,   straight,   short,   wide  apart   strong;    forearm 

full ;  shank  smooth,  fine 

BODY — 20  per  cent 

1 5.  Chest,  wide,  deep  full 

16.  Ribs,  well  sprung,  long,  close 

17.  Back,  broad,  straight,  long,  thickly  fleshed 

18.  Loin,   thick,  broad,  long 

HINDQUARTERS — 16  per  cent 

19.  Hips,  far  apart,  level,  smooth 

20.  Rump,  long,  level,  wide  to  tail-head 

21.  Thighs,   full,   deep,  wide 

22.  Twist,    plump,    deep 

23.  Legs,  straight,  short  strong;  shank  fine,  smooth... 

WOOL — 12   per  cent  , 

24.  Quality,  long,  dense,  even 

25.  Quality,  fine,  pure;  crimp  close,  regular,  even 

26.  Condition,  bright,  sound,  clean,  soft,  light 

Total   


Stan- 
dard 


10 
10 
10 


10 


Points  Deficient 


Judge's       Cor- 
Score       rected 


100 


Study  the  score  card  and  use  it  in  the  scoring  of  several  animals 
until  you  become  familiar  with  all  its  parts  and  the  relation  they  bear 
to  each  other  and  to  the  live  sheep. 

Method  of  Examination. — On  account  of  the  length  of  the 
fleece  it  will  be  necessary  to  carefully  handle  every  part  of  the  sheep 
to  determine  its  form,  quality,  and  condition.  Moreover,  all  exhib- 
itors practice  trimming  to  give  their  animals  a  smoother  and  more 
attractive  appearance  than  they  would  have  otherv\4se  and  thereby 
are  able  to  cover  up  many  defects  of  form,  and,  in  case  the  wool  is 
long  enough,  can  give  their  sheep  almost  any  shape  desired. 


400  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Sheep  judging  is  a  very  different  proposition  from  the  judging 
of  other  classes  of  live  stock,  in  that  the  hands  and  not  the  eyes  must 
be  depended  upon,  thus  necessitating  a  different  method  of  examina- 
tion. It  is  all  the  more  important,  then,  that  a  definite  plan  of  pro- 
cedure be  adopted  in  order  that  no  part  be  overlooked  and  that  no 
defect  escape  notice.  Notice  should  be  taken  of  the  manner 
in  which  a  judge  should  handle  a  part,  that  when  examining  it,  he 
holds  his  hands  flat  with  the  fingers  together  in  a  sloping  manner. 
In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  feel  the  form  of  the  sheep  without  dis- 
turbing or  breaking  the  fleece.  Sticking  the  fingers  into  the  fleece 
makes  holes  in  it,  which  gives  access  to  rain  and  dirt,  detracts  from 
its  appearance,  and  greatly  annoys  the  shepherd.  The  examination 
should  be  begun  at  the  head  and  continued  over  the  whole  body. 

Age  and  Weight — 8  per  cent. — The  lamb  age  is  the  most  de- 
sirable age  for  butcher  sheep  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  most  profit- 
able for  the  producer  and  is  in  greatest  demand  by  the  consumer. 
About  80  per  cent  of  all  sheep  marketed  are  lambs.  Sheep  pass  from 
the  lamb  state  just  after  they  are  a  year  old. 

The  age  of  a  sheep  is  best  estimated  by  the  order  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  front  teeth,  called  "nippers"  or  incisors.  Sheep 
have  eight  permanent  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw,  having  none  in  the 
upper.  By  permanent  teeth  we  mean  those  that  replace  the  baby, 
temporary,  or  milk  teeth.  The  milk  teeth  can  easily  be  distin- 
guished from  the  permanent  ones  in  that  they  are  narrow,  while  the 
permanent  incisors  are  broad  and  wide,  widening  out  considerably 
toward  the  top.  The  permanent  teeth  take  the  place  of  the  tem- 
porary in  regular  order  by  pairs  as  the  sheep  grows  older.  The  first 
pair  consisting  of  the  two  front  teeth,  one  either  side  of  the  me- 
dium line  of  the  jaw  supplants  the  milk  teeth  when  the  sheep  is 
slightly  over  one  year  old.  The  next  pair,  that  is,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  central  or  first  pair,  appears  one  year  later  or  when  the  sheep 
is  two  years  old ;  the  third  pair  appears  when  the  sheep  is  a  little  over 
three  years  or  between  the  ages  of  two  and  three;  and  the  fourth 
pair,  when  the  sheep  is  between  four  and  five  years  old.  Every  judge 
should  familiarize  himself  with  the  age  of  an  animal  as  determined 
by  its  teeth,  so  that  he  will  be  better  able  to  pass  on  other  parts  more 
or  less  dependent  on  age. 

To  estimate  the  age,  observe  the  teeth  by  holding  the  sheep  with 
the  hand  under  the  jaw  and  pressing  down  the  lower  lip  with  the 
thumb  and  forefinger. 

Lambs  weighing  about  80  pounds,  in  prime  quality  and  con- 
dition, sell  at  the  highest  prices  on  the  market.  They  should  reach 
this  weight  at  as  early  an  age  as  possible.  Mature  wethers  should 
weigh  140  pounds  or  more.  Weight  varies  depending  on  various 
conditions,  but  is  principally  influenced  by  age,  breed,  and  degree 
of  fatness.  Plenty  of  weight  is  desired  to  insure  healthy,  vigorous, 
and  early  maturing  qualities,  but  too  great  weight  is  objectionable, 
in  that  it  is  likely  to  be  associated  with  coarseness,  and  low  dressing 
percentage,  and  also  giving  too  large  cuts  for  the  retail  meat  trade. 


SHEEP 


401 


Form — JO  per  cent. — ^To  form  a  basis  for  estimating  the  good 
and  bad  qualities  of  a  fat  sheep  or  lamb,  it  is  best  to  consider  the  car- 
cass from  the  point  of  view  of  the  butcher.  The  different  parts  of 
the  animal  show  a  wide  variation  from  the  butcher's  standpoint. 
The  accompanying  tables  gives  the  per'  cent  weight  of  the  dressed 
carcass,  the  wholesale  price  per  pound,  and  the  per  cent  value  of  the 
dressed  carcass  that  each  wholesale  cut  represents. 

Wholesale  Mutton  and  Lamb  Cuts. 


Mutton  and  lamb  cuts. 

Names  of 
wholesale  cuts. 

WeiRht  of 
carcass. 

Wholesale 
price. 

Value  of 
carcass. 

jLejs 

Percent. 

30.36 
21.43 

14.28 
33.93 

Pound. 
\ik  cts. 

8K  cts. 
12K  cts. 

5}<  cts. 

Percent. 
43.16 

Saddle 

•  ii7„ 

18.97 
18.76 

Rack 

r Hotel  or  short  ( 

rack  (10  ribs)  t 

^  Stew    (  c  h  u  c  k  1 

L    and  breast)..  ) 

19.11 

A  study  of  the  above  table  will  show  that  the  most  valuable  meat 
is  found  on  the  hindquarters  and  loin.  The  butcher,  therefore,  re- 
quires in  the  mutton  carcass  a  heavily  fleshed  leg  of  mutton,  a  broad 
back  and  a  broad,  full  loin  deeply  covered  with  flesh,  in  order  to 
secure  the  greatest  percentage  of  valuable  cuts.  However,  there  is 
always  a  close  correlation  between  all  the  parts  of  an  animal  and  in 
order  to  secure  high  development  in  the  desired  regions  a  relatively 
high  degree  of  development  must  be  had  in  all  parts.  In  general, 
then,  the  sort  that  are  not  too  heavy  boned,  that  do  not  have  too 
large  frames,  and  that  do  not  show  a  tendency  to  be  paunchy,  but 
present  a  smooth,  even,  plump  appearance,  of  the  broad,  low-set, 
thick  type  with  special  development  of  the  leg,  back,  and  loin,  possess 
the  form  most  desired  by  the  butcher  because  they  carry  the  least 
amount  of  waste  and  so  dress  out  a  higher  per  cent  of  carcass  to  offal. 
In  general  appearance  then  the  animal  should  present  a  general  full- 
ness and  smoothness  of  outline,  both  of  which  indicate  the  desired 
thickness  and  evenness  of  flesh.  A  flat  ribbed,  narrow  chested, 
drooping  rumped,  upstanding  individual  with  peaked  hindquarters, 
should  be  discriminated  against,  because  such  will  carry  a  large 
amount  of  waste  in  proportion  to  the  valuable  cuts.  Openness  at  the 
top  of  the  shoulder,  roughness,  and  angularity  invariably  go  with 
bareness  of  shoulder,  back,  and  loin,  a  thin  leg  of  mutton  and  an  ex- 
cess of  bone  in  the  carcass. 

Head  and  Neck — 7  per  cent. — The  head  should  be  short  and 
broad,  showing  character.  The  eyes  should  be  bright,  full  and 
placid,  indicating  a  quiet  disposition.  The  muzzle  should  be  large 
with  open  nostrils  and  strong  lips,  showing  thrift  and  feeding  capaci- 
ity.  The  ears  should  be  medium  sized  and  covered  with  fine  soft 
hair.  Although  the  neck  is  a  cheap  part,  it  should  be  short  and 
thick,  which  feature  is  likely  to  characterize  the  entire  carcass.  To 
examine  tbe  neck,  place  both  hands  on  either  side  and  note  its  full- 
ness, length,  and  manner  of  blending  into  the  shoulder  at  the 
shoulder  vein.      A  long  narrow  head  with  a  pinched  muzzle  and  a 


402  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

thin  neck  are  undesirable,  because  they  indicate  weakness  of  consti- 
tution and  lack  of  thrift,  and  a  thin  neck  usually  goes  with  a  slender 
body. 

Forequarters — 7  per  cent. — Although  the  forequarters,  consist- 
ing of  the  shoulder,  brisket,  and  legs  represent  a  small  part  of  the 
value  of  a  mutton  sheep,  yet  a  proper  development  of  these  parts  is 
e^ential  to  give  the  required  smoothness  of  form  that  goes  with  the 
best  type  of  fat  sheep.  The  shoulders  should  be  smooth,  well  laid 
in  at  the  top  and  evenly  covered  with  flesh  and  well  filled  out  in 
the  crops  and  shoulder  vein.  The  brisket  should  project  forward  and 
present  a  wide,  full  breast  indicating  health  and  vigor.  The  legs 
should  be  short,  straight  and  set  wide  apart  with  a  broad  and  well 
fleshed  arm,  the  whole  showing  as  little  waste  as  possible. 

With  the  hands  on  either  side  of  the  shoulders  an  idea  of  their 
width  and  covering  can  be  obtained.  The  fullness  of  the  crops  and 
shoulder  vein  may  also  be  noted.  A  rough,  bare  shoulder  indicates 
lack  of  quality  and  a  large  amount  of  waste,  while  narrow  shoulders, 
and  long,  crooked  legs,  indicate  low  vitality  and  poor  fleshing  quali- 
ties. 

Body — SO  per  cent. — The  body  is  an  important  region  in  that 
it  contains  some  of  the  highest  priced  meat  along  the  back  and  on 
the  ribs,  and  also  contains  the  vital  organs  as  the  lungs,  heart  and 
heart  girth  because  these  indicate  an  abundance  of  heart  and  lung 
capacity.  A  narrow,  shallow  chested  individual  is  almost  sure  to 
be  low  in  condition  and  lack  thickness  of  flesh.  The  back  should 
not  only  be  straight  and  strong,  but  covered  thickly  with  firm, 
smooth  flesh  with  the  spinal  column  well  hidden.  A  rough,  open 
shoulder  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  narrow,  weak,  bare  back.  The 
ribs  should  be  well  sprung,  giving  ample  space  for  the  laying  on  of 
flesh.  Flat  ribbed  animals  are  to  be  avoided  in  that  they  give  a 
small  amount  of  the  high  priced  meat  included  in  the  short  rack. 
A  broad,  thick  loin  is  desired  in  order  to  be  in  keeping  with  the  back 
and  ribs  and  give  a  good  connection  between  the  heavily  developed 
hindquarters  or  leg  of  mutton  and  the  short  rack,  as  well  as  to  fur- 
nish a  large  amount  of  relatively  high  priced  meat.  Weak,  short, 
thin  loins  are  found  in  up-standing,  angular  individuals,  lacking 
depth  of  flesh  in  all  parts  of  the  body. 

Hindquarters — 16  per  cent. — The  hindquarters,  consisting  of 
the  hips,  rump,  thighs,  twist  and  legs  constitute  the  wholesale  mutton 
cut  known  as  the  leg  of  mutton.  The  value  of  this  part  to  the  butcher 
has  already  been  emphasized  by  pointing  out  the  fact  that  it  repre- 
sents over  43  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  carcass,  and  it  will  be 
readily  understood  why  an  individual  must  show  superior  develop- 
ment in  this  region  in  order  to  meet  with  favor.  The  hindquarters 
should  be  long  and  continue  straight  and  full  both  on  the  top  and 
side  lines.  Drooping  rumps  are  frequently  seen  and  are  most  unde- 
sirable whether  the  falling  away  is  toward  the  tail-head  or  down  the 
thighs.  The  sheep  should  be  especially  strong  from  the  hip  to  the 
hock.  Not  only  should  the  leg  of  mutton  be  plump  and  full  with 
flesh  on  the  outside,  but  between  the  legs,  in  the  twist,  the  flesh 


8BEE?  403 

should  fill  well  down  to  the  hock,  compelling  the  legs  to  stand  well 
apart.  When  grasping  the  leg  of  mutton,  a  decided  "plumpness 
should  be  found.  Thin  fleshed  le^  on  the  outside  and  a  high,  un- 
developed twist  often  occur,  giving  the  animal  a  leggy,  narrow  ap- 
pearance behind.  Such  are  undesirable  because  they  indicate  lack 
of  constitution  and  represent  such  a  large  proportion  of  the  carcass 
that  its  value  to  the  butcher  must  necessarily  be  low. 

Condition  or  Finish — 10  per  cent. — The  terms  quality  and  con- 
dition are  frequently  used  interchangeably  when  used  in  connec- 
tion with  fat  sheep  because  the  quality  of  flesh  is  largely  dependent 
upon  condition.  By  condition  is  meant  the  degree  of  fatness  and 
there  are  five  reasons  why  the  but<?her  demands  that  animals  be 
fat:  (1)  other  things  being  equal,  the  animal  will  dress  a  higher 
per  cent  of  edible  meat  to  offal  than  in  a  half  fat  or  thin 
animal;  (2)  fat  adds  to  the  appearance  of  the  meat  thus  making  it 
more  salable;  (3)  fat  carcasses  will  lose  less  in  weight  when  coolmg 
out  in  the  refrigerator  and  in  cooking;  (4)  the  keeping  and  curing 
qualities  of  the  fat  carcass  excel  those  of  the  thin  carcass;  (5)  when 
a  considerable  amount  of  fat  is  distributed  through  the  lean  meat 
the  edible  qualities  are  improved  meiking  it  more  tender,  juicy,  and 
of  better  flavor.  High  condition  is  indicated  by  a  deep,  even  cover- 
ing of  firm  flesh,  especially  in  the  regions  of  the  valuable  cuts. 
Points  showdng  ripeness  and  finish  are  a  thick  dock,  a  full,  mellow 
purse,  a  well  covered  back-bone,  thickness  and  smoothness  on  the 
back  and  shoulder,  fullness  at  the  neck  and  flanks,  and  a  plump,  well 
filled  breast.  Condition  is  a  very  important  consideration  and  is 
probably  emphasized  by  the  butcher  more  than  any  other  feature. 
It  is  impossible  to  tell  condition  by  merely  looking  at  the  sheep, 
hence  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  hands  freely  in  examining  the  points 
above  mentioned,  in  order  that  you  may  draw  conclusions  not  only 
of  the  degree  of  fatness  but  also  of  the  nature  and  quality  of  the 
flesh.  The  most  desirable  quality  of  flesh  is  indicated  by  firmness 
along  the  back,  at  the  loins,  over  the  sides  and  at  the  leg  of  mutton. 
Many  sheep  men  describe  this  firmness  as  being  hard  as  a  board 
but  the  novice  must  be  careful  that  he  does  not  mistake  bareness  or 
lack  of  flesh  for  this  hardness.  While  the  flesh  should  have  that 
firmness  which  would  impress  an  inexperienced  man  as  being  hard, 
it  should  have  enough  springiness  to  yield  lightly  to  the  touch.  The 
flesh  should  extend  well  down  over  the  sides,  without  softness  due  to 
excessive  fat  or  oily  tissue.  Then  too,  very  often  rough,  blubbery 
patches  will  be  present  about  the  tail-head.  These  are  very  objection- 
able in  that  they  are  entirely  waste  and  are  usually  associated  with 
carcasses  in  which  the  fat  and  lean  are  not  well  marbled,  thus  giving 
low  quality  meat. 

Quality — 10  Per  Cent. — Good  quality  is  indicated  by  medium 
sized,  lean,  clean-cut  head  and  ears;  fine,  dense  bone  of  medium  size; 
soft,  silky  hair  on  the  face,  ears,  and  legs ;  a  fine,  pink  colored,  mel- 
low skin  or  pelt;  and  a  smooth,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh.  Qual- 
ity is  important  because  it  is  usually  associated  with  ^^ood  breeding 
and  rapid  fattening  ability,  and  because  the  waste  is  always  leaa 


404  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

from  a  sheep  of  good  quality  than  it  is  from  one  of  inferior  quality. 
Lightness  rather  than  heaviness  of  pelt  is  desired  in  fat  sheep.  By 
pelt  is  meant  the  skin  and  wool  combined.  To  secure  a  pelt  of  light 
weight  the  skin  should  be  thin  and  free  from  folds  and  Tvoinkles, 
and  the  wool  should  be  abundant  but  not  too  oily.  Quality  is  usu- 
ally associated  with  style  and  breeding  and  is  an  evidence  of  refine- 
ment as  opposed  to  coarseness  and  grossness,  which  in  turn  are  ob- 
jectionable because  they  represent  a  high  degree  of  waste.  Quality 
is  very  essential  to  the  best  mutton  type,  as  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  it  is  given  10  per  cent,  on  the  score  card. 

Since  the  quality  of  the  flesh  and  skin  can  only  be  determined 
by  touch,  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  at  the  same  time  the  animal  is 
being  examined  for  form  and  condition.  General  quality  which  is 
indicated  by  the  features  of  the  head,  the  fineness  of  the  hair  and 
the  density  of  the  bone  is  determined  by  the  eye.  Coarseness,  gross- 
ness, and  sluggishness  which  are  indicated  by  a  heavy  rough  head, 
covered  by  coarse,  harsh  hair,  and  large,  coarse  ears;  a  thick,  wrin- 
kly skin  covered  with  coarse  wool;  a  large,  open  frame  and  heavy 
bone  and  rough  joints,  standing  on  long,  crooked  legs,  and  an  im- 
even  distribution  of  flesh,  detract  from  the  appearance  and  quality 
of  the  individual  and  should  be  discriminated  against  because  they 
add  to  the  waste  or  offal  and  materially  detract  from  the  value  of  the 
animal.  The  factors  which  determine  the  quantity  of  the  wool  are 
length  and  density,  and  the  evenness  in  both  over  all  parts  of  the 
body. 

Length. — This  is  an  important  feature  both  from  the  commer- 
cial point  of  view  and  from  the  shepherd's  standpoint.  The  manu- 
facturer of  woollen  goods  desires  a  short-stapled  wool,  for  such  has 
better  felting  qualities.  On  the  other  hand  the  manufacturer  of 
worsted  goods,  desires  length  of  staple  because  it  gives  a  yarn  of 
strong,  even  texture.  Other  things  being  equal,  a  long  staple,  will 
afford  more  protection  to  the  sheep.  By  density  is  meant  closeness 
of  the  fiber,  or  the  number  of  fibers  that  grow  on  a  square  inch.  A 
heavy  fleece  is  secured  by  density  and  such  a  fleece  affords  greater 
protection  to  the  sheep.  Quantity  is  further  increased  by  the  fleece 
being  of  uniform  length  and  density  all  over  the  body,  avoiding  un- 
even and  bare  points. 

Quality. — The  fleece  should  be  fine,  pure  and  soft,  with  a  close, 
regular  crimp,  and  should  be  of  uniform  quality  all  over.  Quality 
and  quantity  are  not  usually  found  together  in  their  highest  state 
of  development  in  the  same  types  or  breeds  and  the  shorter  fleeces 
are  usually  those  that  show  the  most  quality.  In  order  that  high 
grade  goods  may  be  manufactured  from  wools,  the  fibers  must  be 
soft  and  fine  and  of  uniform  texture.  By  the  crimp  is  meant  the 
wave  in  the  fiber.  The  crimp  should  be  regular  and  close  together, 
the  finer  quality  fleeces  usually  having  the  closest  crimp. 

Condition. — By  condition  is  meant  the  brightness  of  the  fleece, 
and  its  healthy  appearance.  It  should  be  clear,  soft  and  light,  being 
free  from  harshness  and  foreign  matter  such  as  dirt,  burrs,  and  hairy 
fibers.    The  amount  and  character  of  the  yolk,  grease,  or  oil  deter- 


SHEEP  405 

mines  to  a  great  extent,  the  condition.  Too  much  yolk  is  not  desired, 
but  a  sufficient  amount  is  necessary  to  give  the  fleece  a  soft  texture 
and  a  bright  lustre,  which  are  indicative  of  health.  The  skin  be- 
neath the  wool  should  be  of  a  bright  pink  color.  A  bluish  tint  is 
often  found  in  the  skin  but  should  be  discriminated  against  because 
it  may  indicate  lack  of  vigor  and  health. 

Vomparative  Judging. — The  foregoing  discussion  has  dealt  al- 
most exclusively  with  observations  on  and  descriptions  of  the  good 
and  bad  qualities  of  a  single  individual ;  also  methods  of  examination 
of  same.  It  has  taken  up  the  various  features  and  considered  them 
more  or  less  in  detail.  It  is  essential  to  become  familiar  with  all 
these  details  of  an  animal  before  a  fair  estimate  of  its  true  merit  can 
be  made.  The  work  so  far  has  been  a  study  of  the  ideal  and  a  detec- 
tion of  faults  and  deviations  from  the  standard  required.  In  other 
words,  the  work  has  consisted  of  accurate  observations,  which  is  an 
analysis  of  conformation,  quality,  condition,  etc.  In  actual  sheep 
judging,  however,  where  several  animals  are  brought  together  for 
the  judge  to  rate  and  place,  the  judge  must  balance  these  obser- 
vations already  made.  This  is  altogether  a  matter  of  comparison  and 
may  be  called  comparative  judging. 

In  the  show  ring,  the  judge  must  inspect  each  animal  sepa-^ 
rately,  then  make  a  draft  of  the  likely  winners,  by  considering,  bal- 
ancing and  comparing  each  of  the  main  points  separately  and  collec- 
tively, until  he  is  able  to  decide  which  animal,  on  the  average,  comes 
most  nearly  to  filling  all  the  requirements  of  the  standards  for  that 
class.  Such  animal  will  be  the  first  prize  winner,  the  next  best  will 
be  the  second  prize  winner,  and  so  on  until  all  the  animals  are  placed 
relative  to  their  respective  merit. 

In  doing  this  work  the  judge  keeps  uppermost  in  mind  the  more 
important  features  of  general  appearance,  style,  size,  and  conforma- 
tion, quality,  condition,  and  wool,  at  the  same  time,  keeping  in  mind 
that  these  features  include  collectively  all  details  which  he  considers 
may  be  made  necessary  by  the  presence  of  evenly  balanced  animals 
in  the  ring. 

Feeder  Sheep. — ^When  judging  feeder  sheep  always  keep  in 
mind  the  type  that  best  meets  the  demands  of  the  butcher.  The 
feeder  that  will  come  nearest  to  doing  this  when  fat  will  be  the  most 
profitable. 

Constitution  and  Form. — From  the  market  standpoint  the 
chest,  breast,  or  underline  require  little  consideration  but  in  the  view 
of  the  feeder,  these  points  are  of  great  importance.  To  be  profitable 
to  the  feeder,  a  sheep  must  have  a  vigorous  constitution,  be  able  to 
consume  a  large  amount  of  feed  and  transform  it  into  valuable  meat 
at  the  lowest  possible  cost.  These  characters  are  invariably  associated 
with  a  wide,  deep  chest,  good  depth  of  barrel,  and  well  spning  ribs 
to  give  ample  room  for  the  lungs,  heart,  and  digestive  organs.  Good 
size  is  desired  because  an  animal  is  wanted  that  will  attain  a  good 
weight  at  an  early  age.  A  short,  broad  head  with  fine  quality  ears, 
full,  bright  eyes,  open  nostrils,  strong  lips,  and  a  short,  thick  neck, 
deep  body  and  short  legs,  all  indicate  a  vigorous,  thrifty  animal 


406  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

which  will  give  a  good  return  for  feed  consumed  and  kill  out  a  valu- 
able carcass  of  mutton  when  fat. 

Quality. — Quality  is  indicated  in  the  feeder  in  the  same  way 
that  it  is  in  fat  sheep.  It  is  very  important  in  that  it  adds  to  the 
value  of  the  carcass  when  fat,  both  in  dressing  per  cent  and  the  edible 
quality  of  the  meat.  It  is  also  very  closely  associated  with  the  growth 
and  feeding  qualities  of  the  animal. 

Condition. — By  no  means  should  feeder  sheep  be  fat.  How- 
ever, the  better  type  show  fairly  straight,  full  outlines  because  they 
indicate  good  growth  and  a  rapid  feeding  tendency.  Then  too  the 
very  thin  lamb  is  not  likely  to  finish  in  a  normal  feeding  period  and 
is  less  likely  to  possess  the  thrift  and  constitutional  vigor  necessary 
to  make  fast  and  economical  gains  in  the  feed  lot.  The  animal  that 
carries  some  flesh  and  is  in  a  growthy  condition  is  preferred,  at  the 
same  price  per  pound,  to  the  very  thin  animal  because  dt  will  finish 
quicker  and  to  a  higher  degree  even  though  the  gains  per  day  are 
not  so  great. 

Breeding  Sheep. — All  the  marks  of  excellence  in  conformation, 
constitution,  and  quality,  that  are  required  in  butcher  and  feeder 
sheep,  are  just  as  important  in  the  breeding  classes.  Because  of  the 
action  and  workings  of  the  law  like  begets  like  you  cannot  expect  to 
raise  high  class  feeders  that  will  finish  into  high  grade  butcher  sheep 
from  an  inferior  lot  of  breeding  stuff. 

Besides  the  above  mentioned  requisites,  special  attention  must 
be  given  to  breed  type  and  sex  characters.  Then  too,  greater  empha- 
sis must  be  placed  on  the  character  of  the  fleece,  the  color  of  the  skin, 
and  the  constitutional  vigor  and  thrift  of  breeding  sheep,  for  with- 
out such  qualities  all  excellence  of  form,  quality,  ete.,  will  avail 
nothing  if  the  animal  is  not  strong  enough  to  transmit  these  good 
features  to  its  offspring.  Straight,  strong  legs,  set  well  apart,  with 
strong  pasterns,  are  also  very  necessary  to  the  general  health  and 
utility  for  breeding  purposes. 

The  Ewe. — When  judging  the  ewe  from  the  breeding  stand- 
point it  should  be  remembered  that  she  must  possess  not  only  the 
requisites  of  the  fat  sheep  in  general  form  and  quality,  and  the  con- 
stitutional vigor  and  feeding  and  fleshing  qualities  of  the  feeder,  but 
she  must  also  possess  all  those  characters  that  indicate  a  long-lived 
regular,  and  prepotent  breeder.  To  insure  a  long  life  and  regularity 
in  breeding,  the  ewe  should  be  rugged  in  constitution,  of  good  form, 
sound  in  mouth  and  udder,  and  bear  an  abundant  fleece  of  healthy 
wool.  In  addition  to  this  she  should  have  a  strong  maternal  nature 
and  feminine  appearance.  This  is  indicated  by  rather  fine  features 
about  the  head,  a  slender  neck  as  compared  to  that  of  the  ram,  es- 
pecially deep,  round  ribs,  with  a  rather  long,  capacious  body  to  pro- 
vide room  for  the  developing  fetus.  The  ewe  that  will  milk  well  and 
rear  early  maturing  lambs,  tends  towards  the  wedge  shape,  being 
deeper  in  the  chest,  larger  bodied,  and  wider  across  the  loin  and  hips 
than  the  ram.  She  should  not  carry  excessive  fat.  The  flesh  should 
be  firm  and  evenly  distributed,  and  not  gathered  in  blubbery  patches 
about  the  tail-head. 


SHEEP  4ffl 

Ewes  should  adhere  very  closely  to  the  type  of  the  'breed  to 
which  they  belong,  possessing  in  a  marked  degree  all  the  breed  chaiy 
actcrs  that  are  laid  down  in  the  standards  of  the  breed  association. 
Such  ewes  give  e\idence  of  purity  of  breeding  through  several  gen- 
erations  along  definite  lines  for  a  definite  purpose,  having  the  breed 
characters  so  fixed  as  to  be  uniformly  transmitted  to  the  offspring. 

Rough  ewes  with  plain,  heavy  heads  and  necks,  lacking  in  gen- 
eral refinement  and  feminine  appearance  are  rarely  satisfactory 
breeders.  On  the  other  hand,  short,  shallow  bodied  ewes  with  nar- 
row hindquarters  and  an  undersized,  stunted  appearance  should  also 
be  avoided  for  they  lack  the  necessary  breeding  essentials  of  size, 
form,  quality  and  constitutional  vigor  as  pointed  out  above. 

The  Ram. — The  ram  is  the  head  of  the  flock  and  might  well 
be  called  half  of  it.  Type  and  breed  characters  are  the  first  con- 
siderations in  judging  a  ram.  He  should  be  a  pure-bred  and  possess, 
to  a  high  degree,  all  the  characters  of  the  breed  to  which  he  belongs, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  ewe,  because  this  indicates  prepotency.  He 
should  have  plenty  of  size,  and  as  opposed  to  the  ewe,  have  a  strongly 
developed  forehand  and  a  decidedly  masculine  appearance,  indicated 
by  general  burliness  of  the  head,  thickness  of  neck,  general  mas- 
siveness,  with  a  bold,  energetic  outlook,  a  bright,  clear  eye,  much 
quality,  and  a  brisk  movement,  denoting  vim  and  vigor.  He  should 
have  widely  distended  nostrils,  a  thick,  heavy  loin,  twist  and  crops, 
broad,  full  chest  and  brisket,  a  level,  strong  back,  hips  well  laid  in,  a 
straight,  deep,  level  flank,  and  a  fine,  long,  dense  fleece  of  good  qual- 
ity. Such  a  ram  will  leave  his  impress  indelibly  on  the  offspring. 
An  effeminate  ram  is  a  decided  objection  because  he  usually  lacks 
prepotency  and  is  rarely  a  sure  and  strong  breeder. 

The  Merino  or  Fine-Wool  Type  of  Sheep. — The  purpose  of  the 
Merino  or  fine-wool  sheep  is  essentially  different  from  that  of  the 
mutton  type.  The  former  is  bred  almost  exclusively  for  its  wool 
while  the  latter  is  bred  principally  for  mutton  with  the  wool  as  a  sec- 
ondary consideration.  The  general  conformation  of  the  Merino  may 
be  compared  to  that  of  dairy  cattle.  It  lacks  fullness  of  breast, 
breadth  of  back,  and  general  thickness  throughout,  with  a  leg  of 
mutton  that  lacks  fullness,  and  has  a  rather  long  neck  and  legs.  An 
angular,  muscular  development  of  the  entire  body  prevails  rather 
than  the  smoothness  and  heavy  fleshing  of  the  mutton  type.  How- 
ever, the  head  is  short  and  should  be  broad  at  the  muzzle,  with  large 
nostrils;  the  nose  short  and  inclined  to  be  wrinkled,  and  somewhat 
Roman  shaped  in  the  ram.  Horns  occur  on  most  males  of  the  fine 
wool  type  and  on  the  females  of  some  breeds.  They  have  a  more  or 
less  cork  screw  shape  and  should  have  a  waxy,  dense  texture  denoting 
quality.  The  neck  is  rather  lon^  and  thin  in  the  ewe  but  should 
show  decided  strength  and  masculmity  in  the  ram  with  more  or  lesa 
throatiness.  Although  the  shoulders  are  narrow  they  tend  to  be 
prominent  wuth  sharp  withers.  The  breast  and  chest  are  narrow  but 
should  gain  capacity  by  depth.  Crooked  legs  coming  together  at 
the  knees,  with  the  toes  spread  out  are  objectionable,  indicating  as 
they  do  a  narrow  chest.    The  body  usually  carries  a  narrow  back  and 


408  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

flat  rib.  The  ribs  should  be  long  to  give  ample  feeding  and  breeding 
capacity.  The  sheep  is  usually  inclined  to  be  droopy  and  narrow 
behind  with  a  thin  leg  of  mutton  carrying  a  small  amount  of  flesh. 
The  head  and  neck,  forequarters  and  body  are  given  about  the  same 
rating  on  the  score  card  for  both  the  mutton  and  fine-wool  types. 
However,  the  hindquarters  are  given  only  eight  per  cent  for  the  fine- 
wool  type  as  compared  to  16  per  cent  or  double  the  amount  for  the 
mutton.  This  is  readily  understood  when  we  consider  that  it  is  in 
the  leg  that  we  get  the  greatest  amount  and  the  highest  priced  meat  in 
the  mutton  type,  and  that  meat  is  of  little  importance  in  fine-wools. 

Wool. — Since  the  wool  is  the  principal  source  of  income  from 
the  Merino  sheep,  it  must  be  given  special  consideration.  It  is  the 
most  important  factor  in  the  true  Merino  type.  When  judging  a 
ring  of  fine-wools  almost  half  the  rating  is  based  on  the  fleece.  The 
score  card  gives  the  wool  a  value  of  45  per  cent  in  the  Merino  aa 
compared  to  only  12  per  cent  in  the  mutton  type.  The  wool  of 
the  Merino  is  shorter  than  in  the  mutton  type,  but  it  is  very  thick 
over  the  entire  body,  carrying  well  down  on  the  face  and  legs  and 
is  remarkably  fine  in  quality,  having  a  very  close  crimp  and  an 
exceedingly  soft  texture.  The  yolk  is  abundant  and  gives  the  sheep 
a  dirty  and  oily  appearance  because  it  collects  and  holds  dust  and 
foreign  particles.  Many  sheep  of  this  type  possess  folds  on  the  neck 
and  shoulders,  and  in  some  cases  they  appear  on  the  body  and  thighs, 
affording  more  area  for  the  growth  of  the  wool. — (Ind.  Circ.  29.) 

Live  Stock  Improvement. — The  quickest,  cheapest,  and  surest 
method  of  live  stock  improvement  is  up-grading.  By  this  is  meant 
the  mating  of  the  common  grade  stock  of  the  farm  with  a  pure-bred 
sire.  It  is  not  practicable  nor  possible  to  replace  all  the  live  stock 
of  the  farms  of  Indiana  with  pure-breds,  for  less  than  two  and 
one-half  per  cent  of  the  live  stock  of  the  state  is  registered.  It  is 
possible,  however,  and  would  be  highly  profitable,  to  replace  all  the 
grade,  cross-bred,  and  scrub  males  which  are  being  used  as  sires, 
with  males  which  possess  the  breeding  that  will  insure  improvement. 

Up-grading  is  economical  because  the  sire  mates  with  the  entire 
female  herd,  while  the  influence  of  the  female  is  limited  to  a  few. 
The  well-worn  expression,  "the  sire  is  half  the  herd,"  is  more  than 
true.  The  influence  of  the  sire  extends  to  all  the  offspring  produced. 
Since  the  sire  is  pure  in  breeding,  the  young  will  resemble  the  sire 
more  than  the  dam ;  i.  e.,  the  pure-bred  sire  is  prepotent  over  the 
dam.  It  requires  nearly  as  much  feed  to  keep  a  poor  animal  as  it 
does  a  good  one.  The  annual  cost  of  maintenance  is  practically  the 
same.  The  greater  cost  of  the  pure-bred  sire  over  the  scrub  is  more 
than  returned  by  the  increased  market  value  of  his  first  crop  of  off- 
spring. 

The  rate  of  improvement  in  up-grading  is  rapid  and  certain. 
The  first  cross  with  a  pure-bred  sire  produces  an  animal  that  is  one- 
half  pure.  When  this  animal  is  mated  with  a  pure-bred  sire  the 
offspring  is  three-fourths  pure.  The  third  cross  produces  a  seven- 
eighths  pure-bred,  or  a  very  high  grade,  and  the  next,  an  animal 
which  is  fifteen-sixteenths  pure.     For  market  purposes,  the  high 


SHEEP  m 

graxle  is  practically  the  equal  of  the  pure-bred.  Though  good  in  in- 
dividuality, he,  however,  is  unreliable  as  a  sire.  The  problems  of  live 
stock  improvement  very  largely  center  upon  the  selection  of  the  sire. 

Selecting  the  Sire. — Since  the  sire  must  be  largely  depended 
upon  as  the  source  of  improved  breeding,  his  selection  should  be  in- 
telligently and  carefully  considered.  Since  his  influence  is  equal  to 
the  influence  of  the  entire  female  herd  or  flock  taken  collectively, 
his  selection  is  the  most  vital  consideration  of  live  stock  improve- 
ment. 

Performance. — The  first  essential  of  the  sire  is  that  he  possess 
the  ability  to  transmit  his  characters  regularly  and  surely.  It  is  the 
most  fundamental  quality  of  the  sire.  Due  to  the  fact,  also,  that  it  is 
the  most  common  and  conspicuous  weakness,  it  is  of  first  importance. 

The  only  reliable  test  of  fertile,  prepotent  breeding  powers  is 
actual  perforTnance.  The  appearance  of  the  sire  as  an  individual,  par- 
ticularly his  masculinity  and  vigor  of  disposition,  and  the  character 
of  the  animals  in  his  pedigree,  are  considered  as  general  indications 
of  breeding  ability,  but  they  should  never  be  relied  upon  when  the 
actual  performance  record  is  available.  For  this  reason  tested  sires 
are  much  more  reliable  than  sires  of  immature  age.  A  fuller  appre- 
ciation of  this  fact  on  the  part  of  the  breeder  will  not  only  prevent 
further  sacrifice  of  promising  sires  just  approaching  the  period  of 
their  greatest  usefulness,  but  will  greatly  conserve  and  extend  the 
service  of  those  sires  whose  breeding  qualities  have  been  demon- 
strated. In  buying  a  sire,  therefore,  the  character  and  uniformity  of 
his  get  should  be  considered  of  first  importance  and  the  most  reliable 
single  guide  to  his  future  breeding  powers.  Performance  is  the  only 
real  test  of  value. 

Individuality. — ^The  second  consideration  in  buying  or  select- 
ing a  sire  is  his  individuality.  He  should  be  a  good  individual.  By 
this  we  mean  that  he  possess  the  size,  form  and  quality  which  indi- 
cate strong  constitution,  thrifty  growing  and  feeding  capacity  in  the 
off'spring,  and  in  addition,  insure  the  production  of  the  sort  of  ani- 
mal which  sells  best  on  the  market.  He  should  be  strong  in  mascu- 
linity and  vigorous  in  appearance,  for  manv  believe  that  they  reflect 
fertile  breeding  powers  and  prepotency,  'the  ultimate  test,  for  ex- 
ample, of  the  beef  sire  for  up-grading  is  the  character  of  the  mar- 
ket steers  he  is  able  to  get;  the  ultimate  test  of  the  stallion  is  the 
serviceability  and  market  value  of  the  geldings  which  he  produces. 
In  addition  to  posseting  these  fundamental  requirements,  the  pure- 
bred sire  should  possess  the  characters  of  the  breed  to  which  he  be- 
longs, such  as  size,  peculiarities  of  color,  form,  shape  of  head,  and  set 
of  horn,  etc.,  i.  e.,  his  breed  type  characters  should  be  strongly  rep- 
resented. When  typical  of  a  breed,  we  have  good  reason  to  expect 
his  breeding  to  be  more  desirable  than  that  of  the  individual  lack- 
ing the  characters  of  a  breed. 

Individuality  means  everything  about  the  animal  which  can  be 
seen  with  the  eye  or  felt  with  the  hand.  Indi\ndualitv  is  entirely 
depended  upon  by  the  judge  in  placing  a  class  of  animals  in  the 
show  ring.    In  bujdng  a  sire,  however,  we  should  not  depend  upon 


410  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

individuality  alone,  for  sometimes  individuals  which  are  good 
enough  to  exhibit  in  the  show  ring  prove  disappointing  as  breeders. 
•'Like  produces  like"  only  within  very  wide  limits,  and  so  individu- 
ality should  be  supplemented,  when  possible,  by  performance  and 
pedigree. 

Pedigree. —  The  third  essential  of  the  pure-bred  sire  is  that  he 
have  a  good  pedigree.  A  pedigree  is  simply  the  record  of  an  ani- 
mal's ancestry.  Besides  the  names  of  the  sire  and  dam,  and  grand- 
sires  and  grandams,  etc.,  it  usually  includes  also  the  color  and  date 
of  birth  of  each  animal,  and  the  names  of  the  breeders.  A  pedigree 
in  itself  is  not  a  guarantee  of  merit,  for  all  pure-bred  animals  may 
have  recorded  pedigrees.  The  most  important  thing  in  studjdng  a 
pedigree,  is  to  learn  of  the  merit  of  each  animal  as  a  breeder  and 
as  an  individual  appearing  in  the  immediate  ancestry.  If  the  im- 
mediate parents  were  good  individuals  and  the  grandparents  were 
uniformly  good,  we  have  good  reason  for  calling  it  a  good  pedigree. 
If  we  add  to  this,  good  animals  of  the  third  and  of  the  fourth  gen- 
erations we  have  a  still  stronger  guarantee  of  merit.  Uniformity  of 
individuality  in  the  pedigree  usually  means  similarity  of  blood  lines, 
and  this  usually  means  strong,  prepotent  breeding  powers  for  the 
animal  under  consideration.  The  most  essential  feature  of  a  good 
pedigree  is  good  individuality  in  the  immediate  ancestry. 

Summary. — In  buying  a  sire,  therefore,  performance,  or  actual 
breeding  ability,  should  be  considered  of  first  importance.  Individ- 
uality is  second  in  importance  and  a  most  reliable  guide  to  merit  for 
persons  unfamiliar  with  pedigrees,  or  when  the  animal  is  too  young 
to  have  been  tested.  Thirdly,  a  knowledge  of  the  individual  should 
be  supplemented  by  a  knowledge  of  the  pedigree.  When  good  indi- 
viduality is  supported  by  a  good  pedigree  we  have  the  strongest 
possible  quarantee  of  good  performance. — (Ind.  Cir.  29.) 

Authorities  Consulted. — Sheep  Breeding. — ^Ag.  Dept.  F.  B.  49 
N.  Dak.  B.  28;  S.  Dak.  B.  55,  71,  80;  Utah  B.  82;  Mont.  B.  47 
Mich.  B.  220;  Wyo.  B.  69;  N.  H.  B.  152;  Ariz.  Timely  Hints  84 
Minn.  B.  59;  Ind.  B.  147;  la.  B.  63;  Wyo.  B.  51;  Okla.  B.  78 
Minn.  B.  78;  Mo.  Cir.  25;  Nev.  B.  51,  55. 

Woo?.— Mich.  State  Ag.  Col.  E.  S.  B.  178;  Ag.  Dept.  Kept,  on 
Wool,  1886;  Wyo.  21st  An.  Kept.;  Treasury  Dept.  Kept.  Wool  & 
Mfgs.  of  Wool,  1894. 

Early  Lambs.— Colo.  State  Ag.  Col.  E.  S.  B.  52;  N.  Y.  Cornell 
B.  88. 

Fattening  Range  Lambs.— Ohio  A.  E.  S.  B.  179;  S.  Dak.  B.  86; 
Wyo.  B.  64,  68;  Minn.  B.  59;  Ohio  B.  179,  187;  Minn.  B.  57. 

Feeding  Lambs.— Utah  A.  E.  S.  B.  78;  S.  Dak.  B.  80;  Utah  B. 
78;  N.  Mex.  B.  50;  Wyo.  B.  73,  81,  79;  N.  H.  B.  152,  85;  Colo.  B. 
76,  75;  Minn.  B.  75;  Mont.  B.  35;  Minn.  B.  59;  Colo.  B.  151;  N. 
Mex.  B.  79;  Mass.  B.  37,  43;  Wyo.  B.  89,  51,  47;  Minn.  B.  44;  Ag. 
Dept.  0.  E.  S.  Vol.  4,  No.  6;  N.  Y.,  Cornell,  B.  47. 

Breeds  of  Sheep. — An.  Rept.  of  Sec'y  of  Ag.  for  Prov.  of  Nova 
Scotia,  1907;  La.  B.  74. 


Mutton  Cuts  Located  on  Live  Stock,    i,  2,  Saddle.  3,  4,  5,  Rack,     i,  2,  3,  Long 
Saddle,    i,  Leg.    2,  Loin.    3,  Short  Rack.    4,  Breast.    5,  Chuck.    4,  5,  Stew. 


Shropshire  Ram. 


SHEEP  413 

ANGORA  GOATS. 

In  keeping  goats  on  a  large  scale  it  is  not  alone  the  skins  and 
fleeces  which  enter  into  the  account  of  profit,  although  they  form 
the  chief  part — the  flesh,  tallow,  bones  and  homs  constitute  an  item 
of  considerable  importance.  In  some  countries  the  production  of 
milk  is  quite  important,  and  so  available  is  the  goat  as  a  dairy  ani- 
mal that  she  is  called  "the  poor  man's  cow."  A  female  goat  is  rel- 
atively one  of  the  most  profitable  of  domestic  animals. 

The  goat  readily  adapts  itself  to  a  great  variety  of  soils,  cli- 
mates and  conditions. 

There  is  hardly  a  State  in  the  Union  where  Angora  goats  can 
not  be  raised  advantageously  if  properly  cared  for  (which,  of  course, 
has  to  vary  according  to  the  local  conditions).  They  have  done 
well  in  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Illinois,  and  other  Northern 
States.  Whether  in  those  States  they  will  do  as  well  under  a  herder 
has  yet  to  be  learned.  The  excellence  of  winter  pastures  is  more 
important  where  herded  than  where  they  are  kept  within  fences 
in  but  small  numbers  and  easily  taken  care  of  in  winter.  But 
south  of  the  Ohio  River  they  should  do  well  everywhere,  both  on 
farms  and  ranches. 

As  to  the  South^  and  e^ecially  its  rough,  elevated  regions,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  its  suitability  to  the  Angora,  and  therefore  even 
more  to  the  common  or  short-haired  goat,  both  in  climate  and  food. 
Mr.  J.  T.  Henderson,  commissioner  of  agriculture  of  Georgia,  in  hia 
annual  report,  states: 

"Experiments  in  the  raising  and  keeping  of  the  Angora  ^at 
in  these  mountain  pastures  are  making  a  very  favorable  impression. 
It  is  thought,  with  some  reason,  that  this  particular  branch  of  stock 
raising  may  be  easily  carried  to  a  very  large  and  important  develop- 
ment in  our  mountain  counties.  The  adaptedness  of  this  locality  to 
the  raising  and  support  of  the  Angora  has  been  so  marked  that  those 
accustomed  to  the  care  of  this  valuable  animal  are  sanguine  that  we 
shall  see  in  the  near  future  a  very  important  source  of  profit  in  this 
branch  of  industry.  *  *  *  It  is  hardly  possible  that  the  native 
habitat  of  the  Angora  is  better  adapted  to  its  keep  and  development 
than  are  the  mountain  counties  of  this  State." 

Land  can  be  cleared  of  the  worst  brush  known  to  this  country 
for  a  little  less  than  nothing  by  Angora  goats.  Some  one  asks  how. 
•Simply  this:  Angora  goats  will  pay  a  profit  and  live  on  leaves  and 
weeds,  leaving  the  land  cleaner  and  nicer  than  can  be  done  in  any 
other  W'ay.  Many  persons  have  the  idea  that  goats  bark  the  trees 
and  in  that  way  kill  them.  They  also  think  that  goats  wholly  eat 
the  hazel  and  other  small  brush.  There  is  nothing  in  this.  Goats 
are  no  worse  to  bark  trees  of  any  kind  than  sheep.  The  way  in 
which  goats  kill  brush  is  by  continually  cropping  the  leaves,  which 
serve  as  the  lungs  of  the  brush.  The  continued  cropping  of  the 
leaves  makes  the  brush,  as  it  were,  sick,  caused  by  lack  of  nourish- 
ment. This  sickness  sinks  to  the  very  extremity  of  the  roots,  thus 
preventing  sprouting.  Any  and  all  kinds  of  bnash  are  in  this  way 
easily  killed.    Some  kinds  of  brush  and  some  kinds  of  stumps  are 


414  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

of  course  much  harder  to  kill  than  others.  Many  varieties  are  en- 
tirely killed  by  one  summer's  trimming  of  the  leaves.  Almost  any 
are  killed  by  two  years'  trimming.  To  clear  the  worst  brush  do  not 
cut  anything  that  the  goats  can  reach  or  bend.  The  tallest  or  largest 
is  better  not  cut.  All  trees  and  saplings  should  be  cut,  and  the 
goats  will  keep  all  the  sprouts  down.  If  stumps  are  allow^ed  to  sprout 
one  year  before  the  goats  are  turned  in,  the  sprouts  need  not  be  cut. 
About  200  goats  for  40  acres  of  brush  will  in  two  or  three  years 
make  the  land  as  clean  as  a  garden.  If  the  pasture  has  only  patches 
of  brush,  turn  in  a  few  goats  and  it  will  make  more  grass  for  other 
stock  than  if  the  goats  were  not  in.  They  eat  very  little  grass  when 
they  can  get  leaves.  Goats  even  like  weeds  better  than  grass.  In 
clearing  brush  land  in  the  old  way  by  grub  and  plow  there  are  al- 
w^ays  left  many  eyesores  in  the  way  of  brushy  nooks  and  bends  and 
steep  places  which  can  not  be  plowed. 

Pasturing  With  Other  Stock. — So  far  as  the  goats  themselves 
are  concerned,  they  may  be  kept  in  the  pastures  where  there  are 
sheep,  cattle,  and  horses.  Their  presence  is  in  no  way  obnoxious  to 
any  of  these  animals.  A  few  of  them  in  a  flock  of  sheep  are  a  pro- 
tection against  dogs.  However,  it  is  not  best  for  the  goats  that  they 
be  kept  in  pastures  with  horses.  This  is  especially  important  if  there 
are  kids,  as  the  horses  have  a  habit  of  playfully  chasing  any  animal 
that  is  not  large  enough  to  defend  itself,  and  they  are  apt  to  strike, 
the  kids. 

Age  for  Breeding. — Goats  of  both  sexes  will  sometimes  breed 
when  they  are  5  months  old,  and  often  at  6  months,  but  from  the 
fact  that  they  are  at  this  age  but  a  month  or  two  from  weaning  time 
and  are  not  nearly  full  grown,  it  is  obvious  that  they  should  not  be 
permitted  to  breed.  They  reach  maturity  when  about  16  or  18 
months  old,  and  they  ought  not  to  breed  before  this  time.  If  bred 
earlier  the  kids  w411  not  be  so  strong  or  so  well  developed.  The  goats 
are  in  their  prime  when  from  2  to  6  years  old,  but  with  proper  feed- 
ing in  winter  they  have  been  known  to  breed  regularly  until  15  years 
old.  The  average  life  of  goats,  however,  is  about  12  yeai"3.  There 
should  be  no  tendency  to  keep  does  until  they  are  very  old  unless 
they  bring  kids  of  exceptional  merit,  for  it  must  be  remembered 
that  their  mohair  gets  coarser,  and  consequently  less  valuable,  as 
they  grow  older. 

Mohair. — The  word  mohair  is  the  technical  and  commercial 
name  for  the  fleece  of  the  Angora  goat,  which  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  fabrics.  The  word  comes  to  us,  through  the  old  French 
mohere,  from  the  Arabic  mukhayyar,  meaning  goat's-hair  cloth. 

The  fleece  upon  the  goat  is  pure  white,  is  exceedingly  lustrous, 
and  grows  to  an  average  length  of  10  inches  annually.  It  hangs  in 
beautiful  wavy  curls,  or  ringlets,  from  all  parts  of  the  ^odj,  if  the 
animal  is  of  the  best  breeding.  The  average  annual  production  of 
mohair  is  about  4  pounds  a  head.  The  grade  of  the  goat  has  much 
to  do  with  the  weight  of  the  fleece.  The  firet  cross  of  an  Angora  buck 
upon  a  common  doe  gives  but  a  small  amount  of  mohair,  but  the  in- 
crease in  quantity  is  noticeable  as  the  crosses  become  higher. 


■p 


I 


SHEEP  415 

Feed  and  care  have  a  great  influence  upon  the  weight  and  fine- 
ness of  the  fleece.  If  goats  are  exposed  to  sudden  changes  of  weather 
the  effect  is  shown  in  the  fleece.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  States 
where  the  climate  is  dry  and  the  soil  is  distinctly  alkaline  the  natural 
yolk  disappears  from  the  mohair,  leaving  it  dry,  fetid,  and  harsh. 
The  fiber  becomes  coarser  as  an  animal  grows  older.  The  best  fiber 
'grows  upon  goats  of  the  best  blood,  and  among  these  that  upon  kids, 
yearling  wethers,  and  does,  in  the  order  named,  is  preferred.  The 
best  fiber  is  usually  very  curly,  or,  rather,  in  ringlets,  but  not  kinky. 
It  loses  its  curl  and  becomes  thinner,  coarser,  and  straighter  as  the 
animal  grows  older. —  (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  137.) 

MILCH   GOATS. 

The  present  situation  regarding  the  milch  goat  industry  in  the 
United  States  is  confined  largely  to  an  awakening  interest,  although 
there  are  now  some  communities  of  foreigners  wnere  a  considerable 
number  of  goats  are  kept  for  mjlk,  and  the  kids  being  fitted  for 
slaughter. 

So  far  as  we  can  apply  the  leading  features  of  the  milch  goat  in- 
dustry of  Europe  to  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  United  States, 
it  can  be  said  that  the  goat  is  needed  by  the  poor  man  who  can  not 
afford  to  keep  a  cow,  and  by  those  people  especially  who  live  in  the 
suburbs  of  the  large  cities  and  those  who  work  in  the  mining  dis- 
tricts. Dairies  should  also  be  conducted  according  to  approved  mod- 
ern methods,  so  that  a  constant  supply  of  milk  may  be  had  for  sick 
people  and  for  children  whose  mothers  do  not  properly  nourish 
them.  These  are  matters  of  such  importance  that  German  writers, 
referring  to  the  industry  in  their  own  country,  say  that  the  milch 
goat  in  its  later  development  has  done  great  service  to  the  state,  in 
that  it  supplies  a  want  which  before  caused  great  unrest  among  the 
peasantry. 

In  Germany  the  goat  plays  the  part  in  the  households  of  poorer 
people,  especially  of  the  day  laborers,  that  the  cow  does  in  the  house- 
holds of  the  well-to-do  classes.  Hoffmann  says  that  the  proportion 
of  households  in  Germany  that  keep  goats  is  75  per  cent,  and  that 
the  keeping  is  not  confined  to  the. poorer  people,  but  that  the  pros- 
perous middle  classes  consider  the  goat  of  advantage  to  them  also. 

It  furnishes  to  its  owner,  without  doubt,  the  best  milk  for  nour- 
ishing infants,  for  the  household,  for  the  cooking  of  food,  and  for 
coffee,  besides  butter  and  cheese.  When  one  considers  that  it  very 
often  depends  solely  on  the  milk  production  of  the  goat  whether  the 
nutrition  of  the  child  and  the  whole  family  is  bad  or  good,  and  the 
nutrition  from  infancy  on  has  a  bearing  on  the  ability  to  perform 
a  greater  or  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  work  in  later  life,  then 
one  will  believe  me  when  I  say  that  the  goat  is  in  a  position  to  wield 
a  great  influence  in  su.staining  life. 

Yield  of  Milk. — The  first  question  that  most  people  ask  concern- 
ing this  industry  is,  "How  much  milk  will  a  goat  give?"  A  mo- 
ment's reflection  is  sufficient  to  convince  one  that  this  question  can 
not  be  given  a  definite  answer.  Such  matters  as  the  healthfulness  of 
the  animals,  the  character  of  feed,  the  regularity  of  feeding,  the  kind 


416  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

of  breed,  the  age  of  the  animal,  etc.,  have  an  important  bearing  upon 
the  quantity  of  milk  produced. 

A  doe  that  yields  less  than  a  quart  a  day  is  not  considered  a 
good  milker;  if  she  yields  two  quarts  a  day  she  may  be  regarded  as 
profitable,  provided  lactation  may  be  maintained  six  or  seven  months. 
Pegler  says  that  a  doe  yielding  3  pints  a  day  with  her  first  kid  ''need 
not  be  set  aside  as  an  indifferent  animal,  as  she  will,  in  all  probabil- 
ity, give  twice  that  quantity  on  subsequent  occasions."  The  German 
literature  is  full  of  instances  of  goats  that  yield  4  and  5  quarts  per 
day,  and  it  appears  that  the  average  in  Germany  and  Switzerland 
must  be  not  far  from  3  quarts. 

Goats  Not  Worried  by  Dogs. — Dogs  do  not  worry  goats  to  the 
extent  that  they  do  sheep ;  but  the  failing  is  not  with  the  dogs.  The 
goat  is  better  able  to  take  care  of  itself  and  is  more  inclined  to  do  so. 
However,  it  will  never  be  entirely  safe  to  expose  kids  where  there  are 
worthless  curs  in  the  neighborhood,  for  this  is  the  class  of  dogs  that 
usually  worries  sheep.  It  is  not  often  that  a  well-fed  dog  of  good 
blood  is  guilty  of  worrying  sheep.  Kids  are  not  able  to  take  care  of 
themselves.  Grown  goats  will  offer  fight,  and  a  sheep-killing  dog 
never  wants  to  encounter  any  other  animal  that  fights;  and  yet  a 
hungry  dog  may  do  considerable  damage  to  a  goat  that  offers  fight. 
Whoever  is  familiar  with  the  common  goats  that  are  so  often  found 
about  livery  stables  has  observed  that  dogs  always  give  the  goat  the 
right  of  way;  these  goats  have  been  trained  to  fight,  and  this  has 
made  them  masters.  A  goat  does  not  need  much  training  to  make 
him  fight  a  dog,  and  this  little  should  be  given  to  a  buck  for  the 
benefit  of  the  whole  flock.— (Dep.  Agr.  Bu.  An.  Ind.  B.  68.) 


PART  IV 

BREEDS  OF  SWINE. 

THE  majority  of  the  present  breeds  of  hogs  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  originated  in  Great  Britain.  It  has  been 
the  custom  to  divide  them  into  white  and  black  breeds,  and 
into  lard  and  bacon  types.  These  are  divisions  adopted  in 
the  markets  and  should  be  known  and  considered  by  all  growers. 

The  Berkshire. — Color — Black,  and,  like  the  Poland-China,  has 
six  white  points,  viz.,  on  feet,  face,  and  tip  of  tail.  The  face  is  short 
to  medium  in  length,  and  gracefully  dished,  and  the  ears  are  erect, 
or  slightly  inclined  forward.  The  back  is  level  and  of  moderate 
breadth,  with  considerable  length  of  side.  The  cheek,  or  jowl,  is 
full ;  the  shoulder  of  medium  thickness  and  breadth ;  the  ham  is  deep 
and  thick,  extending  well  up  to  the  body  and  down  to  the  hock;  the 
leg  is  medium  to  short,  straight  and  strong,  and  widely  set  apart. 
The  bone  is  of  fair  quality. 

Although  the  Berkshire  is  classed  as  belonging  to  the  fat  or  lard 
type,  it  is  generally  considered  as  a  medium  between  the  lard  and  the 
bacon  types  of  swine. 

The  breed  seems  to  be  able  to  adapt  itself  to  almost  any  environ- 
ment, as  it  is  found  being  successfully  raised  in  the  warmer  sections 
of  the  South  and  Southwest,  as  well  as  in  the  more  northerly  parts  of 
the  country.  The  early-maturing  qualities  of  the  Berkshire  are 
classed  as  good;  and  as  a  grazer,  it  ranks  high. 

Pigs  at  6  months  old  should  readily  weigh  175  pounds,  and  at 
one  year  about  300  pounds.  For  grading  purposes,  the  value  of  the 
Berkshire  is  very  good. — (La.  B.  124.) 

The  Berkshire  breed  is  one  of  the  old  and  well-established  lard 
types  of  hogs.  In  form  they  are  long,  broad,  deep,  and  low.  They 
are  much  shorter  on  their  legs  and  have  a  shorter  head  and  neck  and 
a  better  developed  ham  than  the  bacon  tj^pe.  While  the  back  of  the 
Berkshire  is  broader  than  that  of  the  hogs  of  the  bacon  types,  still  it 
is  not  as  broad  as  that  of  the  Poland-China.  The  modem  Berkshire 
breeders  are  working  for  a  back  medium  in  width  and  for  a  side  long 
and  deep  and  free  from  wrinkles.  They  are  admirably  suited  to  the 
South.  They  are  good  rustlers,  fatten  at  almost  any  age,  and  cross 
well  with  the  inferior  hogs  of  the  country.  The  quality  of  the  meat 
is  good,  also.  While  they  are  relatively  strong  in  breeding  qualities, 
still  they  are  not  as  good  breeders  as  the  Yorkshires,  Tamworths,  or 
Duroc-Jersevs.  They  are,  however,  more  prolific  than  the  Poland- 
Chinas.— (F.  B.  411.) 

The  Berkshires  lose  less  in  dressing  than  most  other  breeds,  al- 
though a  greater  proportion  of  their  dressed  weight  consists  of  fat, 

417      - 


418  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

which  is  better  for  making  lard  than  for  table  use.    The  sows  are  pro- 
lific and  good  mothers.— (F.  B.  100.) 

The  Poland-China. — Color — Black,  with  six  white  points,  viz., 
feet,  face,  and  tip  of  tail.  The  face  is  straight  or  very  slightly  dished, 
and  the  ears  lop  over  about  one-fourth  to  one-third  from  the  tip.  A 
high  quality  specimen  of  the  breed  should  be  smooth  throughout, 
with  thick,  broad,  heavy  sides,  smooth  shoulders,  broad,  heavy, 
plump  hams  extending  well  down  to  the  hocks,  with  short  legs  and 
upright  pasterns.  The  bone  is  fine ;  the  tail  fine ;  the  head  and  ears 
neat  and  attractive,  and  the  quality  of  the  meat  is  very  good.  The 
breed  is  characterized  by  early  maturing  qualities,  and  nearly  perfect 
form  of  the  lard  type  of  hog,  being  blocky  and  compact.  The  Po- 
land-China is  an  excellent  breed  for  crossing  on  common  stock  for 
grading  purposes.  The  breeding  qualities  are  considered  fair. — (La. 
B.  124.) 

The  Poland-China  breed  of  hogs  originated  in  the  State  of  Ohio. 
This  breed  is  considered  the  ideal  of  the  lard  type  of  hog.  The  in- 
dividuals are  broad  on  the  back,  compact,  low,  and  dress  a  high  per 
cent  of  marketable  meat.  The  back  is  broader  and  shorter  than  that 
of  the  Berkshire,  but  the  latter  has  the  advantage  of  the  Poland- 
China  in  length  of  side.  The  face  of  the  Poland-China  is  longer  and 
not  dished  so  much  as  that  of  the  Berkshire.  While  the  ideal  ear  of 
the  Poland-China  hog  stands  erect,  still  the  tips  of  the  ears  should 
droop.  The  large,  overhanging  ear  is  very  objectionable  to  Poland- 
China  breeders. 

The  Poland-China  was  originally  a  very  large  hog,  but  has  been 
bred  for  refinement  and  compactness  so  long  that  at  the  present  time 
it  will  not  weigh  as  much  as  the  Berkshire.  Poland-Chinas  are  good 
feeders  and  early  maturers.  They  are  suited  rather  to  lot  feeding 
than  to  pasture  feeding,  as  they  have  not  the  rustling  qualities  of 
some  of  the  other  breeds.  Still  they  will  make  good  use  of  pastures. 
The  meat  of  this  breed  is  not  as  high  in  quality  as  that  of  the  Berk- 
shire; it  is  tender  and  fine  grained,  but  there  is  more  fat  than  the 
average  consumer  likes,  and  the  fat  is  not  suitably  distributed  with 
the  lean.  The  Poland-China  is  not  as  good  as  the  Berkshire  or  the 
Duroc-Jersey  in  breeding  qualities. —  (F.  B.  411.) 

Chester  White. — ^Color — White,  with  occasional  black,  or  bluish- 
black  spots  on  the  skin.  The  size  ranges  from  a  large  hog  to  one  of 
medium  size.  The  Chester  White  belongs  strictly  to  the  fat  or  lard 
type,  producing  a  relatively  large  proportion  of  fat  meat  to  lean  in 
the  carcass.  The  face  is  straight,  -vN^th  the  nose  tending  to  be  long 
and  narrow,  and  the  ears  are  drooped  forward,  breaking  over  from 
one-half  to  one-third  of  their  length.  The  body  is  blocky  in  form, 
although  not  very  long,  with  heavy  hams  and  smooth  shoulders, 
broad  back  and  smooth  throughout. 

As  a  feeder  the  Chester  White  ranks  high,  and  is  considered  one 
of  the  most  prolific  of  the  heavier-fleshed  types.  It  is  a  good  grazer. 
The  quality  of  the  meat  is  high.  Like  other  white-skinned  pigs,  they 
are  liable  to  sun  scald  in  hot  climates. — (La.  B,  124.) 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  419 

The  Chester  White  is  a  popular  hog  in  some  of  the  Northern 
States,  but  in  the  South  this  breed  is  not  so  desirable,  because  of  its 
color.  Many  of  the  Chester  Whites  raised  in  the  South  are  of  the 
family  known  as  the  Ohio  Improved  Chesters  (0.  I.  C).  As  a  breed 
the  Chester  White  is  large,  long  in  body,  has  a  heavy  bone,  and  is 
not  as  refined  or  compact  as  the  Poland-China.  For  the  last  few 
years  the  Chester  White  breeders  have  been  selecting  for  refinement 
and  compactness.  In  color  the  breed  is  white;  blue  spots  are  often 
seen  upon  the  skin  along  the  back  and  sides.  If  it  were  not  for  their 
color,  the  Chester  Whites  would  soon  occupy  much  the  same  position 
in  the  South  as  the  Duroc-Jerseys,  because  they  are  good  mothers, 
good  grazers,  and  very  prolific  The  quality  of  the  meat  is  about  like 
that  of  the  Duroc-Jersey. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Duroc-Jersey. — Color  red,  the  shades  varying  from  light  to  dark. 
The  body  is.  rather  short,  with  medium  length  and  well  placed  feet. 
The  head  is  considered  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal. 
The  face  is  straight  or  but  slightly  dished.  The  ears  are  of  medium 
size,  drooping  forward,  and  the  top  third  more  or  less  breaking  over. 
The  back  is  wide  compared  to  the  length,  and  the  body  often  shows 
unusual  depth.  The  shoulders  and  hams  are  rather  heavy  and  thick 
fleshed. 

This  breed  is  one  of  the  lard  types.  The  maturing  qualities  are 
high,  pigs  readily  dressing  175  pounds  at  6  months  old.  The  quality 
of  tlic  meat  is  considered  fairly  good.  The  breed  is  very  prolific, — 
(La.  B.  124.) 

Originally  the  Duroc-Jersey  was  a  large,  coarse  animal,  but  of 
recent  years  the  object  has  been  to  breed  out  the  coarseness  of  bone, 
head,  and  ears.  While  much  of  the  roughness  has  been  eliminated, 
still  the  Duroc-Jerseys  are  not  as  refined  and  compact  as  the  Poland- 
Chinas.  In  color  the  Duroc-Jersey  is  cherry  red ;  sandy  red  is  very 
objectionable  to  the  breeders.     The  pictures  show  that  when  com- 

Earcd  with  the  Berkshire  or  Poland-China  the  Duroc-Jersey  has  a 
ead  and  face  longer  and  coarser  than  either  of  them.  The  ears  do 
not  stand  erect ;  they  fall  forward  and  lie  close  to  the  head. 

The  Duroc-Jersey  is  exceedingly  well  adapted  to  the  South.  It 
is  a  more  prolific  breed  than  either  the  Berkshire  or  the  Poland- 
China.  Duroc-Jersey  sows  are  also  better  milkers  and  mothers  than 
the  Berkshires  or  Poland-Chinas.  The  Duroc-Jerseys  are  also  one  of 
the  best  grazers  that  we  have;  they  are  strong  and  active  and  can 
graze  over  large  areas.  Owing  to  the  roughness  that  is  still  found  in 
some  individuals  of  this  breed,  they  can  not  be  expected  to  mature 
as  early  as  the  Berkshires  or  Poland-Chinas. — (F.  B.  411.)^ 

The  Duroc-Jerseys  are  large,  long-bodied,  red  hogs,  which  are 
good  feeders,  easily  fattened,  and  grow  very  rapidly  when  well  fed. 
Being  very  long-bodied,  the  proportion  of  side  meat  to  ham  and- 
shoulders  is  larger  than  in  most  other  breeds,  but  many  regard  this 
as  an  advantage,  and  the  breed  is  growing  in  favor  wherever  it  has 
been  introduced.— (F.  B.  100.) 

Tamworth. — Color  red,  or  sandy,  varying  in  shade  from  light  to 
dark.    Large  in  form ;  lean  in  type ;  and  long  in  head,  body  and  leg. 


420  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

.The  snout  is  long  and  tends  to  be  straight,  and  the  face  is  but  slightly 
dished.  The  ears  are  large,  and  should  be  erect,  or  leaning  slightly 
forward,  and  not  breaking  over.  The  back  is  narrow  and  long,  and 
the  sides  long,  and  should  be  deep.  The  shoulders  and  hams  repre- 
sent the  lean  type.  The  Tamworth  is  distinctively  a  bacon  type  of 
hog,  and  as  such,  ranks  very  high.  This  breed  is  large  in  size,  and 
can  be  made  to  weigh  from  700  to  900  pounds,  and  even  more.  The 
average  mature  male  will  probably  weigh  about  600  pounds,  and  the 
sow,  450  pounds.  At  six  months  of  age,  pigs  will  weigh  about  175 
pounds.  The  early  maturing  quality  of  this  breed  is  said  to  be  in- 
ferior, but  the  feeding  quality  fairly  good. — (La.  Bui.  124.) 

The  Tamworths  are  the  ideal  bacon  type.  The  bodias  are  ex- 
tremely long  and  moderately  deep.  The  legs,  the  head,  and  the  neck 
are  also  long  and  coarse  when  compared  with  the  hogs  of  the  lard 
type.  The  back  is  not  as  broad  as  that  of  the  Yorkshire.  They  have 
the  advantage  of  the  Yorkshires  in  color,  as  they  are  red.  They  will 
attain  a  size  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  Yorkshire.  But  it  is  net 
probable  that  the  Tamworths  will  become  popular  in  the  South  for 
many  years  to  come,  as  one  of  the  duties  of  the  purebred  boar  in  the 
South  is  to  refine  and  make  more  compact  the  scrub.  This  the  Tam- 
worth will  not  do  as  satisfactorily  as  will  some  of  the  other  breeds,  as 
he  is  long  and  coarse  in  legs  and  head  and  light  in  hams.  The  Tam- 
worths are  good  rustlers,  very  prolific,  and  the  meat  is  of  the  highest 
quality.— (F.  B.  411.) 

Yorkshire. — This  is  an  old  English  white  breed  of  hogs.  Its 
blood  is  said  to  have  entered  into  the  formation  of  practically  all 
breeds,  either  of  English  or  American  origin.  There  are  three  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  the  Yorkshire,  viz.,  the  Large,  Middle  or  Medium, 
and  Small.  The  Large  Yorkshire  is  a  bacon  hog,  while  the  Small 
Yorkshire  is  of  the  fat  or  lard  type,  and  the  Middle  Yorkshire  is  a 
medium  between  the  two. 

The  Large  Yorkshire. — Color  white;  the  head  is  medium  in 
length,  with  but  little  upturned  curve;  the  underjaw  is  broad  and 
strong ;  the  ears  incline  to  be  heavy  and  droop  forward.  They  should 
be  fine,  of  medium  size  and  be  carried  well  upward  and  only  slightly 
pointing  forward.  The  body  should  have  considerable  length;  the 
back  should  be  of  fair  and  uniform  width  with  considerable  depth, 
the  sides  being  long  and  deep  at  the  flanks,  and  full  between  shoulder 
and  hip.— (La.  Bui.  124.) 

The  individuals  of  the  Large  Yorkshire  breed  are  noted  for  their 
extreme  length  and  depth  of  body,  from  w^hich  can  be  taken  large 
pieces  of  meat  suitable  for  bacon.  They  are  not  as  broad  as  tlie  lard 
type  of  hog  across  the  shoulders,  backs,  and  hams.  The  Yorkshire 
is  a  very  large  breed — probably  the  largest  of  the  breeds  of  swine 
known  in  America.  For  use  in  the  South  their  color  is  against  them, 
as  they  are  white,  and  in  this  section  there  is  strong  objection  to 
white  hogs  on  the  ground  that  they  are  more  subject  to  skin  diseases 
than  the  black  or  red  hogs.  This  is  practically  the  only  point,  how- 
ever^ that  can  be  brought  against  them  for  southern  conditions, 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  421 

They  are  good  rustlers,  can  get  about  over  large  areas,  and  they  are 
unexcelled  as  grazers.  The  Yorkshire  is  not  an  early  maturing 
breed ;  the  smaller  breeds  of  hogs  can  be  prepared  for  the  market  in 
less  time,  but  Yorkshires  are  rapid  growers  and  are  capable  of 
making  much  of  this  growth  from  pastures.  Furthermore,  they  are 
good  breeders,  good  mothers,  and  produce  large  litters  regularly. 
— (F.  B.  411.) 

The  Middle  Yorkshire. — Color  white ;  this  hog  is  said  to  be  the 
outcome  of  the  cross  between  the  Large  and  the  Small  Yorkshire. 
It  is  of  smaller  and  fatter  type  than,  the  Large  White.  Its  face  is 
more  dished,  its  back  is  broader,  and  it  more  nearly  approaches 
American  ideals  of  form.  The  Middle  Yorkshire  is  not  a  recognized 
breed  in  America,  although  it  is  in  Great  Britain. 

The  Small  Yorkshire. — ^Color  white,  except  for  occasional  black 
spots.  The  face  is  very  short  and  broad,  and  often  dished  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  point  the  end  of  the  nose  upward.  The  lower  jaw,  also, 
is  much  curved  upward ;  the  ears  are  short,  fine  and  erect,  and  point- 
ing forward;  the  jowl  is  very  round  and  highly  developed.  The 
back  is  very  broad,  short,  and  thickly  laid  with  flesh  or  fat.  The 
hams  and  shoulders  are  heavy  and  full,  and  the  bone,  hair,  and  qual- 
ity are  refined.  The  breed  ranks  as  the  smallest  in  this  country,  but 
it  has  great  breadth  and  depth  for  its  size.  The  early  maturing  qual- 
ities of  this  breed  rank  very  high ;  they  fatten  readily,  and  are  said  to 
be  good  grazers.  The  quality  of  the  meat  is  good,  but  it  contains  a 
high  percentage  of  fat. — (La.  Bui.  124.) 

Cheshire. — Color  white ;  the  face  is  somewhat  dished,  although 
not  extremely  so;  the  ears  are  small  and  fine,  stand  erect  or  point 
slightly  forward.  The  back  should  be  long,  broad  and  straight  nearly 
to  the  root  of  the  tail.  The  body  is  usually  long,  but  frequently 
lacks  depth.    The  hams  and  shoulders  are  well  developed. 

The  quality  of  the  meat  is  excellent.  Cross  bred  and  grade  Chesh- 
ires  are  not  very  common,  but  are  in  favor  in  some  places.  The 
breeding  qualities  are  good. — (La.  B.  124.) 

Essex. — Color,  all  black ;  the  head  is  fine  and  rather  short,  with 
slightly  dished  face ;  the  ears  are  tliin  and  erect ;  the  jowl  is  heavy 
and  the  legs  are  short  and  firmly  boned.  The  back  is  broad  and 
somewhat  short,  and  the  sides  are  deep  and  short.  The  shoulders 
are  thickly  fleshed,  and  the  hams  thick  and  deep.  The  Essex  is  a 
small,  compact,  chunky  hog  on  short  legs.  It  is  typical  of  the  lard 
type  of  hog,  except  that  it  is  small  in  size.  The  breed  is  noteworthy 
for  early  maturing  qualities — feeders  maturing  at  six  months  of  age. 

As  compared  with  the  Poland-China  and  Berkshire,  the  Essex 
ranks  among  the  smaller  breeds.  At  maturity  it  is  said  to  attain  a 
weight  of  from  250  to  400  pounds,  depending  upon  the  care  and 
treatment.  The  quality  of  the  meat  is  fine  and  well-flavored,  with  a 
tendency  to  fat  over  lean.  The  crosses  and  grades  may  be  of  con- 
siderable comparative  value.  According  to  an  English  breeder,  there 
is  probably  no  black  pig  which  combines  more  good  qualities  as 
either  porker  or  bacon  hog  than  the  produce  of  an  improved  Essex 


422  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

boar  and  an  improved  Berkshire  sow.    The  place  for  the  Essex  seems 
to  be  in  the  hands  of  the  small  breeder  or  feeder. 

The  Hampshire  or  Thin  Rind  Hog. — Color  black,  with  a  white 
band,  four  to  twelve  inches  wide,  encircling  the  body,  and  including 
the  fore  legs.  The  head  is  small;  the  ears  of  medium  length,  in- 
clining slightly  forward.  The  jowls,  or  cheeks,  are  light;  back  of 
medium  width.  The  hams  are  somewhat  lacking  in  fullness  com- 
pared with  the  larger  American  breeds;  the  legs  are  well  set  apart. 
This  breed  is  sometimes  classed  as  a  medium  between  the  lard  hog 
and  the  bacon  hog,  although  it  is  generally  considered  as  belonging 
to  the  former.  It  is,  however,  about  medium  in  size.  A  cross  of  the 
pure-bred  male  on  common  sows  is  thought  likely  to  result  in  more 
prolific  stock,  leaning  toward  the  bacon  type.  The  Hampshire  is  a 
good  grazer  and  is  quite  prolific.  The  quality  of  the  meat  is  superior. 
—(La.  Bui.  124.) 

Victoria. — Color  white ;  the  head  is  moderately  broad ;  the  face 
medium  dished ;  the  ear  small  to  medium  in  size,  and  carried  erect. 
The  body  is  broad  and  deep ;  the  back  level,  and  the  tail  set  on  at  a 
line  nearly  level  with  the  back.  The  hams  and  shoulders  are  con- 
siderably thick  and  full,  and  the  length  and  depth  of  side  meat  is 
very  good.  The  length  of  leg  is  moderate,  and  the  quality  of  bone  is 
fair.  In  size  the  Victoria  ranks  as  medium  with  the  Poland-China 
and  Berkshire.  At  maturity,  the  males  should  weigh  about  600 
pounds,  and  the  sows  450  pounds.  As  a  feeder,  this  breed  has  not 
been  extensively  tried.  The  quality  of  the  meat  will  rank  well 
among  that  of  other  breeds.  The  breeding  qualities  of  this  hog  are 
considered  very  good. 

The  Razorhack,  or  Com/mon  Southern  Hog. — Color  varied;  as  a 
breed  the  Razorhack  is  a  long-bodied,  long-legged,  thin,  long-nosed 
hog,  exceedingly  hardy  and  with  remarkably  good  fora^ng  powers, 
but  too  slow  in  coming  to  maturity,  and  too  light  in  weight  to  com- 
pare with  the  modern  and  improved  breeds  of  swine.  In  describing 
this  breed  of  hogs,  a  writer  adds:  "It  has  no  place  in  modern  agricul- 
ture." Nevertheless  this  breed  can  be  much  improved  by  selecting 
the  best  sows  and  breeding  them  to  ■well  bred  boare  of  the  best  type. 
—  (La.  Bui.  124.) 

Selection  of  a  Breed. — The  more  common  breeds  in  this  country 
are  the  Berkshires,  Poland-Chinas,  Chester- Whites,  and  Duroc-Jer- 
seys,  though  Essexes  and  a  few  others  are  occasionally  seen.  Thirty 
vears  ago  the  differences  between  different  breeds  were  very  marked, 
but  with  the  greater  attention  which  breeders  have  given  to  the  pro- 
duction of  animals  possessing  an  ideal  form  the  characteristics  of  the 
different  breeds  have  approached  each  other,  until  now  nearly  all 
breeds  have  the  same  general  form. —  (F.  B.  100.) 

The  question  is  often  asked,  What  is  the  best  breed  of  swine? 
The  answer  can  not  be  given  by  naming  any  one  particular  breed; 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  best  breed.  One  breed  may  be  specially 
adapted  for  a  certain  purpose,  while  another  may  be  better  suited  for 
a  different  object.  The  best  breed  for  any  particular  farmer  is 
usually  the  breed  that  he  likes  best. 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  SWINE.* 


423 


Scale  of  Points. 

Possible 
score. 

Points 
deficient. 

Points 
deficient. 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE — 25    POINTS. 

Weight estimate    actual  lbs. 

6 

8 

6 
5 

2 
3 

6 
2 
5 

7 
8 
7 
5 
3 
2 

3 
4 

8 
5 

Form,  deep,  broad,  low,  long,  symmetrical,  com- 
pact, standing  squarely  on  legs 

Quality,  bone  clean,  hair  silky,  sltin  soft,   head 
and    ears    refined,    evenly    covered    with    firm 
flesh   

Disposition,  quiet,  docile 

HEAD  AND  NECK— 10   POINTS. 

Snout,  medium  length,  not  coarse 

Face,  short,  cheeks  full 

* 

Forehead,  broad 

Eyes,  large,  mild,  full,  bright,  wide  apart 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine,  soft 

Jowl,  strong,  neat,  broad 

FOREQUARTERS— 13   POINTS. 

Shoulders,  symmetrical,  broad,  deep,   full,  com- 
pact   on    top 

Breast,  wide,  prominent,  well  let  down 

Legs,  straight,  short,  feet  and  pasterns  strong. . 

BODY— 32    POINTS. 

Chest,  deep,  broad ;  girth  large 

Sides,  deep,  lengthy  and  full 

Back,  broad,  straight,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed 

Loin,  thick,  wide  and  strong 

Belly,  straight,  even  and  firmly  fleshed 

Flank,  low  and  well  fleshed,  girth  large 

HINDQUARTERS— 20    POINTS. 

Hips,  wide  apart,  smooth 

Rump,  long,  wide,  evenly  fleshed,  smooth 

Hams,  firm,  heavily  fleshed,  deep  and  wide 

Legs,  straight,  short,  feet  and  pasterns  strong. . 

Total 


100 


♦This  card  is  used  in  classes  in  swine  judging  in  the  Animal  Husbandry  depart- 
ment of  the  College  of  Agriculture. —  (Wis.  B.   184.) 

The  breeds  of  hogs  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  the 
bacon  type  and  the  lard  type.  The  Yorkshire  and  the  Tamworth 
breeds  belong  to  the  bacon  type,  while  other  breeds,  as  the  Berkshire, 
the  Poland-China,  and  the  Dnroc-Jersey,  belong  to  the  lard  tyi>e. 

The  farmer  who  is  about  to  adopt  a  breed  should  be  sure  to  se- 
lect one  of  the  standard  and  common  breeds  of  his  own  State.  Many 
men  make  the  mistake  of  introducing  a  breed  new  to  the  section,  and 
when  the  time  comes  that  a  new  boar  must  be  secured  much  diffi- 
culty and  expense  are  incurred  before  a  satisfactory  one  can  be 
found.  Therefore  a  breed  should  usually  be  selected  which  has  a 
good  representation  in  the  State  in  which  the  farmer  lives. — (F.  B. 
411.) 

After  the  farmer  has  decided  upon  the  breed  of  hogs  which  he 
believes  to  be  the  best  and  most  profitable  for  him  to  raise,  he  should 
then  stick  to  that  breed  and  endeavor  to  develop  it  to  its  most  per- 
fect condition.    It  is  not  possible  to  get  the  most  out  of  a  breed  by 


424  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC, 

continually  changing  from  on©  to  another.  The  most  famous  in- 
dividuals, and  the  most  famous  herds  of  animals,  have  been  built  up, 
developed  and  perfected,  only  by  sticking  to  the  breed  and  getting 
the  most  out  of  it. 

There  is  plenty  of  room,  and  sale,  for  all  the  different  breeds  of 
hogs ;  but  it  is  useless  for  one  individual  to  try  to  raise,  and  bring  to 
their  most  perfect  development,  all  of  them, — (La.  Bui.  124.) 

There  is  so  little  difference  between  the  breeds  when  properly 
handled,  that  the  results  obtained  will  be  due  to  the  intelligence  of  the 
breeder  rather  than  to  the  merits  of  the  breed  itself. — (Wis.  B.  184.) 

CARE  OF  BREEDING  STOCK. 

Breeding  stock  should  be  kept  in  the  open  air  and  sunshine  as 
much  as  possible  during  the  year.  Pasture  runs  alone  will  not  suf- 
fice, but  should  be  supplemented  by  foods  especially  adapted  to  bone 
and  muscle  development.  The  feed  for  the  brood  sow  should  be 
nutritious  and  bulky.  Sliced  roots,  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  either  fed 
dry  or  as  a  chop  feed  is  very  palatable.  Some  corn  may  be  fed,  but 
ground  oats,  crushed  peas  or  white  middlings  supply  more  nutri- 
ment for  muscle  and  bone  development.  The  importance  of  daily 
exercise  for  brood  sows  cannot  be  overestimated.  Scattering  grains  of 
corn  over  large  areas  will  force  activity  and  cause  needed  exercise.  If 
animals  are  confined  to  pens,  walking  the  sows  short  distances  each 
day  will  prove  beneficial.  After  farrowing,  as  the  pigs  develop 
greater  appetites,  the  sow  should  receive  an  increased  amount  of  suc- 
culent feed.  By-products  from  the  dairy,  such  as  skim  milk  or  but- 
termilk, supplemented  with  a  grain  mixture  made  up  of 

Nutritive  Ratio. 

4    lbs.  Middlings   

2    lbs.  Ground  Oats. 

4    lbs.  Corn  Meal !-  1:6.1 

2   lbs.  Ground  Barley 

Vslb.    Oil  Meal _ 

fed  in  a  thick  slop  in  quantities  sufficient  to  keep  the  milking  moth- 
ers in  a  vigorous,  not  fleshy  appearance,  will  prove  useful.  A  mix- 
ture of  the  common  products  found  on  the  farm  is  always  preferable 
to  any  one  grain ;  while  grinding,  cooking  or  soaking  the  feed,  espe- 
cially corn,  is  a  waste  of  time  and  money.  Barley,  wheat  or  oats 
should  be  crushed.  Alfalfa  hay  fed  in  slat  racks  is  very  nourishing 
and  keeps  the  digestive  system  active. 

A  small,  low  trough,  accessible  only  to  the  young  pigs,_  should 
be  provided,  and  a  little  feed,  preferably  skim  milk  or  thin  mid- 
dlings with  a  little  oil  meal  added,  supplied.  This  tasty  mixture  will 
tempt  the  youngsters'  growing  appetite,  and  when  they  are  encour- 
aged to  drink  in  this  way  weaning  Is  comparatively  easy.  After  the 
young  pigs  are  weaned  they  should  be  well  fed,  provided  with  a 
grassy  pasture  or  have  access  to  a  lot  where  they  can  obtain  fresh, 
green  forage.  This  will  tend  to  keep  their  digestive  tract  in  good 
condition,  and  later,  when  ready  for  fattening,  their  digestive  appa- 
ratus will  be  sufficiently  developed  to  enable  heavy  feeding,  land  thus 
rapid  and  economical  gains. — (N.  J. — L.  S.  C. — Cir.  1.) 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  425 

BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

Pure  Blood  or  Grades. — Swine  offer  a  greater  opportunity  for 
improvement  than  any  other  class  of  live  stock.  There  is  no  reason 
why  any  farmer  should  raise  scrubs.  Starting  wnth  a  pure  bred  sire, 
and  continuing  to  use  a  sire  of  the  same  breed,  but  a  few  years  are 
required  to  establisih  a  grade  herd  equal  to  pure-breds  in  every  way 
for  pork  production.  Even  when  starting  with  an  inferior  lot  of 
sows,  by  using  a  good  boar  and  rejecting  all  inferior  animals  each 
year,  a  uniform  herd  can  be  developed. — (Wis.  B.  184.) 

As  to  whether  pure-breds,  grades  or  scrubs  shall  be  grown,  rests 
largely  with  the  aesthetic  tastes  of  the  producer.  Cross  breds  and 
scrubs  may  make  as  economical  gains  as  high  grades  and  pure 
bloods,  but  they  will  lack  that  excellency  of  conformation  that  is  so 
gratifying  to  the  feeder  and  that  so  quickly  appeals  to  the  buyer. 
—(Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

Good  grades  are  much  more  reliable  breeders  than  are  crosses 
and  are  to  be  preferred.  The  native  stock  has  the  vigor  of  constitu- 
tion, which  is  always  necessary,  and  has  no  inherited  prepotency  to 
develop  in  any  certain  direction.  When  mated  with  a  pure-blood, 
the  result  is  usually  an  animal  with  the  vigor  of  the  native  ancestor 
and  the  characteristics  of  the  pure-blood  parent  shown  in  its  better 
form  and  fattening  qualities.  Succeeding  crosses  in  the  same  direc- 
tion strengthen  this  tendency  toward  improvement.  The  great  ob- 
jection to  "grading  up"  in  this  w^ay  is  the  fact  that,  no  matter  how 
fine  specimens  the  animals  may  be,  they  can  never  be  sold  as  pure- 
bloods,  and  an  animal  which  is  a  grade  will  never  sell  for  breeding 
at  as  high  a  price  as  will  one  which  is  of  pure  blood  and  entitled  to 
registration. 

The  most  satisfactory  results  will  be  obtained  from  a  grade  sow 
mated  to  a  pure-bred  boar.— (Utah  Bui.  94;  F.  B.  100.) 

Inbreeding. — While  inbreeding  is  the  quickest  and  surest  way 
to  fix  type,  it  should  be  practiced  with  ^eat  care.  As  it  intensifies 
both  the  good  and  the  bad  characteristics,  it  should  only  be  done 
when  care  is  taken  to  select  the  best  individuals  of  the  type  to  breed, 
and  to  discard  all  others. —  (F.  B.  205.) 

Selection  of  Individuals. — The  selection  of  breed  is  a  matter  of 
fancy ;  the  selection  of  the  individual  animals  for  the  foundation  of 
the  herd  is  the  basis  for  profit  or  losses. 

The  first  consideration  should  be  to  get  both  boar  and  sows  from 
prolific  strains,  and  of  the  type  demanded  by  the  market.  Except 
during  the  few  wrecks  when  the  pigs  are  suckhng,  it  costs  as  much  to 
keep  a  sow  that  has  one  to  four  pigs  in  a  litter,  as  it  does  to  keep  one 
that  has  eight  to  ten  pigs.  The  first  cost  of  the  new  born  pig  is  de- 
termined by  the  cost  of  keeping  the  dam,  divided  by  the  number  of 
pi^  in  the  litter. 

Uniformity  in  type  is  essential  for  the  largest  profits.  No  two 
breeds  or  types  feed  exactly  alike,  and  where  there  is  a  mixture  there 
is  a  variation  in  finish  and  weight  that  lowers  the  selling  price. 

There  are  three  serious  defects  to  avoid  in  selecting  animals 
for  breeding  stock:    Weakness  through  the  heart,  weak  or  swayed 


426  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

back,  and  weak  pasterns.  These  are  faults  which  the  swine  growers 
of  the  corn  belt  have  learned  from  years  of  costly  experience  to 
avoid,  and  no  other  good  qualities  will  compensate  for  these  defects. 
—(Colo.  Bui.  146.) 

If  you  have  decided  upon  the  breed  you  are  going  to  raise, 
remember  that  the  individuals  of  any  breed  vary  widely  in  merat, 
and  for  that  reason  much  care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting 
animals  for  breeding  purposes.  There  are  many  pure  breds  of  all 
breeds  that  are  very  inferior  and  the  only  merit  they  have  is  their 
purity  of  breeding.  Many  are  offered  for  sale  as  pure  breds  which 
in  reality  are  only  grades,  which  accounts  for  their  lack  of  good 
conformation.  The  lack  of  care  and  feeding,  however,  is  the  chief 
reason  for  the  presence  of  so  many  inferior  pure  breds. — (N.  D. 
Bui.  83.) 

The  pigs  which  are  to  be  used  for  breeding  purposes  should  be 
selected  during  the  time  when  the  pigs  are  with  the  sow.  If  the 
breeder  is  raising  hogs  for  market  he  will  select  only  sows,  castrating 
all  boars.  No  boar  should  be  used  or  sold  that  is  not  eligible  to 
registry.  If  the  breeder  is  raising  pure-bred  stock  the  inferior  boara 
\\dll  be  culled  out  and  castrated,  the  others  being  kept  for  the  breed- 
ing market— (F.  B.  205.) 

Selecting  the  Boar. — The  male  has  the  great-er  influence  on  the 
herd,  for  the  simple  reason  that  every  pig  in  the  herd  is  sired  by 
him,  whereas  they  have  not  all  the  same  dam.  To  achieve  the  best 
results  a  breeder  should  never  allow  the  standard  of  his  sows  to  be 
lowered,  and  should  always  couple  them  with  a  boar  of  a  little  better 
grade.  A  superior  boar  may  be  used  on  a  herd  of  inferior  sows 
with  good  results,  but  the  use  of  an  inferior  boar  on  sows  of  high 
quality  will  have  a  disastrous  outcome.  The  one  method  raises  the 
standard  of  the  herd ;  the  other  inevitably  lowers  it. 

A  boar  with  the  male  characteristics  strongly  developed  should 
be  selected,  preferably  as  a  yearling,  or  else  as  a  pig  that  has  been 
purchased  at  the  same  time  as  the  sows  and  allowed  to  come  to 
maturity  before  being  used.  He  should  have  a  strongly  masculine 
head  and  a  well-crested  neck.  His  shoulders  should  be  developed 
according  to  age;  but  strong  shoulder  development  in  pigs  under  a 
year  or  eighteen  months  \s  objectionable.  The  same  indications  of 
a  good  pork-producing  carcass  that  the  sows  required  should  be  seen 
in  the  boar — a  broad,  straight,  deeply  fleshed  back,  much  depth  and 
length  of  side,  and  well-developed  hind  quarters.  The  boar  should 
be  selected  to  correct  any  defects  that  may  be  common  to  the  sows ; 
for  example,  if  the  sows  are  rather  coarse  in  bone  and  loosely  built, 
the  boar  should  have  high  quality — fine  bone,  skin,  and  hair.  If 
the  sows  tend  toward  over-refinement  and  delicacy,  the  boar  should 
be  rather  rangy  and  strong-boned.  There  is  a  common  belief  that 
the  male  parent  influences  principally  the  extremities  and  general 
appearance  of  the  offspring,  while  the  vital  organs  (the  heart,  lungs, 
and  viscera),  conformation,  and  size  resemble  those  of  the  female 
parent.  This  theory  is  strongly  questioned  by  some  modern  author- 
ities on  heredity;  but  so  long  as  our  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  so 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  427 

limited,  and  this  particular  phase  is  in  dispute,  it  can  do  no  harm 
to  select  breeding  animals  according  to  the  old  ideas.  The  visible 
organs  of  the  reproductive  system  should  be  well  developed  and 
clearly  defined.  A  boar  should  not  be  bought  with  small,  indef- 
initely placed  testicles.  Avoid  particularly  a  boar  with  only  one 
testicle  visible. 

The  boar  should  stand  up  on  his  toes.  There  should  not  be  the 
slightest  indication  of  weakness  in  the  pasterns  of  a  young  one ;  in  a 
mature  boar  (2  or  3  years  of  age)  that  has  seen  hard  service  it  may 
be  expected  that  he  will  be  a  little  down  on  his  pasterns,  but  a  6  or  8 
months  old  pig  that  does  not  carry  himself  on  upright  pasterns  is 
not  a  safe  animal  to  select  for  a  herd  boar;  the  hind  pastern  will  be 
in  much  danger  of  breaking  down  with  a  little  age  and  service. 
Look  carefully  to  the  set  of  the  hind  legs.  The  hock  should  be 
carefully  set  and  straight.  A  crooked  hock  is  as  great  a  drawback 
as  a  weak  pastern. — (F.  B.  205.) 

The  selection  of  the  boar  to  be  used  cannot  be  too  carefully 
done.  The  saying  "the  sire  is  half  the  herd"  is  very  true  because 
he  exerts  his  influence  on  every  pig  in  the  herd  if  only  one  sire  is  in 
service.  For  this  reason  it  is  very  imperative  that  the  boar  be  equal 
and  if  anything  superior  to  the  sows.  If  one's  yearly  pig  crop  is  to 
be  superior  to  that  of  the  preceding  year,  it  can  be  done  with  the 
least  expense  by  getting  a  better  boar  than  formerly  used.  Grade 
herds  can  soon  be  improved  in  merit  through  the  use  of  good  boars. 
The  progress  made  with  the  pure  bred  herd  must  come  also  in  this 
way. 

In  selecting  a  boar  get  one  that  has  male  characteristics  well 
developed,  which  are  indicated  by  a  strong  rather  than  a  feminine 
head,  a  well-crested  neck  and  plenty  of  vitality.  If  the  boar  is  12 
months  old  or  over  a  strong  development  of  shoulder  may  be  allow- 
able, although  undue  coarseness  in  these  parts  is  not  desirable.  In 
addition  to  the  masculine  characters  he  should  possess  these  points 
relative  to  fonn  that  are  desirable  in  his  breed  and  class.  Good 
heart  girth  to  furnish  a  large  capacity  for  the  vital  organs  is  essen- 
tial in  all  breeding  animals. —  (N.  D.  B.  83.) 

The  boar  must  first  show  the  characteristics  of  the  breed  to 
which  he  belongs.  He  should  show  masculinity,  especially  in  the 
head.  The  neck  should  be  short,  the  shoulders  smooth  and  com- 
pact on  top,  deep  and  wide  between  the  legs.  The  body  should  be 
long,  smooth  and  evenly  fleshed,  with  a  slight  arch  and  a  wide, 
strong  loin. 

The  hind  quarters  should  be  long,  deep  and  wide,  well  let  down 
in  the  ham  and  having  a  width  equal  to  that  of  the  shoulders  and 
body.  The  legs  should  be  short,  with  strong,  fine  bones.  He  should 
be  active,  yet  of  docile  and  quiet  disposition. 

The  most  vigorous  young  are  produced  from  animals  that  have 
reached  maturity.  A  strong  and  vigorous  herd  cannot  bo  built  up 
by  breeding  continuously  from  young  boars  and  gilts.  The  practice 
of  buying  boars  from  6  to  8  months  old,  because  they  are  cheap, 
using  them  on  herds  two  seasons,  and  then  marketing,  cannot  meet 


428  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

with  success.  The  old  boar  should  be  kept  until  the  young  one  is 
mature. — (Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

The  most  detrimental  factor  to  swine  breeding  is  the  scrub  boar, 
for  he  has  neither  individuality,  good  breeding,  nor  any  quality 
worth  transmitting.  The  herd  boar  should  be  pure  bred  and  have 
individual  merit  and  character.  Pure  breeding  should  insure  prepo- 
tence  in  the  sire  and  give  uniformity  and  character  to  his  offspring. 
The  breeder  should  become  a  competent  judge,  and  study  the  type, 
shape  and  conformation  of  his  animals  under  different  ages  and 
conditions. — (Wis.  B.  184.) 

The  sire  should  be  strong  in  the  characteristics  of  the  breed  and 
possess  the  type  of  market  class  to  which  he  belongs.  While  the 
boar  may  well  have  the  proper  color  markings,  and  points  of  the 
breed,  it  is  all  important  that  he  should  possess  a  combination  of  size 
and  quality.  A  sire  of  the  lard  type  should  be  short  and  broad  in 
the  face,  broad  between  the  eyes,  and  have  short,  broad  ears.  His 
neck  should  rise  rapidly  behind  the  ears  and  widen  into  a  body 
which  is  long,  uniformly  wide  and  deep.  Boars  often  become  too 
wdde  and  rough  in  the  shoulders,  with  deep  wrinkles  in  the  skin. 
The  thick  plates  of  hard  skin,  on  the  sides  of  the  shoulders,  are 
sometimes  called  "shields."  Mature  boars  are  liable  to  develop 
massive  fore  quarters  and  be  narrow  behind,  with  insufficient  depth 
in  the  hams  and  twist.  Sires  of  this  sort  should  be  avoided.  Seek 
refinement  in  the  head  and  fore  quarters,  with  a  broad,  strong, 
slightly  arched  back,  a  wide  loin,  and  wide,  deep  hams. 

It  is  imperative  that  the  legs  and  feet  of  a  boar  be  short,  strong, 
and  sound.  The  tendency  has  been  to  pay  particular  attention  to 
the  hog's  conformation  of  body  and  too  little  to  his  legs  and  feet. 
The  legs  below  the  knees  and  hocks  should  be  of  medium  size  and 
free  from  fleshiness  or  wrinkles  in  the  skin. — (Wis.  B.  184.) 

A  new  boar  should  be  purchased  as  often  as  the  sows  have 
passed  their  prime  and  are  replaced  by  the  offspring  of  the  old  boar. 
If  hogs  are  grown  for  the  market  only,  it  is  not  necessary  to  pay  a 
fancy  price  for  a  fancy  animal  which  has  every  bristle  of  just  the 
right  color  and  pointing  in  exactly  the  right  direction.  The  man 
who  is  raising  hogs  to  be  sold  as  pure  bred  breeding  animals  cannot 
be  too  careful  to  purchase  only  such  as  come  nearest  the  ideal  shape, 
color,  and  style  typical  of  the  breed  he  is  using;  but  for  the  man 
who  is  raising  pork  and  who  does  not  expect  to  sell  fancy  breeding 
animals,  slight  variations  in  color,  shape  and  position  of  ears,  and 
length  of  tail,  are  of  little  importance.  What  the  pork  raiser  should 
require  in  his  boar  is  good  form  and  size  without  coarseness,  good 
feeding  capacity,  and  a  strong  constitution. 

In  breeding  for  pork  the  boar  need  not  have  all  the  finer  mark- 
ings of  his  breed.  Color  of  hair  on  the  hog  makes  no  difference  with 
the  quality  of  the  pork,  but  he  should  have  a  good  form,  and  should 
be  descended  from  animals  having  good  forms.  A  poor  specimen 
of  a  pure-blood  animal  is  little  better  than  a  scrub,  and  should  not 
be  used  simply  because  he  has  a  long  pedigree.  Pedigree  is  good 
because  it  gives  prepotency,  but  form  and  vigor  are  better  because 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  431 

they  give  pork.  Good  shape  is  absolutely  necessary  in  a  good  boar, 
and  if  he  has  a  good  pedigree  also  he  is  a  much  better  animal. 

Nearly  all  breeders  of  fancy  stock  have  numerous  boar  pigs 
which  are  not  quite  up  to  the  standard  in  some  unimportant  par- 
ticulars, and  so  cannot  be  sold  as  strictly  first-class  animals.  The 
defects  may  be  nothing  more  than  a  slight  variation  in  color,  swirls 
in  the  bristles,  or  a  missing  tail;  but  with  even  such  defects  the 
animals  would  stand  a  poor  chance  in  the  show  ring,  and  breeders 
are  often  glad  to  sell  them  for  little  more  than  their  value  for  pork. 
Such  animals  are  just  as  good  as  any  where  pork  and  not  show  is 
wanted,  and  will  insure  much  better  pigs  than  can  be  expected  from 
an  equally  well-formed  grade  or  an  inferior  pure  blood. — (F.  B. 
100.) 

Selecting  the  Sow. — ^The  sire  is  often  considered  half  the  herd, 
but  in  reality  the  females  are  equally  important.  The  typical  sire 
will  transmit  his  qualities  of  excellence  to  his  get,  but  the  best 
results  will  only  be  had  when  he  is  mated  with  proper  dams.  The 
dam  should  have  the  same  combination  of  size  and  quality  requisite 
in  the  sire.  In  conformation  she  may  not  need  to  be  so  compactly 
built  and  may  be  somewhat  finer  in  features  and  bone.  The  sow 
that  is  quiet  and  docile  in  temperament  proves  a  good  mother  and 
is  careful  with  her  litter.  These  characteristics  can  to  some  extent 
be  judged  before  the  sow  has  been  used.  The  ideal  sow  has  10  to  12 
well-developed,  sound  teats.  Sows  occasionally  have  blind  teats  that 
are  rarely  detected  before  farrowing.  The  number  of  sound  teats 
sometimes  is  considered  an  indication  of  prolificacy  in  the  sow. 

Prolificacy  usually  is  a  family  characteristic  and  it  is  wise  to 
select  a  prospective  brood  sow  from  a  large  litter  of  robust  pigs.  The 
strongest  pigs  of  a  litter,  most  suitable  for  prospective  sows,  usually 
nurse  from  the  teats  nearest  to  the  front  of  the  udder.  The  pro- 
spective sow  may  therefore  be  chosen  before  she  is  taken  from  her 
dam.  In  selecting  brood  sows  the  highest  possible  standard  of  excel- 
lence should  be  retained  and  all  others  should  be  marketed  for  pork. 
—(Wis.  B.  184.) 

It  will  even  be  much  better  to  buy  one  high-class  sow  than  five 
poor  ones.  This  would  be  real  economy,  and  the  development  of 
the  herd  will  prove  its  value.  It  will  be  well  if  a  beginner  can  obtain 
the  assistance  of  an  old  and  successful  breeder  in  making  a  start. 

If  the  boar  is  half  the  herd,  the  sows  certainly  make  up  the 
other  half,  and  their  selection  is  a  highly  important  matter.  They 
may  be  purchased,  already  bred,  some  time  before  the  boar,  and 
quite  an  item  of  expense  will  thus  be  saved.  Then  by  the  time  the 
sows  have  been  watched  and  studied  for  a  season  and  have  each 
raised  a  litter  of  pigs,  the  owner  wnll  be  much  better  prepared  to 
select  a  suitable  male,  and  he  can  then  get  one  to  use  on  both  dams 
and  offspring. 

The  sows  selected  should  be  nearly  the  same  age,  which  should 
be  about  12  months,  and  all  should  be  safe  in  pig,  preferably  to  the 
same  boar.    Their  individual  characteristics  should,  perhaps,  be  first 


432  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

looked  to.  While  hogs  do  not  show  the  strong  differences  of  sex  that 
we  look  for  in  a  cow  or  a  mare,  sex  characteristics  always  constitute 
a  marked  feature  of  a  good  brood  sow.  The  smoother  forehead  and 
lighter,  finer  neck  are  points  of  distinction  from  the  signs  of  mascu- 
linity in  a  boar.  The  forehead  should  be  broad  between  the  eyes, 
the  throat  clean  and  trim,  the  neck  moderately  thin,  and  the  shoul- 
ders smooth  and  deep ;  the  back  should  be  fairly  wide  and  straight, 
and  ample  room  for  the  vital  organs  should  be  provided  by  a  good 
width  and  depth  of  chest,  well-sprung  ribs,  and  straight,  deep  sides 
— a  deep,  capacious  body  from  end  to  end.  Depth  of  chest  and 
abdomen  are  specially  important  in  a  brood  sow.  Pinched  chests 
and  waists  must  be  avoided.  It  is  generally  advised  that  sows  with 
much  length  of  body  should  be  selected  for  breeding  purposes, 
length  of  body  being  regarded  by  some  as  an  indication  of  fecundity. 
It  will  certainly  do  no  harm  to  select  sows  that  are  especially  long, 
but  care  should  be  taken  that  quality  goes  with  the  increase  in 
length.  The  loose- jointed,  long-coupled,  slow-maturing,  and  slow- 
fattening  type  should  not  be  selected. 

The  surest  means  by  which  to  select  prolific  sows  is  to  keep  an 
accurate  record  of  the  herd  and  cull  out  all  sows  that  do  not  yield  a 
certain  percentage  of  pigs  annually. — (F.  B.  205.) 

The  sow  should  possess  the  same  characteristics  as  the  boar,  but 
should  show  more  refinement,  indicating  femininity.  The  body 
should  be  long,  showing  great  digestive  capacity  and  room  for 
carrying  young.  The  hind  quarters  should  be  broad,  to  obviate 
difficulty  in  parturition.  Breadth  between  the  eyes  indicates  good 
disposition. — (Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

For  breeding  for  pure-bred  swine  to  be  sold  for  breeding  pur- 

Eoses,  it  is  important  to  have  a  good  class  of  swine  in  the  herd.    In 
reeding  swine  for  market,  so  much  quality  and  perfection  of  form 
are  not  essential  to  profit. 

A  brood  sow  should  be  selected  to  reproduce  thrifty  young  in 
large  numbers,  and  rear  them  successfully.  Experience  shows  that 
a  sow  having  the  most  ideal  conformation  for  market  demands  does 
not  always  make  the  best  breeder.  In  selecting  sows  of  the  lard 
breeds  it  is  best  to  select  a  long-bodied,  somewhat  more  upstanding, 
coarser-boned  sow,  in  preference  to  the  compact,  neater  kinds. 

In  breeding  pure-breds  it  is  good  policy  to  retain  a  brood  sow 
that  has  proven  a  good  mother,  just  as  long  as  she  continues  to  pro- 
duce good  litters.— (N.  D.  B.  83.) 

Do  not  be  too  ready  to  discard  a  sow  known  to  be  a  strong, 
regular  breeder,  having  large  litters,  for  one  that  is  yet  untried ;  but 
keep  her  so  long  as  she  produces,  regularly,  large  litters  of  strong, 
healthy  pigs.  The  Wisconsin  Station  has  found  that  the  number 
and  weight  of  pigs  increased  as  the  sows  increased  in  age.  With 
stronger,  more  vigorous  pigs  at  birth,  more  rapid  and  economical 
gains  can  be  made. — (Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

Mating. — It  is  customary  to  mate  the  sows  from  December  1st 
to  January  15th,  so  that  the  pigs  will  be  farrowed  between  March 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  433 

20tli  and  May  5th.  The  time  will  depend  on  the  facilities  for 
housing  the  sows  during  farrowing  time,  and  whether  breeding  or 
market  hogs  are  raised. 

If  raising  pure4)reds  for  breeding  purposes,  the  sows  should  be 
bred  so  the  pigs  will  be  farrowed  early,  so  they  will  be  large  enough 
for  service  by  the  breeding  season  in  the  fall. 

In  raising  market  hogs,  they  should  be  farrowed  as  early  as 
they  can  be  kept  warm  and  made  to  thrive.  Thus  with  good  care 
they  will  be  ready  for  market  before  severe  winter  weather. 

During  the  mating  season  it  is  a  good  practice  to  place  all  the 
breeding  sows  in  a  lot  together,  so  that  the  period  of  heat  may  be 
readily  detected.  It  is  a  common  practi<;e  on  many  farms  to  turn 
the  boar  in  with  the  sows  and  let  him  serve  them  at  will.  The 
dangers  from  this  method  are  that  the  sows  may  vary  in  size.  If 
some  of  the  sows  are  large  and  the  boar  small,  he  will  be  unable  to 
serve  the  large  ones  and  the  small  ones  may  suffer  if  the  boar  is 
old  and  heavy.  The  other  danger  is  the  boar  may  misuse  himself. 
These  dangers  can  be  avoided  by  confining  the  boar  in  a  lot  adjoin- 
ing the  sow  pen  and  turning  the  sows  with  him  when  in  heat  long 
enough  for  a  single  service.  In  case  the  boar  is  unable  to  serve  a 
sow,  it  is  well  to  use  a  breeding  crate,  which  is  designed  to  give  him 
an  advantage.— (N.  D.  Bui.  83.) 

Sows  carry  their  pigs  about  16  weeks,  and  usually  will  not  take 
the  boar  while  suckling  pigs,  except  immediately  after  the  litter  is 
dropped,  and  they  must  be  bred  then  or  after  the  pigs  are  weaned. 
The  periods  of  heat  are  about  sixteen  days  apart,  altnough  they  vary 
with  the  individual. — (Wyo.  B.  74.) 

Gilts  should  not  be  served  before  the  age  of  8  months,  bringing 
the  first  litter  at  12  months.  This  gives  sufficient  time  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  reproductive  organs. — (F.  B.  205.) 

Castrating  and  Spaying. — The  'boar  pigs  should  be  castrated 
during  cool  weather,  as  soon  as  the  testicles  descend  into  the  scrotum. 
An  early  date  is  always  preferable  to  a  late  one,  for  the  development 
of  sex  characteristics  is  of  no  value  to  an  animal  that  is  intended  for 
meat. 

The  practice  of  spaying  sows  is  not  very  general.  It  is  much 
more  difficult  than  castration.  It  often  happens  that  sows  may 
become  pregnant  before  spaying  and  bear  a  good  litter  of  pigs  after 
that  operation.— (F.  B.  205.) 

The  results  of  the  experiment  at  the  Utah  Station  show  the 
gains  to  have  been  slightly  in  favor  of  the  unspayed  sows,  though 
the  difference  is  less  than  5  per  cent.  This  single  test  does  not  give 
sufficient  data  from  which  to  draw  a  conclusion,  but  it  indicates  that 
there  is  practically  no  difference  in  the  feeding  qualities  of  spayed 
and  unspayed  sows. — (Utah  B.  70.) 

Management  of  the  Boar. — As  soon  as  the  boar  arrives,  he 
phould  be  thoroughly  dipped  or  washed  with  some  of  the  coal  tar 
dips  for  destroying  lice,  and  given  the  same  treatment  after  ten 
days.    For  three  weeks  after  arrival  he  should  be  kept  at  a  safe  dis- 


434  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

tance  from  all  other  hogs  on  the  farm;  then,  if  found  free  from: 
disease,  he  may  foe  placed  in  quarters  near  them. — (Colo.  B.  146.) 

A  boar  should  not  be  used  for  much  service  until  he  is  at  least 
12  months  old.  A  fully  matured  boar  produces  the  most  vigorous 
pigs,  other  things  being  equal,  and  if  properly  fed  and  handled, 
may  be  profitably  kept  for  several  years.  His  tushes  should  be  cut 
or  knocked  off  as  often  as  they  show  considerable  size.  The  boar 
should  serve  a  sow  but  once,  and  two  sows  a  day  should  be  the  limit 
for  a  mature  boar,  and  then  he  should  have  a  day's  rest  after  every 
second  or  third  day. — (Colo,  B,  146.) 

Breeders  generally  advocate  the  practice  of  keeping  a  boar  to 
himself  during  the  entire  year — out  of  sight  and  hearing  of  the 
sows.  However,  a  boar  is  often  allowed  to  run  with  the  sows  after 
they  are  safe  in  pig ;  but  during  the  breeding  season  it  is  by  far  the 
best  policy  to  keep  him  by  himself,  admitting  a  sow  to  his  yard  for 
mating,  and  allowing  but  one  service.  This  will  be  productive  of 
the  best  results  in  many  ways.  The  energies  of  the  male  are  not 
overtaxed.  He  may  thus  serve  a  much  larger  number  of  sows,  and 
the  litters  will  generally  be  larger  and  the  pigs  stronger.  In  the 
case  of  a  sow  that  is  a  somewhat  shy  breeder  and  a  valuable  animal, 
she  may  be  allowed  to  remain  with  a  boar  during  the  greater  part" 
of  her  heat,  but  such  instances  are  exceptional.  Another  advantage 
of  the  single-service  system  is  that  a  man  always  has  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  his  breeding  operations  and  knows  when  to  expect 
farrowing  time. — (F.  B.  205.) 

The  boar  should  be  used  before  being  fed,  A  mature  boar  is 
sufficient  for  50  sows.  Over-service  results  in  pigs  being  dead,  weak 
or  puny  at  birth. 

The  boar  should  have  dry,  comfortable  shelter,  and  daily  exer- 
cise. He  will  keep  better  natured  and  easier  to  handle  if  allowed 
to  run  with  the  barrows  outside  the  breeding  season.  If  allowed  to 
run  with  the  sows  during  the  breeding  season,  he  will  weaken  him- 
self by  over-service.  At  other  times  there  is  danger  that  he  will 
injure  the  sows. 

It  pays  to  train  a  boar  from  his  first  service  to  the  use  of  a 
breeding  crate.  With  it,  any  size  and  weight  of  boar  can  be  mated 
with  any  size  and  weight  of  sow. — (Colo.  B.  146.) 

The  boar  should  never  be  allowed  to  run  with  the  sows,  as  he 
will  be  a  continual  worry  both  to  them  and  to  his  owner,  and  it  is 
much  better  to  keep  him  in  a  lot  where  he  can  neither  see  nor  hear 
other  hogs.  He  should  be  kept  as  quiet  as  possible,  and  his  food 
should  be  such  as  will  give  him  strength  and  vitality,  but  not  too 
fattening.  He  will  do  better  service  when  he  has  sufficient  grazing 
to  give  him  exercise  and  only  sufficient  grain  food  to  keep  him  in 
good  condition  without  becoming  so  fat  as  to  be  heavy  and  unwieldy. 
— (F.  B.  100.) 

Management  of  the  Sow. — A  large  litter  of  heavy,  vigorous 
pigs  at  weaning  time  is  the  foundation  of  profits.  The  sow  should 
be  selected  and  from  birth  should  be  fed  and  handled  to  produce 
such  litters. 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  435 

The  sow  pig  intended  for  a  breeder  should  be  pushed  for  tlie 
fiist  year  and  given  feeds  that  will  make  rapid  growth,  but  that  will 
not  fatten.  She  should  weigh  from  300  to  375  pounds  at  12  mouths 
of  age  when  in  thrifty  condition,  but  not  fat.  Ample  exercise  every 
day  is  necessary  for  health  and  to  develop  muscles  and  lungs.  If 
the  sow  has  made  a  good  growth,  she  may  be  bred  to  drop  her  first 
litter  when  she  becomes  12  months  of  age.  She  should  be  in  perfect 
health  and  in  good  flesh  when  bred.  The  gestation  period  for  the 
sow  is  112  days. 

While  pregnant,  the  sow  should  be  given  muscle  and  bone- 
making  feeds  that  will  develop  in  the  unborn  pigs  size  and  strong 
vital  organs.  The  same  feeds  are  needed  for  this  purpose  that  are 
required  by  pigs  after  weaning.  The  sow  should  be  kept  in  good 
flesh,  but  not  fat.  A  heavy  condition  of  flesh  is  favorable  if  it  is  put 
on  with  muscle-making  feeds  and  the  sow  has  been  given  ample 
exercise.  Under  feeding  is  extremely  detrimental.  The  pigs  from 
a  half-starved  sow  are  weak  and  undersized  at  birth,  and  are  stunted 
while  suckling  from  lack  of  sufficient  milk. 

Constipation  in  the  sow  while  she  is  pregnant,  or  suckling, 
must  be  avoided.  Pig  eating  is  often  caused  by  constipation.  Lax- 
ative and  bulky  feeds  will  prevent  this  trouble.  Exercise  is  neces- 
Bory  to  keep  the  bowels  in  good  condition.  Small  feeds  of  roots  are 
good.  Heavy  feeding  of  roots  is  often  the  cause  of  weak  or  dead 
pigs  at  birth.  Feeding  frozen  roots  is  likely  to  cause  abortion.  The 
pregnant  sow  should  be  fed,  sheltered,  exercised,  and  handled  in 
such  a  way  as  to  keep  her  in  good  flesh  and  health.  Everything 
that  facilitates  this  condition  tends  to  secure  pigs  with  greater  vigor 
and  more  profitable  as  feeders. 

A  blow  or  a  strain  of  any  kind  to  the  belly  of  the  pregnant  sow 
is  likely  to  result  in  pigs  dead  at  birth,  or  pigs  bom  the  wrong  way, 
with  the  consequent  injury  to  the  sow,  or  her  death.  Sows  had  to 
step  over  a  six-inch  board  in  passing  through  an  opening  between 
their  yard  and  pasture.  There  were  many  dead  pigs  at  farrowing, 
and  some  of  the  sows  died  from  trouble  while  giving  birth.  The 
ground  next  to  a  hog  pen  was  eight  inches  lower  than  the  floor,  and 
the  brood  sows  had  to  climb  over  this  step — dead  pigs  and  dead 
sows  at  farrowing  time  was  the  consequence.  Potatoes  were  dug 
with  a  plow  and  the  land  left  in  ridges.  Pregnant  sows  had  to  travel 
over  these  to  get  to  a  pea  field.  At  farrowing  time  there  were  many 
dead  pigs,  and  two  sows  died.  A  boar  allowed  to  run  with  sows  that 
are  bred  will  frequently  knock  them  around  and  bring  the  same 
trouble.  Horses  or  cattle  running  in  a  lot  with  brood  sows  will 
often  injure  the  sows  the  same  way.  Not  over  five  to  ten  bred  sows 
should  be  allowed  to  sleep  together,  as  crowding  in  cold  weather  may 
result  in  losses  at  farrowing  time.  Pregnant  sows  should  not  be 
allowed  to  run  with  fattening  hogs. 

A  breeding  record  should  be  kept,  and  two  weeks  before  the 
pigs  are  expected  the  sow  should  be  placed  in  a  farrowing  pen  con« 
jiected  with  a  dry  yard  large  enough  to  allow  her  to  exercise.    Th© 


436  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

feed  should  be  somewhat  reduced,  without  any  sudden  change,  and 
her  bowels  kept  loose.  She  should  have  dry,  sunny  shelter,  free 
from  draughts.  The  sow  should  be  petted  so  that  she  will  like  to 
have  her  feeder  handle  her. — (Colo.  Bui.  146.) 

To  produce  good,  strong,  healthy  pigs  they  must  be  looked 
after  before  they  are  born.  The  mother  while  pregnant  must  be 
cared  for  and  fed  properly  if  she  is  to  give  birth  to  a  good  litter  of 
pigs.  As  a  rule  the  mother  is  neglected  during  the  period  of  preg- 
nancy, the  owner  seeming  to  think  that  the  application  of  care  and 
feed  after  she  has  farrowed  is  all  that  is  required.  But  we  should 
know  that  a  poorly  nourished  pregnant  mother  means  a  weak,  sickly 
litter  of  pigs.— (Wis.  Bui.  184.) 

Hogs  require  attention,  regardless  of  condition,  age,  or  sex,  but 
the  management  of  the  brood  sows  is  the  surest  test  of  the  breeder's 
skill.  If  sows  are  carelessly  fed  during  pregnancy,  trouble  of  some 
kind  is  sure  to  ensue  at  farrowing ;  if  overfed  after  farrowing,  losses 
may  occur  among  the  pigs  from  scours  and  thumps.  At  no  time  ia 
the  development  of  the  pigs  so  easily  influenced  as  while  they  are 
dependent  on  the  sow's  milk — the  first  month  of  life.  Excepting 
the  ravages  of  epidemics,  perhaps  the  greatest  death  losses  in  the 
herd  occur  during  this  time,  including  farrowing.  The  accidents 
during  farrowing,  an  attack  of  scours  due  to  the  milk  of  the  dam,  or 
a  chill  while  following  the  sow  in  pasture  on  a  wet  day  may  stop 
growth  temporarily,  leaving  a  permanently  stunted  pig,  or  may 
result  fatally.  On  the  other  hand,  the  results  of  good  management 
during  pregnancy  are  as  marked  as  the  unfortunate  consequencea 
of  careless  methods. — (F.  B.  205.) 

Farrowing  Time. — Record  should  be  kept  of  the  date  of  service 
of  the  sows,  so  that  it  may  be  known  when  they  will  farrow.  Sows 
vary  very  little  in  their  gestation  period.  The  period  is  112  days 
from  the  date  of  breeding.  If  the  date  they  are  due  to  farrow  is 
known  and  they  are  running  out  in  sheds  or  outbuildings,  they 
should  be  given  a  pen  in  the  piggery  at  least  a  week  before  the  date 
of  farrowing.  This  will  give  the  sow  an  opportunity  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  new  surroundings  and  also  make  it  possible  to 
give  her  better  care  during  farrowing  time.  If  farrowing  takes 
place  during  cold  weather,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  warm  place  such 
as  a  reasonably  well  constructed  piggery  will  provide.  If  a  stove 
can  be  provided  in  a  email  room  to  warm  the  pigs  when  it  is  found 
necessary,  it  will  prove  helpful. 

The  bedding  of  a  sow  at  farrowing  time  should  not  be  too 
abundant,  but  just  enough  for  cleanliness.  Chaff  or  very  fine  straw 
is  best.  If  a  deep  bed  of  coarse  straw  is  provided,  the  pigs  are  liable 
to  burrow  into  it  and'  smother  or  be  crushed  by  the  sow.  The  writer 
realizes  that  many  farmers  do  not  have  a  good  piggery,  or  any  bam, 
to  farrow  the  sows  in.  If  this  is  the  situation,  the  sow  can  be  penned 
temporarily  in  a  shed  previous  to  and  for  a  short  time  after  farrow- 
ing and  good  results  may  be  had  in  saving  the  pigs  unless  tha 
weather  is  too  cold. 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  437 

It  is  well  to  wateh  the  sows  when  they  show  signs  of  getting 
ready  to  farrow  and  be  at  hand  to  assist  them,  in  case  they  should 
have  difficulty.  If  the  sow  is  very  nervous,  it  is  not  wise  to  give  her 
too  much  attention,  unless  she  has  a  troublesome  case.  Attention 
sometimes  does  more  harm  than  good  during  farrowing.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  handle  the  sow  considerably  before  she  farrows,  so  that 
she  will  become  accustomed  to  an  attendant  in  the  pen.  If  this  is 
done,  the  sow  vnll  be  much  less  excitable  if  it  is  necessary  to  give 
her  some  assistance  or  to  care  for  the  pigs. — (N.  D.  B.  83.) 

If  the  sow  has  already  farrowed  a  litter,  and  has  been  properly 
fed  and  cared  for  during  pregnancy,  little  difficulty  may  be  ex- 
pected. With  young  sows,  particularly  those  bred  at  an  immature 
age,  there  is  a  considerable  element  of  risk  at  this  time,  not  only  to 
the  pigs,  but  to  the  sow  herself. 

The  bedding  of  a  sow  at  farrowing  time  should  be  sufficient 
only  for  cleanliness  and  dryness.  If  furnished  in  large  amount,  the 
pigs  will  burrow  into  it  and  get  lost  or  be  crushed.  The  best  bed- 
ding is  rye  straw  and  wheat  straw,  and  if  the  straw  is  cut  it  makes 
an  almost  ideal  bed.  Chaff  is  excellent  if  it  can  be  obtained.  Oat 
straw  is  not  so  valuable. 

The  management  of  sows  during  farrowing  will  depend  largely 
on  the  animal  and  on  the  weather  conditions.  Assistance  should  be 
at  hand  if  needed,  but  the  sow  should  not  be  helped  if  she  is  getting 
along  nicely  alone.  Many  pigs  are  lost  annually  by  lack  of  atten- 
tion during  farrowing;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  in  many  cases  overanxiety  and  too  much  attention  may  do 
more  harm  than  good  and  often  result  seriously.  The  assistance 
that  is  imperative  at  this  time  is  to  help  in  cases  of  difficult  labor 
and  to  protect  pigs  from  chilling  in  cold  weather.  The  tempera- 
ment of  the  sow  should  be  considered ;  some  are  plainly  annoyed  by 
the  presence  of  an  attendant  and  show  it  in  their  nervous  actions; 
others  may  be  positively  ill  natured  and  resent  interference.  Such 
sows  are  better  left  alone  during  farrowing,  and  should  be  bred  to 
farrow  when  warm  weather  may  be  expected,  so  that  the  chances 
are  as  much  in  favor  of  the  pigs  as  possible.  If  the  sow's  nervous- 
ness or  ill  nature  leads  her  to  eat  her  pigs,  the  best  remedy  is  to  put 
her  in  the  pork  barrel  at  the  earliest  opportunity. 

When  farrowing  occurs  during  warm  weather,  a  minimum 
amount  of  attention  will  be  needed.  The  pigs  are  less  likely  to 
become  chilled  at  this  season  and  will  generally  find  their  way  to  the 
teats  unaided.  Proper  preliminary  feeding  of  the  sow  and  good 
quarters  will  make  the  chance  of  trouble  small.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  a  sow  farrows  during  extremely  cold  weather  the  pigs  will  be  in 
danger  of  being  chilled  unless  the  house  is  heated.  To  remedy  this 
some  breeders  throw  a  blanket  over  the  sow  until  she  is  through. 
Others  place  a  few  hot  bricks  or  a  hot  soapstone  in  the  bottom  of  a 
basket  or  barrel,  covering  them  with  straw,  and  put  a  cloth  over  the 
top  to  prevent  too  rapid  radiation ;  and,  unless  the  sow  objects  too 
seriously,  the  pigs  are  placed  in  this  receptacle  as  fast  as  they  arrive. 


438  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

They  will  not  suffer  if  they  do  not  suck  for  a  few  minutes,  and  they 
will  be  dry  and  warm  when  placed  to  the  teats.  This  treatment 
will  be  necessary  even  in  warm  weather  with  sows  that  are  nervous 
and  move  about  during  farrowing.  When  farrowing  is  over  the 
pigs  should  all  be  placed  to  the  teats,  care  being  taken  that  each  one 
gets  his  share.  When  the  afterbirth  is  passed  it  should  be 
removed  at  once  and  burned  or  buried.  There  is  good  reason  to 
believe  that  the  eating  of  the  afterbirth  is  often  the  beginning  of 
the  habit  of  eating  the  pigs  that  is  so  troublesome  with  some  sows. 

In  very  cold  weather  it  may  be  necessary  for  a  few  days  to 
remove  the  pigs  to  a  warm  place  after  they  have  sucked,  to  prevent 
chilling.  As  newborn  pigs  suck  as  often  as  every  two  hours  during 
the  day,  this  entails  considerable  inconvenience;  but  it  is  time  well 
spent  and  may  mean  the  difference  between  profit  and  loss  to  the 
breeder.  The  pigs  are  soon  able  to  fight  their  battles  with  the  cold 
unaided  by  any  but  their  own  warmth  and  that  of  the  dam. — 
(F.  B.  205.) 

When  the  udder  of  the  sow  becomes  distended  and  milk  can  be 
drawn  from  the  teats,  she  can  be  expected  to  farrow  in  24  hours. 
The  sow  should  be  closely  watched  to  see  that  all  her  organs  are 
operating  in  the  proper  manner.  She  should  have  a  medium  supply 
of  fresh,  dry,  clean,  dustless  bedding.  Fine  oat  straw  or  shredded 
com  fodder  make  excellent  bedding.  Avoid  barley  straw  or  wood 
shavings.  Dusty  beds  are  liable  to  cause  coughs  or  pneumonia. 
Sows  differ  as  to  the  amount  of  bedding  they  prefer  at  farrowing. 
Some  make  bad  use  of  it  and  should  be  given  but  little,  while  others 
can  be  allowed  a  liberal  supply.  Little  pigs  are  very  sensitive  to  the 
cold  and  if  they  arrive  during  cold  weather,  they  must  be  given 
artificial  heat.— (Wis.  B.  184.) 

It  is  best  to  have  the  sows  farrow  at  nearly  the  same  time,  and 
then  the  owner  can  watch  them  day  and  night  during  farrowing 
time.— (Colo.  B.  146.) 

Most  good  hog  raisers  who  have  warm  buildings  try  to  have 
their  sows  commence  farrowing  about  March  1,  but  without  good 
houses  this  is  impracticable.  Breeders  find  it  necessaiy  to  have  their 
pigs  come  about  this  time  in  order  to  have  them  large  enough  for  the 
fall  demand,  and  producers  of  market  hogs  find  the  practice  profit- 
able. Early  pigs  have  several  marked  advantages.  In  the  first 
place,  there  is  usually  more  time  to  care  for  them  early  in  March. 
Early  March  pigs  are  large  enough  to  begin  to  eat  as  soon  as  pasture 
is  ready  and  thus  get  the  longest  possible  pasture  season,  and  can 
be  expected  to  make  more  pork  from  grass  than  is  possible  for  later 
pigs.  They  can  be  kept  on  pasture  until  ready  for  market,  or  nearly 
so.  Not  only  can  they  make  more  use  of  pasture,  but  they  can  make 
more  economical  use  of  all  feed,  because  they  can  be  finished  for 
market  before  the  cold  weather  of  winter  sets  in,  when  grains  are 
more  expensive. —  (F.  B.  438.) 

Good  sows  improve  for  several  years  in  the  number  and  size 
of  the  pigs  they  hav^  at  a  litt^,    The  U,  S,  Department  of  Agri^ 


A  Desirable  Sire  of  the  Lard  Type  Possessing  Low-set,   Thick  Conformation, 
Should  Be  Selected  for  the  Production  of  Market  Hogs.     Dept.  of  Agr. 


Chester  White  Sow  in  Show  Condition.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  439 

culture  compiled  the  records  of  over  6,000  sows  and  found  yearling 
sows  averaged  6.65  pigs  per  litter,  and  five-year-old  sows  averaged 
8.4  pigs  per  litter.  At  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  year-old 
sows  averaged  7.8  pigs  per  litter,  with  an  average  weight  per  litter 
of  14.2  pounds,  while  sows  from  4  to  5  years  old  averaged  9  pigs 
per  litter,  wnth  an  average  weight  per  litter  of  26  pounds.  The 
common  practice  of  farmers  selling  their  old  brood  sows  each  year 
and  reserving  immature  ones  for  breeding  is  a  bad  practice,  as  the 
older  sows  are  much  better  mothers  and  their  pigs  have  a  strong 
advantage  in  greater  vitality  at  the  start. 

The  beginner  had  better  arrange  to  have  the  pigs  bom  in  May, 
when  the  sows  can  be  turned  on  pasture  soon  after  farrowing. — 
(Colo.  B.  146.) 

Two  Lifters  a  Year. — A  well-fed,  mature  sow,  with  a  strong 
constitution,  can  profitably  have  two  litters  a  year. — (Colo.  Cir.  2.) 

In  the  South,  each  sow,  after  she  is  1  year  old,  should  have  two 
litters  per  year,  one  in  the  spring  and  one  in  the  fall.  The  man- 
agement of  the  fall  litters,  which  are  usually  dropped  in  October 
or  early  in  November,  is  similar  to  that  of  the  spring  litters,  except 
the  winter  grazing,  which  is  mainly  on  alfalfa,  wheat  and  vetch,  and 
rape  and  clover.  The  farmer  must  decide  w^hether  to  market  fall 
pigs  in  the  summer  or  carry  them  over  and  fatten  in  the  fall. 
Usually  the  latter  plan  is  adopted. — (U.  S.  Cir.  30.) 

Two  litters  of  pigs  may  be  produced  each  year  if  mature  sows 
are  used,  and  warm  shelter  provided.  Better  stock  will  be  produced 
if  only  one  litter  is  farrowed  from  a  sow  each  year. —  (Wyo.  B.  74.) 

By  abundant  and  careful  feeding,  the  sow  should  produce  two 
litters  a  year.  The  ration  for  the  fall  litter  should  be  as  nutritiou.s 
and  palatable  as  possible. — (Mo.  Cir.  28.)  The  sow  may  be  bred 
three  days  after  the  pigs  are  weaned.  When  mature  sows  are  to 
have  two  litters  a  year,  the  sow,  if  bred  October  12,  will  farrow 
about  Februanr  1.  Allowing  the  pigs  to  suckle  nine  weeks,  they 
will  be  weaned  about  April  4,  and  the  sow  bred  the  second  time 
three  days  later.  The  second  litter  will  then  be  bom  about  July  28. 
—(Colo.  B.  146.) 

Weaning  the  Pigs. — Some  farmers  make  the  mistake  of  wean- 
ing the  pigs  too  young.  The  age  at  which  they  should  be  weaned 
depends  somewhat  upon  whether  the  mother  is  to  produce  two  litters 
a  year.  However,  the  pigs  should  never  be  taken  away  from  the 
mother  under  8  weeks  of  age ;  it  is  usually  advisable  to  let  them  run 
with  the  sow  until  they  are  from  10  to  12  weeks  old.  The  mother's 
feed  at  weaning  time  should  be  reduced  to  pasture  alone  for  a  few 
days,  so  that  the  flow  of  milk  will  be  checked;  if  full  feed  is  con- 
tinued when  the  pigs  are  weaned,  the  mother's  udders  and  teats  are 
apt  to  be  ruined.  The  milk  flow  will  dry  up  within  a  few  days,  and 
if  the  sow  is  thin  the  feed  should  be  raised  some,  but  she  will  not 
require  as  much  feed  as  when  she  was  suckling  the  litter  of  pigs. 

The  pigs  should  be  accustomed  to  feeds  before  they  are  taken 
from  the  mother.     If  they  are  weaned  before  they  are  thoroughly 


440  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

acquainted  with  some  concentrated  feeds,  they  are  sure  to  be  seri- 
ously checked  in  their  growth.  The  farmer  who  has  some  skim 
milk  will  experience  no  difficulty  at  all  in  carrying  the  pigs  through 
this  period,  as  the  skim  milk,  with  the  proper  grain  ration,  takes  the 
place  of  the  mother's  milk. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Breeders  differ  widely  as  to  the  age  of  weaning.  The  majority 
wean  at  six  to  ten  weeks,  with  a  considerable  number  at  twelve 
weeks;  some  wean  later  than  twelve  weeks  and  a  few  earlier  than 
six  weeks.  The  breeders  who  wean  at  the  early  periods  usually  are 
situated  where  dairy  by-products  are  plentiful,  and  they  usually 
raise  two  litters  each  year,  making  the  demands  of  the  pigs  on  the 
sow  as  brief  and  light  as  passible.  Breeders  in  the  corn  belt  wean 
at  the  more  mature  ages,  rarely  weaning  as  young  as  6  weeks,  and 
often  allowing  the  pigs  to  reach  the  age  of  16  weeks  before  the  sow 
is  taken  away.  A  considerable  number  make  no  attempt  to  wean 
as  the  word  is  generally  used ;  that  is,  there  is  no  enforced  separation 
of  the  sow  from  her  pigs;  the  pigs  run  with  the  sow  until  her 
instinct  tells  her  that  they  are  old  enough  to  shift  for  themselves. 

The  method  of  weaning  will  depend  somewhat  on  circum- 
stances. If  the  pigs  are  so  little  dependent  on  the  sow's  milk  that 
she  is  gaining  rapidly  in  flesh  and  lessening  in  milk  flow  the  wean- 
ing may  be  abrupt,  the  sow  being  taken  away  out  of  hearing.  If 
she  is  still  milking  considerably  she  may  be  returned  to  the  pigs 
once  a  day  for  two  or  three  days,  or  the  pigs  may  be  taken  away  in 
detachments,  beginning  with  two  or  three  of  the  largest  and  strong- 
est, then  the  next  strongest,  leaving  the  weakest  ones  of  the  litter 
to  complete  the  drying  oflP. 

Whether  the  weaning  is  brought  about  directly  or  gradually,  it 
should  in  all  cases  be  complete  and  decisive.  The  pigs  should  be 
placed  apart  from  the  sows  in  quarters  secure  enough  to  prevent 
communication.  By  no  means  should  pigs  be  allowed  to  follow  a 
sow  until  she  is  almost  worn  out.  The  pigs  are  no  better  and 
the  sow  infinitely  worse  than  if  weaning  had  been  brought  about 
properly.— (P.  B.  205.) 

Pigs  begin  to  eat  at  4  to  5  weeks  old  and  it  is  always  best  to 
have  them  eating  well  before  weaning.  They  can  best  be  fed  in  a 
creep  or  small  pen  away  from  the  old  sows.  The  ration  should 
be  fed  from  an  easily  cleaned,  small,  V-shaped  trough.  They  will 
early  learn  to  eat  shelled  com,  and  a  small  quantity  should  be  kept 
handy  in  a  trough  or  clean  spot  on  the  floor.  This  dry  com  pre- 
vents the  slop  ration  from  causing  scours. 

It  is  very  important  to  keep  little  pigs  from  getting  off  feed. 
They  should  thrive  and  grow  steadily;  have  fresh  feed,  clean  troughs 
and  comfortable  quarters.  The  young  pigs  should  be  fed  three 
times  a  day,  but  not  an  excessive  amount,  and  may  be  weaned  at 
6  weeks,  or,  better,  8  weeks.  If  a  few  smaller  pigs  are  left  with  the 
sows  when  the  larger  ones  are  weaned,  the  milk  flow  will  be  dried 
off  gradually.     Otherwise  the  sows  should  be  turned  in  with  the 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  441 

pigs  once  a  day  for  three  or  four  days  to  prevent  trouble  with  their 
uddere.--(Wis.  B.  184.) 

Wean  the  pigs  at  7  to  9  weeks  old.  Wean  the  stronger  ones 
first,  leaving  the  weaker  ones  with  the  mother.  It  is  better  to  have 
the  sows  and  pigs  in  the  pasture  or  lot  where  the  pigs  are  to  run,  at 
least  a  week  before  weaning,  and  to  wean  the  sow  away  from  the 
pigs,  and  not  the  pigs  away  from  the  sow.  They  will  worry  less. 
Remove  the  sow  and  two  or  three  of  her  smaller  pigs  to  a  lot  out  of 
sight  and  hearing  of  the  pigs  being  weaned. — (Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

The  cheapest  way  to  put  gains  on  young  pigs  is  through  the 
sow.  She  should  be  fed  to  produce  a  high  yield  of  milk,  and  the 
pigs  kept  with  her  until  they  get  to  eating  a  full  feed  of  both  grain 
and  pasture.  The  boars  should  be  castrated  before  being  weaned. 
Cut  down  the  sow's  ration  to  water  and  alfalfa  hay  at  weaning  time 
and  she  will  dry  up  without  injury  to  her  udder. — (Colo.  B.  146.) 

The  Pigs  After  Weaning. — Attention  will  now  be  given  to  the 
pigs  that  have  been  weaned.  Up  to  this  time  all  are  on  the  same  feed 
and  under  the  same  management.  From  now  on,  however,  those 
that  are  to  be  retained  as  breeding  animals  should  be  continued  on 
a  growing  ration — ^that  is,  one  which  is  somewhat  narrow  and  will 
develop  bone  and  muscle  to  the  largest  extent.  Those  that  are  to  be 
fattened  for  market  should  be  fed  more  liberally  and  their  feed  made 
more  carbonaceous. — (F.  B.  205.) 

Young  pigs  should  be  given  plenty  of  opportunity  for  exercise 
from  the  time  they  begin  to  get  strong  enough  to  run  about.  If  they 
are  confined  too  closely  they  are  apt  to  take  on  flesh  too  rapidly  and 
become  infected  with  what  is  known  as  thumps.  Thumps  are  indi- 
cated by  violent  vibrations  of  the  heart.  It  is  caused  by  the  deposi- 
tion of  fat  about  the  internal  organs.  When  the  pigs  get  an  attack 
of  thumps  they  never  will  thrive  well  afterwards,  and  it  often  results 
in  death.— (N.  D.  B.  83.) 

Pigs  stunted  on  the  start  will  always  remain  so.  Give  them 
plenty  of  sunshine,  warm,  sunny  yards  and  plenty  of  exercise.  Keep 
in  dry,  freshly  bedded  quarters. — (Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

The  Herdsman. — The  ideal  herdsman  is  gentle  in  manner  and 
moves  quietly  among  the  herd.  He  is  quick  to  observe  and  loves  to 
watch  the  animals  under  his  care. — (Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

Advice  for  the  Beginner. — Select  one  of  the  best  leading  breeds. 
Get  only  1  to  5  sows,  preferably  the  smaller  number,  getting  an  ex« 
perienced  man  to  select  good  individuals  from  prolific  strains  on 
both  sides.  Study  the  requirements  of  the  animals  and  work  for 
larger  litters  and  early  maturity. 

The  second  year  3  or  4  of  the  best  sow  pigs  should  be  saved  with 
their  dams.  The  third  year  the  grower  should  be  able  to  handle  10 
sows  and  their  produce,  and  then  slowly  increase  to  the  limit  of  the 
farm.  Cheap  shelter  and  fences  should  be  used  until  the  grower  has 
learned  what  is  most  suitable  for  his  conditions. — (Colo.  B.  146.) 


442  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Gestation  Table  for  Swine. 

Showing  the  date  when  a  sow  is  due  to  farrow,  counting  16  weeks  from  the  day  when  she  was 
served.  Find  the  date  when  the  sow  was  served,  and  the  date  immediately  to  the  right  is  the  date 
when  she  is  due.  For  instance,  if  the  sow  was  served  February  1,  she  is  due  May  24;  if  served  May 
24,  she  is  due  September  13, 


Feb. 

May 

Sept. 

Jan. 

April 

Aug, 

Dec. 

Mar. 

July 

Nov. 

Feb. 

June 

Oct. 

Jan. 

1 

24 

13 

3 

25 

15 

5 

27 

17 

6 

26 

18 

8 

28 

2 

25 

14 

4 

26 

16 

6 

28 

18 

7 

27 

19 

9 

29 

3 

26 

IS 

5 

27 

17 

7 

29 

19 

8 

28 
Mar. 

20 

10 

30 

4 

27 

16 

6 

28 

18 

8 

30 

20 

9 

1 

21 

11 

31 
Feb. 

5 

28 

17 

7 

29 

19 

9 

31 
April 

21 

10 

2 

22 

12 

1 

6 

29 

IS 

8 

30 
May 

20 

10 

1 

22 

11 

3 

23 

13 

2 

7 

30 

19 

9 

1 

21 

11 

2 

23 

12 

4 

24 

14 

3 

8 

31 
June 

20 

10 

2 

22 

12 

3 

24 

13 

5 

25 

15 

4 

9 

1 

21 

11 

3 

23 

13 

4 

25 

14 

6 

26 

16 

5 

10 

2 

22 

12 

4 

24 

14 

5 

26 

15 

7 

27 

17 

6 

11 

3 

23 

13 

5 

25 

IS 

6 

27 

16 

8 

28 

18 

7 

12 

4 

24 

14 

6 

26 

16 

7 

28 

17 

9 

29 

19 

8 

13 

5 

25 

IS 

7 

27 

17 

8 

29 

18 

10 

30 
July 

20 

9 

14 

6 

26 

16 

8 

28 

18 

9 

30 

19 

11 

1 

21 

10 

15 

7 

27 

17 

9 

29 

19 

10 

31 
Aug, 

1 

20 

12 

2 

22 

11 

16 

8 

28 

18 

10 

30 

20 

11 

21 

13 

3 

23 

12 

17 

9 

29 

19 

11 

31 
Sept. 

21 

12 

2 

22 

14 

4 

24 

13 

18 

10 

30 
Oct. 

20 

12 

1 

22 

13 

3 

23 

IS 

5 

25 

14 

19 

11 

1 

21 

13 

2 

23 

14 

4 

24 

16 

6 

26 

15 

20 

12 

2 

22 

14 

3 

24 

15 

5 

25 

17 

7 

27 

16 

21 

13 

3 

23 

15 

4 

25 

16 

6 

26 

18 

8 

28 

17 

22 

14 

4 

24 

16 

5 

26 

17 

7 

27 

19 

9 

29 

18 

23 

15 

5 

25 

17 

6 

27 

18 

8 

28 

20 

10 

30 

19 

24 

16 

6 

26 

18 

7 

28 

19 

9 

29 

21 

11 

31 

Nov. 

20 

25 

17 

7 

27 

19 

8 

29 

20 

10 

30 
Dec. 

22 

12 

1 

21 

26 

18 

8 

28 

20 

9 

30 

21 

11 

1 

23 

13 

2 

22 

27 

19 

9 

29 

21 

10 

31 
Jan. 

22 

12 

2 

24 

14 

3 

23 

28 

20 

10 

30 

22 

11 

23 

13 

3 

25 

15 

4 

24 

21 

11 

31 

23 

12 

24 

14 

4 

26 

16 

5 

25 

FEEDS  AND  FEEDING. 

Feeds;  Concentrates. — Bulk  in  the  food  of  the  hog  is  not  desir- 
able, as  the  physiological  make-up  of  the  animal  is  such  that  he  can 
not  handle  foods  of  this  character  to  advantage.  While  it  is  true  that 
the  hog  consumes  more  food  in  proportion  to  his  weight  and  makes 
greater  gains  from  the  food  consumed  than  any  other  farm  animal, 
we  must  never  lose  sight  of  the  necessity  of  providing  food  for  him  in 
a  good  mechanical  condition  and  of  a  sufficiently  palatable  nature  to 
maintain  the  appetite  of  the  hog.  It  is  unwise,  therefore,  to  attempt 
to  feed  any  considerable  amount  of  roughness  to  this  class  of  live 
stock,  as  the  gains  obtained  will  not  be  satisfactory.  Palatability  is 
also  a  very  important  consideration  in  the  feeding  of  swine.  Dry 
grain  is  not  a  particularly  attractive  food  and  the  same  ration  of  corn 
and  water  fed  continuously  for  days  while  the  animal  is  confined  in  a 
small  pen  is  not  calculated  to  insure  large  gains  or  economic  returns 
to  the  farmer.— (Va.  B.  167.) 

Economical  Handling. — F€eding  hogs  from'  the  time  they  are 
weaned  until  ready  for  market  in  sections  where  dairying  is  not  prac- 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  443 

ticed  is  a  difficult  undertaking,  particularly  in  the  winter  season, 
during  the  summer  many  grazing  crops  can  be  utilized,  and  some  of 
these,  like  the  winter  cereals  and  cowpeas  and  soy  beans,  which  pro- 
duce an  abundance  of  grain,  enable  the  farmer  to  keep  his  hogs  in  a 
growing,  thriving  condition,  with  little  labor  and  at  a  low  cost,  as 
they  can  be  made  to  harvest  their  own  food;  and  the  exercise  they 
enjoy  in  the  open  keeps  them  in  a  healthy  condition,  and  produces  a 
finer  quality  of  meat  than  is  generally  obtained  from  pen-feeding  on 
corn  alone.  Naturally  the  farmer  should  endeavor  to  finish  as  many 
of  his  hogs  in  the  summer  season  as  possible  where  dairy  by-products 
are  not  available,  but  even  under  the  most  favorable  management 
there  will  be  a  large  numher  of  animals  which  must  be  maintained 
or  fattened  during  the  winter  season,  and  how  to  handle  these  hogs 
most  advantageously  is  a  serious  problem  and  one  to  which  some  con- 
siderable attention  has  been  given,  owing  to  its  general  interest. 

Corn  Alone  Not  Satisfactory. — It  is  now  clearly  recognized  that 
dry  feed  alone,  especially  where  corn  is  the  exclusive  ration,  does  not 
provide  the  most  satisfactory  combination  of  nutrients  for  the  hog, 
and  the  chief  object  of  the  present  investigation  was  to  determine  the 
influence  of  adding  various  protein  amendments  to  a  ration  of  corn. 
The  fact  that  corn  is  so  generally  cultivated  has  led  to  its  almost  ex- 
clusive use  as  a  fattening  food  for  hogs  in  many  localities,  which  is 
unfortunate  in  the  light  of  investigations  made  in  the  past  few  years, 
as  the  results  distinctly  show  that  much  better  gains  would  be  ob- 
tained were  the  corn  combined  with  some  other  food  which  would 
Bupply  the  needs  of  the  growing  animal  to  better  advantage.  For 
fattening  purposes,  corn  stands  supreme,  but  it  is  not  a  complete  and 
perfect  food  for  either  growing  or  fattening  animals,  and  this  state- 
ment applies  to  all  classes  of  live  stock.  From  the  standpoint  of  the 
hog  feeder,  corn  is  deficient  in  both  protein  and  mineral  matter, 
especially  the  latter.  Since  the  uniform  and  rapid  development  of 
the  animal  depends  on  the  maintenance  of  the  skeleton  or  bony 
framework,  the  nutrition  of  the  muscles,  and  the  formation  of  fat,  it 
is  essential  that  such  foods  be  fed  as  will  provide  for  the  needs  of  the 
body  in  the  cheapest  form.  As  other  grains  are  rich  in  some  of  the 
constituents  in  which  corn  is  deficient,  it  appears  that  a  combination 
of  them  will  prove  effective,  and  such  is  shown  to  be  the  case  by  the 
results  presented. 

The  common  practice  of  feeding  com  alone  to  hogs  would  be 
corrected,  were  some  well  known  truths  more  generally  recognized. 
For  instance,  it  is  stated  on  competent  authority  that  the  ash  of  corn 
is  entirely  indigestible  by  swine.  Moreover,  the  withholding  of  min- 
eral matter  from  the  hog  not  only  impairs  the  skeleton,  but  the  whole 
nutritive  process  is  disturbed  as  well,  and  the  growth  of  the  animal  is 
seriously  retarded  if  our  results  are  to  be  relied  upon.  The  fact  that 
gains  two  or  three  times  larger  than  those  normally  obtained  on  corn 
alone  follow  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  ration  is  a  matter  of  such 
far-reaching  and  economic  concern  to  hog  raisers  as  to  command 
their  most* respectful  and  earnest  consideration. — (Va.  B.  167.) 


444  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

It  is  generally  considered  that  there  is  no  other  feed  equal  to 
com  for  pork  production.  This  is  true,  provided  the  com  is  used 
judiciously.  But  if  it  be  fed  alone  for  any  length  of  time  there  are 
few  feeds  which  are  poorer,  as  the  experiments  described  below  strik- 
ingly demonstrate.  If,  however,  corn  is  fed  in  combination  with 
other  feeds,  its  use  is  to  be  highly  commended,  and  it  can  be  used  to 
great  economical  advantage,  too,  even  though  it  sells  upon  the 
market  as  high  as  $1  a  bushel. 

The  hog  is  not  adapted  to  living  on  com  alone,  and  when  we 
require  it  of  him  we  are  forcing  him  to  do  a  thing  which  is  not  con- 
sistent with  his  nature.  Man  likes  a  mixture  of  feeds  or  a  change  in 
diet;  so  do  the  lower  animals.  The  hog  in  its  wild  state  is  omnivor- 
ous, feeding  upon  roots,  nuts,  fish,  grass,  fruit,  snakes,  etc. ;  in  fact, 
but  few  feeds  can  be  mentioned  that  he  will  not  eat  if  he  be  given  the 
opportunity.  Our  domesticated  hogs  have  inherited  the  tendency  to 
select  their  feed  from  a  variety  of  substances,  and  when  we  inclose 
them  in  a  pen  and  give  but  one  feed,  we  are  not  allowing  them  to 
reach  their  highest  possibilities. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Corn  alone  is  not  a  good  ration  for  hogs.  The  growing  animal 
requires  a  certain  proportion  of  muscle  forming  material  along  with 
the  fattening  nutrients  of  the  food.  From  the  farmer's  standpoint, 
the  important  functions  of  the  protein  are  the  production  of  lean 
meat,  tendons,  wool,  hair,  and  building  up  and  maintaining  the  vital 
organs  of  the  body.  The  carbohydrates  and  fats  are  used  in  the  for- 
mation of  fat  and  in  the  production  of  the  heat  and  energy  of  the 
animal  body.  Corn  is  rich  in  the  fat  forming  compounds  but  is  de- 
ficient in  protein  and  consequently  the  best  results  cannot  be  ob- 
tained by  feeding  it  alone. — (Ok.  B.  80.) 

The  specific  effects  of  com  as  an  only  food,  as  evidenced  by  the 
growth  of  young  swine,  are  in  general,  a  retarded  development  of 
proteid  and  bony  tissues,  and  an  over-development  of  fatty  tissue. 
This  results  in  the  production  of  fine-boned,  poorly  muscled,  under- 
sized and  over-fat  animals,  which  reach  their  limit  of  growth  pre- 
maturely, and  which  are  characterized  by  less  than  normal  breeding 
capacity.  Impaired  fecundity  seems  to  result  from  discouragement 
of  proteid  increase  generally,  and  from  the  lessened  circulation  of 
blood  in  the  female  reproductive  organs,  this  last  being  caused  by 
pressure  of  the  excessive  amounts  of  internal  fat  which  accumulate 
about  these  parts.  With  hogs  fed  on  corn  alone  the  bones,  muscles, 
liver,  kidneys,  lungs,  heart  and  spleen  all  compose  an  abnormally 
small  proportion  of  the  increase  in  weight,  and  fat  composes  an  ab- 
normally large  part  of  the  increase. —  (Mo.  B.  81.) 

Exclusive  corn  feeding  proved  very  unprofitable,  and  especially 
so  where  the  pigs  used  were  young  and  small  at  the  beginning.  When 
the  mixed  ration  of  corn  chops,  rice  bran,  and  tankage  was  fed  in  the 
place  of  the  straight  corn  ration  the  gain  was  much  more  rapid  and 
the  cost  of  that  gain  much  reduced. —  (Tex.  B.  131.)  When  corn 
was  fed  alone  but  48  cents  was  realized  upon  each  bushel  of  com 
used.  The  way  to  secure  a  better  price  for  the  corn  is  to  feed  it  in 
combination  with  some  other  feed. 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  445 

When  com  was  used  alone  as  a  ration  for  fattening  hogs  both 
the  daily  gains  and  the  financial  outcome  were  unsatisfactory.  Money 
■was  lost  in  every  case  where  corn  was  fed  without  a  supplement. 
— (Ala.  B.  143.)  Corn  alone,  however  prepared,  even  when  as 
cheap  as  30  cents  per  bushel,  is  a  very  expensive  feed  for  dry-lot  pork 
production. — (Mo.  B.  65.) 

Cost  of  Gain  With  Corn. — The  cost  of  a  pound  of  gain  where 
hogs  were  fed  corn  meal  alone  varied  from  6.05  to  13.44  cents;  where 
fed  corn  meal  and  linseed  meal  from  3.18  to  3.53  cents;  where  fed 
Red  Dog  and  corn  meal  soaked  and  unsoaked  5.42  and  4.34  cents, 
respectively;  where  fed  meat  meal  and  corn  meal  in  varying  pro- 
portions, from  4.69  to  4.93  cents ;  where  fed  skim  milk  and  com 
meal  in  the  proportion  of  4  to  1,  from  3.15  to  3.41  cents;  where  fed 
middlings  and  corn  meal  in  varying  proportions,  from  5.75  to  6.40 
cents.  A  good  profit  may  be  anticipated  by  the  careful  feeder  of 
hogs  on  a  margin  of  50  cents,  an  excellent  profit  on  a  margin  of 
$1.00,  and  large  profits  on  margins  of  $1.50  and  $2.00.  These  re- 
sults show  conclusively  that  it  is  false  economy  and  wrong  theoretic- 
allv  and  practically  to  attempt  to  maintain  hogs  on  corn  meal  alone. 
—  (Va.  B.  167.) 

Experiments  show  that  pork  cannot  be  profitably  raised  and 
finished  on  corn  alone  when  corn  sells  for  70  cents  per  bushel.  When 
corn  is  worth  70  cents  a  bushel,  the  cost  of  each  pound  of  gain  will 
be  just  about  7  cents.  When  corn  is  selling  at  60  cents  a  bushel  each 
])ound  of  gain  put  on  will  cost  6  cents;  when  corn  is  worth  50  cents  a 
bushel  each  pound  of  gain  will  cost  5  cents;  and  when  com  is  worth 
only  40  cents  a  bushel  pork  can  be  finished  for  only  4  cents  a  pound. 
It  appears,  therefore,  that  when  70-cent  corn  is  fed  to  5-cent  hogs  the 
feeder  is  losing  20  cents  a  bushel  on  his  corn.  Seven-cent  pork  must 
go  along  with  70-cent  corn  if  the  owner  is  to  strike  even  on  feed- 
ing corn  alone.  As  a  general  thing  the  farmers  do  not  get  7  cents 
for  their  hogs.  If  corn  were  worth  but  40  cents  a  bushel,  as  it 
often  is  in  some  of  the  Wesetrn  States,  it  would  be  a  very  profitable 
thing  to  raise  corn  and  feed  it  to  5  and  6  cent  hogs;  good  money 
could  be  made  out  of  it,  as  the  farmer  would  then  be  selling  his  40' 
cent  corn,  by  means  of  hogs,  at  50  to  60  cents  a  bushel.  But  even  in 
the  corn-belt  States  it  is  more  profitable  to  supplement  the  corn  with 
other  concentrates  or  green  crops,  and  this  practice  is  followed  by  the 
best  farmers.— (F.  B.  411.) 

Corn  for  Breeding  Animals. — The  professional  herdsman,  and 
also  many  of  the  successful  breeders  of  pure-bred  stock  of  all  kinds, 
believe  that  corn  is  injurious  to  breeding  animals.  We  believe,  how- 
ever, that  there  is  no  time  in  the  life  of  any  farm  animal  in  the  Corn 
Belt  when  the  corn  may  not  properly  be  used,  whether  it  be  with  a 
fast  horse  or  a  slow  one,  a  milch  cow  or  a  bacon  hog,  a  laying  hen  or  a 
breeding  ewe;  but  for  many  purposes  it  must  be  used  in  moderation, 
and  must  be  properly  supplemented,  so  as  to  provide  those  nutrients 
in  which  it  is  deficient.  Animals  need  energy-producing  food,  much 
more  of  it  than  of  any  other  sort,  and  in  this  region  com  will  supply 


446  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

this  kind  of  nutriment  more  cheaply  than  will  any  other  food. — 
(Mo.  B.  81.) 

Savings  Effected  Per  Bushel  by  Grinding  Corn  for  Fattening  Pigs. 


Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts 

Cts. 

Cts. 

When  corn  is  worth 

25 
1.5 

30 
1.8 

35 

2.1 

40 
2.4 

45 

2.7 

50 
3.0 

55 
3.3 

60 
3.6 

65 
3,9 

70 
4.2 

75 
4.5 

Corn  Whole  or  Ground. — The  table  shows  that  when  corn  is 
worth  25  cents  per  bushel,  the  saving  from  grinding  is  only  1.5  cents, 
not  enough  to  cover  the  cost  unless  cheap  power  is  available.  As  corn 
advances  in  price  the  saving  per  bushel  increases  three-tenths  of  a 
cent  with  each  five  cents'  advance.  With  corn  at  75  cents  per  bushel, 
the  saving  from  grinding  is  4.5  cents  per  bushel.  Where  there  is 
plenty  of  time  for  maturing  the  pigs,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  secure 
the  maximum  daily  gain,  it  is  doubtful  if  it  pays  to  grind  corn  for 
pigs.  The  test  shows  that  where  quick  maturity  is  an  important 
item,  better  results  are  secured  from  the  corn  meal.  Pigs  fed  corn 
meal,  eat  more  grain  and  make  somewhat  larger  daily  gains.  Corn 
meal  can  doubtless  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  finishing  off  a  bunch 
of  hogs  which  were  at  first  fed  shelled  corn.  Changing  over  to  corn 
meal  near  the  close  of  the  feeding  period  also  furnishes  a  change  in 
the  character  of  the  ration,  which  will  be  satisfactory  to  the  animals. 
—  (Wis.  B.  145.) 

The  dry  climate  and  intense  sunshine  in  Colorado  make  the 
grain  much  harder  and  more  flinty  than  those  grown  in  the  humid 
region.  It  is,  therefore,  usually  not  profitable  to  feed  dry,  whole 
grain.  Rolling  is  preferable  to  grinding,  and  requires  less  power. 
Rolled  grain  is  left  in  the  form  of  flakes,  while  in  grinding  hard 
grains  like  Colorado  barley,  the  ground  particles  of  grain  have  sharp 
edges  that  are  objectionable. — (Colo.  B.  146.) 

The  average  of  19  experiments  with  297  pigs  at  6  experiment 
stations  where  corn  meal  and  whole  corn  were  compared,  show  the 
feed  required  for  100  pounds  of  gain  was  524  pounds  when  whole 
corn  was  fed,  and  479  pounds  when  corn  meal  was  fed,  a  difference 
of  81/2  per  cent  in  favor  of  grinding. —  (B.  A.  I.  Cir.  63.) 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal. — Ground  corn  and  cob  has  a  slightly  better 
feeding  value  than  corn  on  the  ear.  For  practical  purposes  it  is  more 
economical  to  feed  corn  on  the  ear  rather  than  hauling  to  the  mill 
and  grinding  for  feed. —  (N.  H.  B.  66.)  Corn-and-cob  meal  contains 
too  much  indigestible  and  unpalatable  fiber  and  costs  too  much  in 
the  preparation  to  be  the  best  feed  for  any  purpose,  for  swine.  It  is 
the  last  food  we  would  choose  to  use  for  hog  feeding. — (Mo.  Bu.  65.) 

Soaking  and  Cooking. — The  general  experience  of  swine  feeders 
in  Colorado  is  that  soaking  grain  from  24  to  48  hours  has  the  same 
beneficial  effect  as  grinding,  at  less  cost,  but  with  more  trouble.  Care 
must  be  taken  in  hot  weather  not  to  let  the  soaking  grain  sour,  and 
in  cold  weather  to  keep  it  from  freezing  until  eaten.    Cooking  grain 


Loco  Weed  Disease;  Plant  in  Slower. 


^ac;f^^ 


«^^-^#...aJ*u?? 


A  Hog  House  With  Upper  Windows  Perfectly  A..,..»-,v 


Farrowing 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  44& 

reduces  its  feed  value.  It  has  been  found  necessary  to  cook  potatoes 
where  any  considerable  quantity  has  been  fed  to  hogs,  and  several 
feeders  report  good  results  from  cooking  sugar  beets  thoroughly,  and 
then  mixing  the  grain  with  the  beets  while  they  are  still  hot,  but 
after  the  fire  has  been  removed. —  (Colo.  B.  146.) 

Grinding  is  mor.e  efficient  than  soaking  as  a  means  of  prepara- 
tion of  com ;  soaking,  however,  costs  much  less  and  is  nearly  as  valu- 
able ;  both  methods  of  preparation  are  very  useful  and  well  worth  the 
cost  in  these  experiments,  even  when  corn  costs  as  little  as  thirty 
cents  per  bushel. — (Mo.  B.  65.) 

Young  hogs  made  faster  gains  upon  com  meal  and  skim  milk 
than  upon  shelled  com  and  skim  milk,  but  if  cost  of  grinding  was 
subtracted  the  difference  in  profit  was  small  though  still  in  favor  of 
corn  meal  as  against  shelled  com.  Pigs  fed  a  mixture  of  grains 
soaked  for  24  hours  made  both  faster  and  cheaper  gains  than  either 
pigs  fed  the  same  feed  mixture  dry,  or  those  having  it  given  freshly 
mixed  with  water. — (Ind.  B.  150.)  All  grain  should  be  ground  for 
hogs.  Cooking  is  not  profitable;  but  warm  feed  in  cold  weather  is 
profitable,  because  with  warm  feed  the  hogs  use  less  of  their  food  for 
maintaining  bodily  heat. — (Wyo.  B.  74.) 

Wet  or  Dry. — In  an  experiment  at  the  Utah  Station,  a  saving  of 
34  pounds  of  grain  for  every  100  pounds  gain  was  effected  by  feeding 
the  grain  dry.  The  average  result  from  the  four  Experiment  Sta- 
tions (Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Oregon  and  Missouri)  show  a  dif- 
ference of  7  per  cent  in  favor  of  using  wet  or  soaked  meal. — (Utah 
B.  70.)  It  would  appear  that  there  is  really  no  gain  in  feeding  the 
pigs  a  slop  instead  of  a  dry  grain,  excepting  as  a  feeder  may  regard  it 
a  matter  of  convenience. — (Ind.  B.  86.) 

Hogging  Down  Corn. — In  these  times  of  scarcity  of  labor  and 
its  high  price  many  farmers  are  trying  to  reduce  the  labor  on  the 
farm.  Some  of  the  hog  raisers  have  adopted,  the  plan  of  harvesting 
the  com  crop  by  turning  the  hogs  into  the  cornfield  and  letting  them 
gather  it,  or  hogging  it  down,  as  it  is  called.  Besides  saving  the  ex- 
pense of  harvesting  the  com,  there  are  two  other  great  objects  to  be 
attained  by  this  method  of  harvesting  com:  (1)  The  improvement 
of  the  land  and  (2)  the  health  of  the  hogs.— (F.  B.  331.) 

Hogging  off  com  may  be  practiced  with  profit  on  many  Minne- 
sota farms.  Pork  was  produced  with  less  grain  by  hogging  com  than 
by  feeding  ear  or  snapped  com  in  yards.  Hogs  fed  in  field  gained 
nearly  one-third  more  rapidly  than  those  fed  in  yards.  The  cost  of 
fencing  cornfields  may  be  from  $1.00  to  $2.50  less  per  acre  than  the 
cost  of  husking  the  corn.  The  stover  lost  in  follo\\'ing  this  method  is, 
in  many  cases  not  worth  the  cost  of  saving  it.  Good  pastures  are  in 
most  cases  necessary  for  the  economical  production  of  pork.  To  have 
good  hog  pastures  and  to  hog  off  corn  economically,  a  carefully 
worked  out  plan  with  a  view  to  economy  of  labor  and  fencing  is  es- 
sential. A  four  year  rotation  (grain,  clover,  corn,  corn),  works  very 
satisfactorily  on  small  fields,  for  hogs,  as  it  gives  twice  as  much  corn 
as  pasture,  which  is  about  the  proportion  used.  It  requires  no  more 
labor  to  prepare  for  subsequent  crops  fields  that  have  been  hogged  off 


450  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

than  those  that  have  been  treated  by  the  ordinary  methods  of  harvest- 
ing. Hogs  waste  no  more  corn  in  field  than  when  fed  in  yard.  They 
pick  the  corn  as  clean  as  most  men  do  in  husking.  Three  pounds  of 
rape,  costing  15  cents,  sown  in  corn  at  last  cultivation,  furnishes  con- 
siderable succulent  feed,  which  may  take  the  place  of  high  priced 
shorts.  Labor  in  caring  for  hogs  is  not  increased  by  hogging  corn,  but 
may  be  decreased,  if  systematic  methods  are  employed.  It  is  not  ex- 
pected that  all  com  raised  be  fed  off  with  hogs,  but  the  amount  they 
can  clean  up  from  the  time  it  is  nicely  glazed  until  the  weather  be- 
comes unfavorable,  may  be  very  economically  fed  in  this  way.  Hogs 
should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  turned  into  more  corn  at  one  time  than  they 
can  eat  up  clean  in  two  or  three  weeks.  The  shorter  period  is  pref- 
erable.—(Minn.  B.  104.) 

Supplements  for  Corn. — ^Large  consumption  of  feed  and  large 
gains  in  w^eight  are  essential  to  the  most  profitable  use  of  supplement- 
ary feeds.  Corn  is  more  rich  in  protein  than  is  necessary  in  a  mere 
maintenance  ration,  but  the  further  we  get  from  the  maintenance 
ration,  that  is,  the  more  flesh  we  produce  in  a  given  time,  the  less 
efficient  is  com  alone,  and  the  greater  is  the  need  of  supplements. 
This  principle  receives  constant  recognition  from  dairymen,  who 
know  that  the  more  milk  a  cow  produces,  the  narrower  must  be  her 
ration,  but  we  do  not  happen  to  have  seen  the  point  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  meat  production.  It  is,  of  course,  so  obviously  true  as  to 
need  no  proof. — (Mo.  B.  81.) 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  southern  farmer  can  not  afford  to  use 
com  alone  as  a  fattening  ration  for  swine.  Fortunately  for  the  South, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  depend  upon  com  alone,  as  almost  all  the  crops 
which  can  be  grown  in  any  part  of  the  country  can  be  grown  in  the 
South,  and  there  are  many  crops  suitable  for  hog  feed  which  can  be 
grown  in  no  other  section  of  the  country.  This  section  is  wonder- 
fully blessed  in  its  great  variety  of  grain  and  concentrates,  and  in  ad- 
dition green  and  pasture  crops  can  be  made  to  spread  over  12  months 
of  the  year.  In  fact,  with  the  use  of  pasture  crops  the  South  is  in  a 
position  to  make  pork  cheaper  than  any  other  section  of  the  United 
States. 

As  stated  before,  the  hog  likes  a  variety  of  feeds  and  thrives  bet- 
ter upon  a  ration  made  up  of  two  or  more  feeds  than  upon  one  made 
up  of  but  one.  It  has  proved  by  several  of  the  experiment  stations 
that  wheat  and  com,  when  fed  separately  to  fattening  hogs,  are 
practically  equal  in  feeding  value.  At  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station  several  tests  were  made  to  learn  the  relative  value  of  wheat 
and  a  mixture  of  wheat  and  corn  in  equal  parts.  It  was  found  that 
500  pounds  of  wheat  were  required  to  make  100  pounds  of  gain,  but 
when  wheat  and  com  were  fed  in  equal  parts  only  485  pounds  of  the 
mixture  were  required  to  make  the  same  gain.  When  fed  separately, 
these  grains  are  of  equal  feeding  value,  but  the  mixture  of  the  two 
was  more  valuable  than  either  grain  when  fed  alone.  While  the 
South  has  not  the  wheat,  yet  the  Wisconsin  experiments  teach  the 
lesson  that  if  the  most  is  to  be  realized  upon  the  hog  and  the  corn  a 
supplementary  feed  must  go  along  vdth  the  com. — (F.  B.  411.) 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  451 

Straight  com  feeding  does  not  support  normal  growth,  nor  pro- 
duce rapid  gains ;  the  rations  in  which  liberal  amounts  of  protein  were 
fed,  produced  marketable  hogs  in  much  less  time  than  did  corn  alone. 
The  hogs  ate  very  much  more  of  the  supplemented  rations  and  made 
larger  and  cheaper  gains.  The  smaller  the  proportion  in  which  a 
palatable  supplement  is  fed,  the  greater  is  the  amount  of  com  which 
each  pound  of  supplement  saves ;  but  the  larger  the  proportion  of  a 
palatable  supplement  fed,  until  a  balanced  ration  is  reached,  the 
lower  is  the  cost  of  making  pork  in  the  dry-lot,  both  in  pounds  of 
grain,  and,  at  usual  prices  of  grain  feeds,  also  in  dollars  and  cents. — 
(Mo.  B.  65.) 

In  every  experiment  conducted  at  the  Station  during  the  past 
five  years  there  has  been  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  gain,  a  decrease 
in  the  cost  of  gain,  a  higher  finish  and  a  greater  profit,  resulting  from 
the  use  of  a  supplement  in  connection  with  shelled  corn  or  com  meal, 
as  compared  with  the  same  feeds  without  supplements  in  fattening 
hogs.— (Ind.  B.  137.) 

Either  home  grown  or  commercial  supplemental  feeds  may  be 
used  in  connection  with  corn  to  good  advantage,  and  feeders  should 
be  ready  to  use  whichever  will  be  most  profitable.  It  will  often  pay 
to  exchange  farm  grown  feeds  for  commercial  feeds.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  often  true  that  the  use  of  feeds  grown  on  the  farm  will 
prove  more  profitable  than  the  use  of  commercial  feeds. — (O.  B.  209.) 

As  for  the  corn  products,  gluten  meal,  gluten  feed  and  germ 
oilmeal  our  experience  with  them  does  not  commend  them  especially 
to  us  as  supplements  to  com  for  hogs,  and  cottonseed  meal  as  here  fed 
is  certainly  not  in  the  same  class  as  to  usefulness  with  other  foodstuffs 
which  are  known  not  to  be  dangerous. — (Mo.  B.  67.) 

Wheat. — Tests  made  at  many  experiment  stations  with  wheat 
show  that  pound  for  pound,  it  is  equal  to  com  for  making  gains  on 
fattening  hogs.  It  was  found  at  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station, 
that  a  mixture  of  equal  weights  of  wheat  and  barley  was  worth  17  per 
cent  more  than  com  for  fattening  hogs. — (Colo.  B.  146.)  Wheat,  as  a 
basis,  has  proved  the  most  efi'ective  grain  both  in  rapidity  and  econ- 
omy of  gain.  The  hogs  so  fed  required  less  grain  for  each  pound  of 
gain  than  either  the  com  or  barley  rations.  This  is  a  point  of  very 
great  importance  to  the  Utah  feeder  where  wheat  is  the  largest  and 
cheapest  grain  crop. — (Utah  B.  94.) 

Many  ranchmen  think  com  is  necessary  to  pork  production. 
Our  experiment  proves  by  local  demonstration  what  is  acknowledged 
in  many  other  communities,  namely:  that  wheat  will  put  more  meat 
on  growing  hogs  than  corn.  The  wheat  fed  was  shrunken  by  frost. 
The  hogs  averaged  84  and  82  pounds  per  head  at  the  beginning  of 
the  experiment,  and  in  eleven  weeks'  feeding  the  wheat-fed  hogs 
averaged  40  pounds  per  head  heavier  than  the  corn-fed  hogs,  weigh- 
ing on  the  average  nearly  200  pounds  each. —  (Wyo.  15th  A.  R.) 

Ground  wheat  sometimes  makes  a  more  economical  ration  than 
ground  corn. — (Utah  B.  67.)  With  corn  and  wheat  at  the  same 
price,  corn  costs  about  one-ninth  more  for  a  given  increase  in  weight. 
The  wheat  lot  ate  much  more  feed  and  made  a  half  more  gain  than 


452  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

the  com  lot,  in  the  same  length  of  time,  which  means  economy  in 
the  labor  of  feeding,  if  it  is  desired  to  put  the  hogs  on  the  market  at 
a  given  weight.  Wheat  is  a  first-class  feed  for  growing  shoats,  and 
whenever  it  may  be  secured  at  the  price  of  corn  it  should  be  used  in 
preference  to  corn. — (Wyo.  B.  74.)  In  these  experiments,  wheat 
seems  to  have  given  the  best  results  as  a  fattening  food.  Results  also 
indicate  that  a  bushel  of  wheat  properly  fed  to  reasonable  well  bred 
hogs,  should  produce  approximately  thirteen  and  one-half  pounds  of 
live  pork. — (Or.  B.  80.)  Wheat  will  put  on  as  many  pounds  of  gain 
on  hogs  as  an  equal  weight  of  corn.  The  fat  has  a  dingy  color  and 
the  pork  shrinks  excessively  in  cooking.  Wheat  fed  hogs  should  be 
fed  barley  or  peas  the  last  60  to  75  days  of  fattening.  This  will  give 
the  proper  color,  flavor,  and  firmness  to  the  meat. — (Colo.  Cir.  2.) 

Wheat  Middlings. — It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  low  protein 
content  of  wheat  middling,  requiring  as  it  does  that  it  be  fed  in 
large  proportion  with  corn  in  case  it  is  used  to  supplement  the  latter 
feed,  is  a  point  of  great  importance  in  this  connection.  The  feeding 
of  corn  and  wheat  middlings,  half  and  half,  as  is  necessary  for  most 
economical  results  with  this  supplement,  occasions  a  cash  outlay  and 
an  amount  of  hauling  of  feed  from  town  that  is  quite  out  of  the 
question  in  a  great  many  local  situations. — (Mo.  B.  67.) 

Wheat  Shorts  and  Middlings  are  especially  good  feed  for  suck- 
ling sows  and  young  pigs,  and  for  fattening  purposes  are  worth  about 
8  per  cent,  more  than  an  equal  weight  of  corn. —  (Colo.  B.  146.) 
Wheat  middlings  and  germ  oil  meal  are  neither  so  palatable,  nor  so 
efficient,  nor  so  profitable,  as  supplements  to  corn  in  pork  production 
as  are  tankage  and  linseed  oil  meal. — (0.  B.  213.)  The  lot  which 
received  corn  and  middlings,  equal  parts  of  each  by  weight,  made 
fair  gains  and  at  a  not  exceedingly  heavy  expenditure  of  feed.  The 
amount  of  feed  consumed  was  much  lower  than  for  the  corn  and 
skim  milk  lot  or  the  corn  and  tankage  lot,  and  the  amount  of  feed 
required  for  a  given  gain  was  relatively  large.  The  relatively  low 
consumption  of  corn  is  especially  striking. —  (0.  B.  209.)  It  is 
found  that  each  100  pounds  of  pork  made  cost  $9.80  when  com  was 
used  exclusively,  and  when  middlings  were  used  along  with  the  corn 
100  pounds  was  made  for  $6.01,  which  was  a  saving  of  $3.79  a  100 
pounds  made  as  a  result  of  introducing  some  middlmgs  into  the  ra- 
tion. With  hogs  selling  at  5  cents  a  pound,  and  middlings  at  $30  a 
ton,  when  corn  alone  was  used  only  35.7  cents  were  realized  upon 
each  bushel  fed,  but  when  the  com  was  fed  in  conjunction  with  mid- 
dlings 41.2  cents  were  realized  for  each  bushel.  In  many  places  in 
the  South  hogs  have  been  selling  for  6  cents  a  pound,  in  which  case, 
when  corn  was  fed  alone  42.8  cents  would  be  secured  for  each  bushel, 
but  when  fed  with  the  middlings  the  corn  would  realize,  through  the 
hogs,  77.3  cents  a  bushel.  As  a  result  of  using  middlings  the  farmer 
can  secure  more  for  his  com  than  if  he  had  not  done  so.  Still,  profits 
can  not  be  made  as  a  rule  upon  hogs  when  they  are  fed  nothing  but 
corn  and  middlings;  that  is,  when  corn  is  quoted  at  70  cents  a 
bushel  and  middlings  at  $30  a  ton  and  hogs  sell  at  5  cents  a  pound 
live  weight.    Some  other  feed  or  feeds  must  be  secured  to  go  along 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  453 

with  corn. — (F.  B.  411.)  Middlings  make  good  hog  feed,  but  are 
usually  too  expensive. — (Colo.  Cir.  2.) 

Wheat  Bran. — This  feed  contains  too  much  woody  fibre  to  be  a 
profitable  feed  for  either  growing  pigs  or  fattening  hogs.  It  is  some- 
times useful  to  feed  to  mature  breeding  animals,  when  bulk,  with 
a  moderate  amount  of  nutrition  is  wanted,  and  may  be  used  as  a 
(laxative  feed  just  before  farrowing.  The  leaves  of  alfalfa  hay  have 
everj^  good  quality  of  bran  as  a  hog  feed,  are  more  nutritious  and 
much  cheaper. —  (Colo.  B.  146.)  Bran  is  not  acceptable  as  a  hog 
feed,  especially  for  young  animals.  It  is  too  bulky  to  feed  to  an  ani- 
mal which  has  a  small  stomach.  The  hog  has  but  one  stomach  and 
that  one  is  small  when  compared  to  the  size  of  the  animal.  But 
middlings  or  shorts  can  well  be  used  as  supplementary  feeds  to  com. 
— (F.  B.  411.)  Bran  does  not  prove  equal  to  either  shorts  or  alfalfa 
when  fed  as  one-quarter  of  the  ration  to  pigs. — (Neb.  B.  20.)  Bran 
was  profitably  used  in  small  proportion  with  corn  but  was  not  as  use- 
ful for  fattening  hogs  as  some  other  supplements. — (Mo.  B.  65.) 

Barley. — This  is  the  most  profitable  grain  to  grow  for  fattening 
hogs  in  the  irrigated  sections  ha\'ing  an  altitude  of  6,500  feet  or 
lower.  The  yield  per  acre  of  well-bred  barley  is  sufficient  to  put 
from  600  to  800  pounds  of  gain  on  fattening  hogs.  About  108 
pounds  of  barley  have  a  feed  value  equal  to  100  pounds  of  com. 
Owing  to  the  dry  atmosphere  and  the  intense  sunshine,  Colorado 
barley  is  hard  and  flinty,  and  should  be  either  rolled  or  soaked. 
When  ground,  it  is  broken  into  sharp  pieces  that  irritate  the  digestive 
tract.  Hogs  fed  barley  should  have  all  the  alfalfa  pasture  or  hay 
thev  will  eat.  Barley  makes  a  white  fat  and  gives  the  pork  a  choice 
flavor.— (Colo.  Cir.  2.) 

Barley  and  Shorts. — Two  home  grown  feeds  that  can  be  secured 
almost  anywhere  in  the  State.  They  make  a  first  class  ration  when 
fed  together.  The  millers  of  Colorado  do  not  ordinarily  separate 
shorts  from  bran,  but  will  usually  do  so  upon  request,  at  a  price 
about  ten  cents  per  hundred  in  advance  of  the  price  of  bran. 

Barley  and  Wheat. — Another  home  grown  combination  that 
gives  good  results.  Where  a  sufficient  yield  of  durum  wheat  can  be 
secured  on  the  dry  lands  of  the  State,  this  ration  will  prove  particu- 
larly well  suited  to  those  regions. —  (Colo.  B.  165.) 

Oats. — The  meat  of  the  oat  is  excellent  hog  feed.  The  hull  has 
about  the  same  value  as  straw.  Usually  the  high  price  and  the  per 
cent,  of  husk  make  it  unprofitable  to  feed  oats  to  fattening  hogs. 
When  oats  are  fed  to  hogs  they  should  be  ground,  and  for  young 
pigs  the  hulls  should  be  sifted  out. — (Colo.  B.  146.) 

Rice  Feeds. — In  some  sections  of  the  South  rice  products  can  be 
used  to  advantage  as  a  hog  feed,  especially  in  parts  of  South  Caro- 
lina, Arkansas,  Louisiana,  and  Texas.  In  the  South  Carolina  test 
the  rice  meal  proved  to  be  worth  $16.36  a  ton  with  hogs  selling  for  5 
cents  a  pound  and  skim  milk  at  30  cents  a  hundredweight,  and 
$24.42  a  ton  when  the  animals  sold  for  6  cents  a  pound,  while  the 
com  was  worth  but  $14.94  and  $22.72  a  ton,  respectively,  under  sim- 
ilar conditions.    In  the  Alabama  work  the  rice  polish  likewise  proved 


454  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

to  be  more  valuable  as  a  hog  feed  than  the  com  meal.  At  the  Mas- 
Bachusetts  Station  the  rice  meal  and  the  com  meal  proved  to  be  prac- 
tically equal  in  feeding  value,  but  the  rice  meal  was  the  cheaper 
feed.— (F.  B.  411.) 

Rice  bran  was  much  cheaper  than  corn  and  yielded  a  larger 
gain.  The  pork  produced  by  it  was  of  an  inferior  quality  to  that  pro- 
duced by  corn.  The  shrinkage  from  the  dressed  weight  hot  to  the 
dressed  weight  chilled  was  much  greater  and  the  per  cent  of  dressed 
carcass  much  less.  Rice  bran  should  be  used  more  extensively  in  pork 
production  w^hen  com  is  so  much  higher  in  price,  and,  for  the  best 
results,  should  be  fed  in  connection  with  a  feed  rich  in  protein.—^ 
(Tex.  B.  131.) 

Millet. — Seed  of  millet  can  be  grown  profitably  as  a  fattening 
ration  for  swine.  It  does  not  furnish  as  good  a  ration  as  either  bar- 
ley or  wheat  for  swine.  The  carcasses  of  the  lot  fed  on  millet  were 
clothed  with  pure  white  fat  of  superior  quality  as  compared  with  the 
fat  of  those  fattened  on  barley  or  wheat.  It  required  one-fifth  more 
millet  than  it  did  barley  meal  and  a  trifle  more  barley  meal  than  it 
did  wheat  to  make  a  pound  of  gain.  A  bushel  of  56  pounds  of  millet 
is  equal  to  a  bushel  of  48  pounds  of  barley  for  hog  feed.  Millet  meal 
produced  a  softer  quality  of  fat  than  did  either  barley  or  wheat  meal. 
Millet  meal  was  found  not  to  be  so  good  for  a  fattening  ration  as  bar- 
ley meal  or  wheat  meal  during  extremely  cold  weather. — (S.  D. 
B.  83.) 

Beans. — From  many  inquiries  and  reports  received  from  the 
farmers  of  the  state  it  was  known  that  many  were  using  beans  alone 
for  fattening  swine.  Some  of  these  told  of  large  gains  and  others  of 
unsatisfactory  ones.  Some  that  had  com  were  even  selling  this  and 
buying  damaged  beans,  feeding  these  exclusively,  instead  of  making 
a  combination  of  the  two  feeds.  Such  feeding  must  necessarily  be 
accompanied  with  some  losses  of  protein,  and  from  the  standpoint 
of  food  economy  is  open  to  considerable  criticism.  However,  if  the 
beans  were  cheap  the  practice  might  be  financially  allowable.  When 
any  feed  is  cheap  and  a  large  stock  of  it  is  on  hand  there  is  a  great 
temptation  to  supply  it  too  freely,  and  to  feed  it  to  the  exclusion  of 
other  feeds  which  experience  and  judgment  would  suggest.  It  would 
appear  that  hogs  of  the  weights  and  ages  of  those  fed  in  this  experi- 
ment could  reasonably  be  expected  to  make  a  gain  of  about  a  pound 
per  day  on  a  ration  consisting  of  beans  only,  and  that  the  same  sort 
of  hog  could  reasonably  be  expected  to  make  a  gain  of  about  IV2 
pounds  per  day  if  an  equal  amount  of  corn  were  supplied  with  the 
bean  ration.  Further,  it  would  appear  that  the  gains  made  by  the 
bean-fed  hogs  would  cost  about  $2.50  per  hundred  pounds  and  those 
made  by  the  beans  and  corn-fed  hogs  would  cost  about  $3.50  per 
hundredweight. 

Two  ways  of  cooking  are  used  here  at  the  College.  The  one  by 
injecting  live  steam  into  a  barrel  containing  the  food  to  be  cooked, 
the  other  by  the  use  of  the  ordinary  feed  cooker,  consisting  of  a  cal- 
dron kettle  with  a  castiron  stove  as  a  jacket  for  the  same.  A  large 
variety  of  cookers  of  similar  sorts  are  upon  the  market.    In  cooking 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  455 

small  amounts,  the  kettle  gave  the  better  results,  while  the  steam 
was  more  convenient  for  larger  quantities. —  (Mich.  B,  243.) 

Cotton-Seed  Meal. — The  deaths  that  sometimes  occur  as  a  result 
of  feeding  cotton-seed  meal  to  hogs  deter  the  majority  of  farmers 
from  using  it.  It  is  a  feed  that,  if  used  at  all,  must  be  used  in  moder- 
ation and  with  judgment.  The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  most 
of  the  southern  experiment  stations  have  fed  it  both  fermented  and 
sweet — and  killed  pigs  in  both  cases.  There  is  a  risk  when  it  is  used 
for  long  periods  of  time,  and  the  man  who  feeds  it  should  bear  in 
mind  this  risk.  It  is  not  a  feed  for  the  farmer  to  experiment  with. 
He  should  keep  well  within  bounds  when  feeding  cotton-seed  meal  to 
his  animals.  It  is  not  safe  to  feed  it  to  hogs,  even  when  making  up 
only  one-third  of  the  whole  ration,  for  more  than  twenty-one  days. 
If  it  is  to  be  used  longer  than  twenty-one  days,  the  proportion  of  the 
meal  should  be  cut  down  to  one-fifth  or  one-sixth  of  the  entire  ra- 
tion, and  even  then  there  is  great  danger.  This  danger  may  be 
averted  somewhat  by  allowing  the  hogs  plenty  of  succulent  pasture. 

Aside  from  the  deaths  that  may  occur,  cotton-seed  meal  is  an 
excellent  feed.  In  fact,  it  is  probably  the  best  feed  in  the  South  to 
go  along  with  corn.  It  has  been  charged  that  it  is  impossible  to  keep 
the  hogs  eating  well  when  part  of  the  ration  consists  of  cotton-seed 
meal,  but  the  writer  has  experienced  no  trouble  in  keeping  all  the  an- 
imals keen  for  the  next  meal  when  the  mixture  of  com  and  meal  has 
been  fed  as  a  thin  slop,  so  that  it  could  be  drunk  rather  than  picked 
up  and  eaten.  If  it  is  fed  in  a  doughy  condition,  the  pigs  will  soon 
go  off  feed. 

When  cotton-seed  meal  is  fed  along  with  com  the  cost  of  the 
gains  is  greatly  reduced — provided  no  deaths  occur.  While  the  ex- 
pense of  making  pork  is  greatly  reduced  when  com  is  supplemented 
with  cotton-seed  meal,  still,  with  com  at  70  cents  a  bushel  and  cot- 
ton-seed meal  at  $25  a  ton,  it  is  seldom  that  the  feeder  can  come  out 
even  when  employing  them  -without  further  supplements.  In  the 
Alabama  test  each  bushel  of  com  when  used  alone  realized  47.5  cents, 
viith  hogs  selling  at  5  cents,  but  when  the  com  was  used  along  with 
cotton-seed  meal^  the  value  of  each  bushel  was  raided  to  56.2  cents. 
The  North  Carolina  work  illustrates  what  poor  use  hogs  will  some- 
times make  of  com  when  they  receive  nothmg  but  com.  Assuming 
the  same  live  price  for  hogs,  only  21.8  cents  were  realized  for  each 
bushel  of  com.  However,  while  the  regular  market  price  was  not 
secured  for  the  com,  even  when  cotton-seed  meal  was  fed  along  with 
it,  still  as  a  result  of  the  addition  of  small  amounts  of  the  meal  the 
value  of  the  com  was  doubled  in  one  case  and  multiplied  by  2^^  in 
the  other  case. 

As  will  be  seen  later,  cotton-seed  meal  has  at  least  one  valuable 
and  safe  place  in  our  pork-making  operations — a  place  where  it  can 
be  fed  in  large  amounts.  It  can,  and  should,  be  used  along  with  com 
in  a  short  drv'-lot  finishing  period  after  the  pasture  and  grazing  crops 
are  exhausted.  Com  is  excellent  for  finishing  up  an  animal  when  he 
is  taken  off  of  green  crops,  but  com  vrith  cotton-seed  meal  is  still 
better,  because,  first,  the  gains  are  made  more  economically  when  the 


456  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

two  feeds  are  used  together ;  and,  second,  the  meat  and  the  lard  of  the 
animal  are  hardened  more  rapidly  than  when  com  is  used  alone. — 
(F.  B.  411.) 

In  feeding  cotton-seed  meal  to  pig-s  the  daily  allowance  in  gen- 
eral should  be  arrived  at  from  the  age  and  weight  of  the  animals. 
For  continuous  feeding  the  following  allowances  appear  to  be  well 
within  the  danger  limit:  Pigs  under  50  pounds,  one-fourth  pound 
per  day ;  pigs  from  50  to  75  pounds,  one-third  pound  per  day ;  pigs 
from  75  to  100  pounds,  .4  pound  per  day;  pigs  from  100  to  150 
pounds,  one-half  pound  per  day.  If  fed  a  full  grain  allowance,  the 
dosage  may  be  obtained  by  properly  proportioning  the  cotton-seed" 
meal  to  the  other  components  of  the  ration,  namely,  1  to  5,  6,  7,  or 
8,  according  to  the  stage  of  growth.  When  pigs  obtain  part  of  their 
feed  by  grazing  a  proportion  of  1  to  4  or  1  to  5  can  be  fed  by  dimin- 
ishing the  grain  allowance.  A  meal  ration  containing  cotton-seed 
meal  should  also  contain  at  least  an  equal  amount  of  wheat  bran  to 
supply  bulk.    For  the  remainder  com  appears  to  be  the  only  choice. 

The  idea  that  cotton  food  products  can  ever  take  the  place  of 
com  in  pork  production  in  the  south  may  well  be  abandoned.  They 
can  not  replace  but  may  prove  valuable  adjuncts  to  corn  or  any  other 
starchy  or  carbohydrate  food  which  may  be  found  available  in  the 
south  for  hog  feeding. — (Ark.  B.  85.) 

As  a  rule  pigs  do  not  die  when  fed  a  grain  ration  containing  cot- 
ton-seed meal  if  the  cotton-seed  meal  is  not  continued  longer  than 
four  weeks,  although  it  sometimes  happens  that  they  do.  No  case 
has  come  under  the  notice  of  the  writers  where  a  pig  has  died  if  the 
cotton-eeed  meal  mixture  has  not  been  continued  longer  than  three 
weeks.  As  a  rule,  if  small  pigs  are  shut  up  in  a  small  pen  and  fed  a 
grain  mixture  containing  cotton-seed  meal  to  the  amount  of  one- 
fourth  to  one-fifth,  all  the  pigs  will  die  inside  of  eight  to  ten  weeks. 
But  this  experiment,  and  others  elsewhere,  show  that  there  are  excep- 
tions to  this.  From  preliminary  work  done  hy  this  station,  and  other 
work  under  way,  it  looks  as  if  a  ration  containing  from  one-fifth  to 
one-tenth  cotton-seed  meal  may  be  fed  in  light  rations  for  an  indefi- 
nite time,  if  the  pigs  are  running  on  a  green  range. —  (Ok.  B.  51.) 

When  corn  was  supplemented  with  a  partial  ration  of  cotton- 
seed meal  the  daily  gains  and  the  financial  outcome  were  satisfactory. 
Four  deaths  occurred  as  a  result  of  the  use  of  cotton-seed  meal,  but 
these  deaths  did  not  occur  while  the  animals  were  eating  the  meal. 
All  of  the  deaths  have  occurred  soon  after  the  animals  were  taken  off 
of  cotton-seed  meal  and  placed  upon  a  ration  which  contained  no 
cotton-seed  meal.  This  suggests  the  idea  that  cotton-seed  meal  may 
be  stimulating  in  its  effects — similar  to  the  action  of  certain  drugs — 
and  when  it  is  removed  suddenly  from  the  animals  that  death  may 
occur  through  depression. — (Ala.  B.  143.) 

Cotton-seed  meal  may  be  profitably  used  to  finish  hogs  for  mar- 
ket. In  such  cases  it  may  be  safely  fed  in  quantities  of  one-half 
pounds  per  pig  daily  and  then  omitted  during  periods  of  alternate 
weeks.— (Ken.  B.  101.) 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  457 

Linseed  Oilmeal. — The  rations  of  linseed  oilmeal  and  com  meal 
in  proportion  of  1  to  5  were  eaten  in  larger  quantity  than  any  other 
feeds  tested,  and  made  more  pork,  with  smaller  expenditure  of  feed 
than  any  other  ration  involved.  Estimating  the  cost  of  linseed  oil- 
meal at  $30  per  ton,  com  at  30  cents  per  bushel,  grinding  at  10  cents 
per  hundredweight,  and  wheat  middlings  at  $18  per  ton  the  cost  of 
pork  made  from  the  oilmeal  rations  averaged  11.3  per  cent  less  than 
from  the  rations  of  corn  meal  and  wheat  middlings.  The  average 
cost  per  100  pounds  with  the  oilmeal  rations  was  $3.23,  and  with  the 
middlings  rations,  $3.60,  or  a  difference  of  37  cents  per  100  pounds 
of  pork  in  favor  of  the  oilmeal  rations.  In  order  to  make  pork  from 
com  meal  and  wheat  middlings  as  cheaply  as  from  the  above  men- 
tioned ration  of  com  meal  and  linseed  oilmeal  the  middlings  would 
have  to  be  bought  at  prices  ranging  from  $14.70  to  $15  per  ton  in 
the  various  lots.  Middlings  are  usually  more  expensive,  and  linseed 
oilmeal  is  usually  less  so  than  as  here  figured. 

With  corn  at  25  cents  per  bushel  it  would  be  an  even  thing  so 
far  as  cost  of  gain  is  concerned  whether  one  would  feed  it  alone  or 
■with  oilmeal  at  $30  per  ton  as  in  lot  15 ;  with  com  at  29  cents  per 
bushel  thei-e  would  be  no  saving  or  loss  from  the  feeding  of  mid- 
dlings with  com  as  in  lot  14,  allowing  in  each  case  ten  pounds  of 
pork  per  bushel  of  com  fed  alone. 

There  must  also  be  <;onsidered  the  fact  of  the  greater  rapidity  of 
the  gains  produced  bv  the  linseed  oilmeal  ration.  With  both  rapidity 
and  economy  of  production  in  its  favor  it  would  seem  that  this  were 
the  better  feed  with  which  to  supplement  com  for  fattening  hogs. 
The  oilmeal  ration  was  so  much  more  palatable  than  the  middling 
rations  that  much  more  of  it  was  eaten  daily.  The  pigs  receiving  this 
feed,  always  ate  heartily  and  consistently  even  during  the  coldest 
weather  and  evinced  a  fondness  for  their  food  that  was  not  noticeable 
in  any  other  case. —  (Mo.  B.  67.) 

Soy  Bean  Meal. — Corn  meal  and  soy  bean  meal  proved  to  be  a 
more  efficient  ration  in  the  tests  reported  than  com  meal  and  linseed 
meal,  both  as  regards  the  rate  and  the  cost  of  gains. — (Ind.  B.  126.) 
Soy  beans  made  an  excellent  pig  feed  mixed  with  corn  in  the  propor- 
tion of  1 :2.  Being  rich  in  protein  it  is  recommended  as  an  espe- 
cially efficient  addition  to  the  ration  when  com  composes  the  larger 
part. —  (Ky.  B.  101.)  Soy  bean  meal  has  proven  to  be  equally  as 
efficient  as  linseed  meal  in  all  of  the  tests  conducted  at  the  Station. 
—(Ind.  B.  137.) 

In  the  past,  when  the  cowpea  and  the  soy  bean  sold  at  cheap 
prices,  some  farmers  used  them  in  large  amounts  in  hog-feeding 
operations.  But  they  have  advanced  in  price  within  the  last  few 
years  and  at  the  present  time  must  be  used  in  limited  amounts. 
When  they  are  valued  at  $1.50  a  bushel  neither  one  can  be  used 
freely.— (F.  B.  411.) 

Soy  beans  may  be  grown  in  the  Com  Belt  and  used  with  profit 
in  pork  production,  though  the  supply  of  beans  on  the  market  is 
sufficient  only  to  satisfy  the  demands  for  seed,  at  seed  prices. — (O. 
B.  213.) 


458  DOMESTIC  'ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Distillery  Grains. — Dried  distillery  grains  proved  to  be  a  poor 
pig  feed  except  in  small  proportions.  When  fed  as  one-third  or  one- 
half  of  the  ration  with  corn  it  was  unprofitable.  Where  it  composed 
one-fifth  of  the  ration  very  good  returns  were  obtained. — (Ken. 
B.  101.) 

Tankage  and  Meat  Meal. — There  are  at  least  two  packing-house 
by-products — tankage  and  meat  meal — which  should  be  more  gen- 
erally introduced  in  the  South  as  feeds  to  go  along  with  corn.  Either 
one  of  them  would  cheapen  the  ration  materially  and  make  corn 
worth  more  a  bushel  as  a  hog  feed. — (F.  B.  411.)  Tankage  is  the 
product  which  drops  to  the  bottom  in  our  rendering  tanks,  when  we 
are  rendering  out  grease,  tallow,  etc.,  at  our  various  packing  houses. 
It  has  been  thoroughly  cooked  under  forty  pounds  pressure  for  sev- 
eral hours,  which  thoroughly  destroys  any  disease  germs  which 
might  possibly  be  in  the  raw  meat.  This  product  is  pressed  and  then 
dried  in  steam  driers  at  a  high  temperature.  It  is  then  ground  and 
shipped  in  100  and  200  pound  sacl^. 

Beef  Meal. — This  is  made  from  scraps  of  meat  and  bone  from 
which  the  grease  has  been  extracted  and  the  liquors  concentrated  by 
cooking.  These  are  then  pressed,  dried  and' ground  in  preparation 
for  the  market.  It  is  claimed  to  contain  40  per  cent  to  50  per  cent 
of  protein. — (la.  B.  65.) 

At  the  Alabama  Station  when  com  alone  waS  used  only  48.7 
cents  were  realized  for  each  bushel  fed,  but  when  a  one-tenth  part  of 
the  com  ration  was  made  up  of  tankage  the  sum  was  increased  to  67 
cents,  assuming  that  the  hogs  sold  for  5  cents  a  pound  live  weight. 
The  average  of  the  work  in  Nebraska  shows  that  when  com  alone 
was  used  60.5  cents  were  secured  for  each  bushel ;  when  tankage  was 
fed  along  with  corn  the  returns  were  63.5  cents  a  bushel.  In  Okla- 
homa, when  com  was  fed  alone  but  41.1  cents  were  secured  for  a 
bushel,  but  when  meat  meal  supplemented  the  corn  the  amount  av- 
eraged 64  cents  a  bushel.  In  Tennessee  only  18.7  cents  were  realized 
upon  each  bushel  of  corn  when  it  was  used  alone,  but  when  the  meat 
meal  was  used  along  with  it,  its  value  was  raised  to  50.3  cents  (aver- 
age of  three  lots.)— (F.  B.  411.) 

Digester  tankage  ranked  next  to  skim  milk  for  efficiency  in  pro- 
ducing rapid  and,  from  the  standpoint  of  feed  consumed  for  a  pound 
of  gain  produced,  economical  gains.  The  amount  of  feed  required 
to  produce  one  hundred  pounds  of  gain  was  comparatively  small— 
360.2  pounds.  The  large  amount  of  com  consumed  daily  per  pig 
by  the  com  and  tankage  and  the  com  and  skim  milk  lots  is  worthy 
of  note.  When  either  of  these  feeds  was  used,  a  much  larger  amount 
of  com  was  consumed  daily  than  when  a  ration  of  com  alone,  com 
and  middlings,  or  corn  and  soy  bean  meal  was  fed. — (0.  B.  209.) 

Sufficient  work  has  been  done  to  show  that  hogs  following 
cattle  are  often  not  supplied  with  the  ration  best  suited  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  greatest  gains.  In  the  tests  reported  in  this  circular 
the  gains  made  by  hogs  fed  tankage  were  more  than  one-half  greater 
than  the  gains  made  by  the  hogs  that  depended  entirely  upon  the 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  459 

droppings  from  the  steers — a  decided  increase  from  the  use  of  a  sup- 
plementary feed  rich  in  protein  and  ash. — (0.  Cir.  73.) 

Tankage  has  been  the  most  efficient  commercial  feed  used  as  a 
supplement  to  com  in  fattening  hogs  under  market  conditions  pre- 
vailing during  recent  years. — (Ind.  Bui.  137.)  A  greater  pro- 
portion of  com  may  be  used  in  feeding  tankage  than  in  feeding  lin- 
seed meal  as  a  supplement.  Hogs  fed  on  a  ration  of  corn  meal  and 
tankage  consume  more  feed  and  make  more  rapid  gains  than  hogs 
fed  a  ration  of  corn  meal  and  linseed  meal.  A  ration  of  com  meal 
and  tankage  gives  a  better  finish  than  one  of  com  meal  and  linseed 
meal. — (Ind.  B.  126.)  Tankage  proved  to  be  an  exceedingly  sat- 
isfactory feed  to  supplement  com.  In  fact,  it  was  almost  as  satisfac- 
tory as  cotton  seed  meal,  and  it  has  the  advantage  over  cotton  seed 
meal  in  that  there  is  no  danger  in  feeding  it. — (Ala.  B.  143.)  Tank- 
age and  linseed  oil  meal  are  about  equally  profitable  supplements  to 
com  at  the  prevailing  prices  of  recent  years. — (0.  B.  213.) 

Growing  pigs  fed  meat  meal  or  tankage  to  the  extent  of  16  2-3 
per  cent  of  their  ration,  and  older  hogs  having  these  feeds  to  the 
extent  of  10  per  cent  of  their  ration,  with  com,  ate  more  feed  and 
made  more  rapid  gains  than  those  fed  on  any  other  combination, 
such  as  shorts,  barley  and  com,  or  shorts  and  corn.  In  dry  lot  feed- 
ing a  ration  composed  of  com  with  either  meat  meal  or  tankage 
produced  from  25  to  40  per  cent  faster  gains  on  quite  mature  hogs, 
and  from  50  to  60  per  cent  faster  gains  on  younger  hogs,  than  a  ra- 
tion of  com  alone,  and  in  every  instance  the  number  of  pounds  of 
feed  required  per  100  lbs.  gain  was  decidedly  less  with  the  mixed 
.  ration.  Both  meat  meal  and  tankage  are  more  valuable  and  profit- 
able adjuncts  to  the  com  ration  for  dry  lot  feeding  than  when  pigs 
or  hogs  are  being  developed  and  fattened  on  pasture,  especially  if  the 
pasture  be  composed  of  leguminous  crops. — (la.  B.  91.) 

Selected  tankage  is  a  very  high  protein  feed  containing  over 
40%  of  protein,  so  only  a  small  quantity  of  it  is  necessary  with  grain. 
It  proved  satisfactory  when  fed  either  in  the  propK)rtion  of  one- 
eleventh  of  the  ration,  or  one-seventh  of  the  ration.  With  grain  at  one 
cent  a  pound  and  tankage  at  two  cents  per  pound,  the  grain  and  tank- 
age ration,  with  the  grain  forming  five-sixths  to  nine-tenths  of  the 
ration,  will  cost  from  about  $4.50  to  $5.25  for  each  100  pounds  gain 
upon  fattening  pigs  under  two  hundred  pounds  live  weight. — (Uolo. 
B.  165.) 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  using  blood  meal  for  hog  feeding  if  it 
is  fed  with  a  small  quantity  of  middlings  or  some  other  palatable 
food,  exercising  reasonable  care  to  get  the  hogs  started  right  and  not 
to  overfeed  at  any  time.  Blood  meal  and  skimmed  milk  have  a  sim- 
ilar feeding  value  when  fed  on  the  basis  of  an  equal  number  of 
pounds  of  protein,  and  as  supplements  to  either  old  or  new  com. 
Where  a  good  market  is  offered  for  skimmed  milk,  a  margin  of  $1.00 
between  the  cost  and  selling  price  of  the  hogs  is  necessary  in  order 
that  this  by-product  may  form  a  part  of  the  ration  fed  to  fattening 
hogs.    Blood  meal  at  $3.00  per  hundredweight  is  equivalent  in  feed- 


460 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


ing  value  to  skimmed  milk  at  25  cents  per  hundredweight. —  (Va. 
B.  176.) 

Milk. — Among  the  various  concentrated  supplements  which  can 
be  used  with  corn  for  fattening  hogs  are  the  dairy  by-products — 
skim  milk  and  whey.  Of  course  at  the  present  time  the  South  has 
but  little  dairy  by-products  to  use  in  finishing  hogs,  but  as  the  dairy 
business  assumes  greater  proportions  much  larger  amounts  of  these 
valuable  feeds  will  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  hog  feeder.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  skim  milk  and  whey  could  be  used  to  better  advantage 
in  feeding  the  suckling  mothers  and  the  small  pigs,  as  the  green 
pasture  crops  can  take  their  place  after  the  pigs  are  weaned,  but 
still  there  are  cases  where  it  should  be  fed  to  the  fattening  animals. 
The  value  of  these  feeds  can  be  seen  from  the  following  experiments : 

Experiments  Showing  Value  of  Skim  Milk  in  Feeding  Hogs. 


Station. 


'Ration. 


Pounds 
of  feed  to 
make  100 

pounds 
gain. 


Cost  of 

100 
pounds 
train. a 


Alabama^ 


Tennessee^;. 


Missouri^/. 


Tennessee^. 


Tennessee<:. 


Corn  alone 

Com,  1  part 

Skim  milk,  2.2  parts 

Corn  alone 

Corn,  1  part 

Skim  milk,  7.4  parts 

[Corn 

\  Skim  milk 

Corn,  3  parts 

Middlings,  2  parts... 

Corn  alone 

Corn,  1  part 

Skim  milk,  S.3  parts 

Corn  alone 

Corn,.l  part 

Skim  milk,  4  parts... 


670 

210 
465 

410 

160 
1,190 

243 
559 

310 

207 

467 

211 
1,122 

1,263 

186 
746 


$8.38 

[       4.02 

5.12 

\       5.57 

[       4.71 

[       6.98 

5.84 

[       6.00 

15.79 

\       4.56 


a  Price  of  feeds;  Corn,  70  cents  a  bushel;  skim  milk, 
30  cents  a  hundredweight;  middlings,  $30  a  ton, 
i  Bulletin  82, 


c  Bulletin  167, 

rf  Bulletin  79. 

e  Bulletin,  Vol.  XV,  No.  1. 


It  is  seen  that  the  skim  milk  was  very  profitably  used  except  in 
those  cases  where  the  larger  amounts  were  fed.  When  skim  milk  is 
valued  at  30  cents  a  hundredweight,  as  it  is  in  the  table,  it  must 
be  used  in  limited  amounts  in  conjunction  with  the  corn.  So  far 
as  economy  of  gains  is  concerned,  poor  results  were  secured  when 
from  five  to  seven  parts  of  skim  milk  were  fed  to  one  part'  of  corn ; 
but  when  only  two  or  three  parts  of  milk  were  fed  to  one  part  of 
grain  the  results  were  always  satisfactory.  Even  though  too  large 
amounts  of  milk  were  fed  in  some  of  the  above  tests — ^that  is,  when 
valued  at  30  cents  a  hundredweight — ^the  average  result  of  the  Ala- 
bama and  Tennessee  work  shows  it  to  have  a  feeding  value  of  71.7 
cents  a  hundredweight  when  corn  is  worth  70  cents  a  bushel.    In 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  461 

the  Missouri  work,  when  both  com  and  middlings  were  fed  in  the 
check  lot,  the  skim  milk  proved  to  have  a  value  of  70.4  cents  a 
hundredweight. 

As  a  rule,  all  kinds  of  dairy  products,  even  the  skim  milk,  com- 
mand a  very  high  price  when  offered  to  the  public  in  the  southern 
markets.  Many  dairymen  could  not  afford  to  feed  skim  milk  to  the 
hogs.  But  there  are  many  other  dairymen  who  are  situated  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  have  no  outlet  at  all  for  the  skim  milk  made  upon  the 
farm  as  far  as  selling  it  upon  the  market  is  concerned.  Many  farmers 
consider  this  feed  as  almost  a  waste  product  and  treat  it  as  such, 
but  if  it  is  properly  apportioned  with  the  grains  and  given  to  hogs, 
it  can  be  disposed  of,  through  the  hogs,  for  an  excellent  price.  The 
hog,  therefore,  is  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  dairy  business  as  a  means 
of  utilizing  the  waste  or  by-products. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Skim  milk,  on  the  basis  of  its  composition,  is  of  the  class  known 
as  protein  feeds.  Being  too  deficient  in  starches  and  sugars  (carbo- 
hydrates) ,  as  well  as  fat,  it  is  not  very  valuable  as  a  fat  producer  when 
fed  alone.  When  combined  with  corn  or  some  similar  feed  in  the 
proper  proportions,  the  protein  of  skim  milk  supplies  the  deficiency 
of  the  protein  in  the  corn,  while  the  carbohydrates  of  the  corn  supply 
the  deficiency  of  the  carbohydrates  in  the  skim  milk,  the  two  feed 
stuffs  thus  forming  a  balanced  ration.  This  means  one  which  con- 
tains the  nutrients  in  proportions  which  meet  the  needs  of  the  animal 
body  for  its  best  development.  "With  the  dairy  industry  rapidly  de- 
veloping in  this  State  it  is  important  to  know  the  value  of  skim  milk 
as  a  feed  for  hogs.— (Tex.  B.  131.) 

At  the  Storrs  Experiment  Station  8  lots  of  20  pigs  were  fed 
for  114  days  different  proportions  of  grain  and  milk  to  determine  the 
most  economical  proportions.  The  four  lots  receiving  grain  and  milk 
in  the  proportion  of  1  to  7-8  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.10 
pounds.  The  average  daily  gain  of  the  four  lots  receiving  grain 
and  milk  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  3-4  was  1.27  pounds.  The  cost 
of  100  pounds  of  gain  for  the  lot  recei\ang  grain  and  milk  in  the 
proportion  of  1  to  7-8  was  $4.95,  and  the  average  for  the  four  lots 
receiving  grain  and  milk  in  the  proportion  1  to  3-4  was  $4.45.  The 
average  amount  of  food  required  for  100  pounds  of  gain  was  253 
pounds  of  grain  and  1,086  pounds  of  milk  and  the  average  cost 
was  $4.70.— ((>)nn.  Storis  B.  39.) 

Skimmed  milk  was  worth  about  15  cents  per  cwt.  to  feed  pigs 
from  weaning  up  to  a  weight  of  125  pounds.  Clear  com  meal  is 
perfectly  satisfactory  as  a  single  grain  when  fed  in  connection  with 
skimmed  milk.  Weanling  pigs  in  close  quarters  during  cold  weather 
can  be  made  to  gain  a  pound  live  weight  per  day  for  three  months. 
There  are  indications  that  the  proportion  of  skimmed  milk  can  be 
increased  economically  above  the  ratio  of  three  pounds  of  milk  to 
one  pound  of  grain  usually  recommended,  thus  lessening  the  amount 
of  grain  food  that  must  be  purchased. — (N.  Y.  Cornell  B.  220.) 

Skim  milk  should  be  fed  hogs  if  it  can  be  obtained.  It  may 
be  mixed  with  the  grain  to  make  a  thick  swill,  or  if  it  is  desired  to 


m2  D03IESTI0  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

feed  the  grain  dry,  the  milk  may  be  fed  separately.  In  either  case 
clean,  pure  water  should  be  provided  for  drinking. —  (Wyo.  B.  74.) 
To  produce  one  pound  of  gain  in  live  weight  more  total  solids  were 
required  with  the  milk  rich  in  butter  fat  than  w-ith  the  milk  poor 
in  butter  fat.  Later  in  the  trials  with  pigs  fed  rich  milk  ad  libitum, 
serious  digestive  disturbances  were  noticed. —  (Conn.  Storrs  B.  31.) 

A  ration  of  skim  milk  and  grain,  fed  in  the  proportion  of  one 
pound  of  grain  to  five  pounds  of  skim  milk,  for  young  animals ;  and 
one  pound  grain  to  three  pounds  of  skim  milk,  for  older  animals; 
proved  a  better  ration  than  a  larger  proportion  of  milk.  The  hogs 
so  fed  gained  faster,  took  less  food  for  each  pound  of  gain,  and  re- 
turned more  for  each  100  pounds  of  skim  milk. 

Adding  skim  milk  to  a  grain  ration  enabled  the  hogs  to  gain 
more  than  twice  as  rapidly  as  when  fed  grain  alone,  and  each  100 
pounds  of  skim  milk  effected  a  saving  of  18  to  17.2  pounds  of  grain 
according  to  the  way  in  which  the  milk  was  fed.  As,  on  the  average, 
100  pounds  of  skim  milk  contains  slightly  less  than  10  pounds  dry 
matter,  it  is  evident  that  a  pound  of  dry  matter  in  skim  milk  is 
worth  as  much  as  1.5  pounds  of  grain. 

When  the  price  of  grain  is  high,  slower,  but  more  economical 
gains  are  made  by  feeding  a  small  quantity  of  grain  and  giving  all 
the  milk  the  hogs  will  eat.  When  so  fed,  considerably  better  results 
are  obtained  by  feeding  on  pasture  than  in  pens. 

Hogs  will  gain  fairly  well  on  a  ration  of  skim  milk  alone,  but 
we  have  found  it  difficult  to  keep  them  in  good  health  when  so  fed 
in  pens.  When  this  ration  is  fed  on  pasture,  the  hogs  keep  in  better 
health,  gain  a  little  more  rapidly  and  make  more  economical  gains. 
Such  a  ration  is  not  to  be  recommended  when  grain  can  be  obtained 
at  a  reasonable  price. —  (Utah  B.  94.) 

Too  often  the  value  of  the  so-called  by-products  of  the  farm  is 
not  fully  realized  by  the  farmer.  The  dairyman,  for  instance,  whose 
first  object  is  to  produce  as  much  milk  as  possible  that  he  may  sell 
the  butter  fat,  may  overlook  the  value  still  remaining  in  the  skim 
milk  and  buttermilk  after  the  fat  has  been  taken  from  them.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  from  10  to  20  per  cent  of  the  value  of  milk  lies  in  the 
skim  milk  when  it  is  properly  fed  to  growing  young  animals.— 
(Ariz.  B.  47.) 

Skim  milk  has  proven  to  be  the  most  efficient  supplement  to 
shelled  corn  or  corn  meal,  used  in  the  experimental  feed  lots  at  the 
Station  for  the  past  five  years  in  fattening  hogs. —  (Ind.  B.  137.) 

As  a  result  of  five  years'  work  it  is  found  that  most  economic  re- 
turns are  secured  with  skimmed  milk  when  corn  meal  is  the  grain 
used.  The  proportion  of  corn  meal  to  skimmed  milk  may  be  varied 
without  apparently  affecting  results.  In  no  case  should  the  amount 
of  skimmed  milk  fed  be  greater  than  the  pigs  can  quickly  and 
easily  consume. — (N.  Y.  Cornell  B.  199.) 

Hogg  fed  in  the  ratio  of  1  pound  of  grain  to  3,  6,  9  and  12 
pounds  of  skim  milk  made  the  largest  gains  on  from  9  to  12  pounds 
of  skim  milk.  The  consumption  of  skim  milk  reduced  the  consump- 
tion of  concentrates  considerably,  though  the  cost  of  a  pound  of  gaia 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  463 

was  lowest  with  a  consumption  of  1  pound  of  grain  to  3  pounds  of 
skim  milk.  This  shows  thai;  animals  will  often  consume  larger  quan- 
tities of  food  than  they  can  digest  and'  assimilate  with  the  greatest 
economy. — (Tenn.  B.  Vol.  XVI.  No.  3.)  The  pigs  receiving  corn- 
meal  and  separator  skim  milk  were  the  most  hearty  feeders  and  made 
the  best  gains.  The  cost  per  pound  of  gain  was  over  two  cents 
cheaper  where  skim  milk  was  fed  with  corn-meal  and  middlings. 
Corn-meal  produced  much  better  gains  and  at  a  cost  of  2.93  cents 
cheaper  than  middlings. — (N.  H.  B.  113.) 

PASTURE  AND  FORAGE. 

Permanent  Pastures. — ^Until  the  farmer  sees  his  way  clear  to 
make  a  permanent  pasture,  or  has  one  already  made,  he  should  keep 
out  of  the  live-stock  business.  It  is,  in  fact,  almost  impossible  to 
realize  a  profit  upon  any  kind  of  stock  without  good  pastures.  There- 
fore, the  first  thing  to  be  done  when  one  contemplates  engaging  in 
stock  raising  is  to  establish  a  pasture.  The  South,  which  is  the  very 
section  where  they  can  be  made  easily,  is  sadly  deficient  in  pastures. 
No  attention  has  been  given  to  them ;  it  has  all  been  given  to  cotton. 
But  the  southern  farmer,  if  he  will  devote  some  time  and  effort  to 
the  subject,  can  have  as  good  a  pasture  as  was  ever  seen  in  Kentucky 
or  Missouri  and  have  that  pasture  available  for  grazing  more  months 
in  the  year  than  is  possible  in  those  States.  For  a  permanent  pas- 
ture there  is  no  combination,  either  in  the  North  or  in  the  South, 
that  will  equal  bur  clover  and  Bermuda  grass.  The  Bermuda  can  be 
grazed  throughout  the  summer  months  and  the  bur  clover  from 
January  until  the  Bermuda  comes  on  again.  The  combination  will 
afford  grazing  at  least  ten  months  of  the  year.  Both  plants  are  per- 
manent after  they  are  once  established.  To  supplement  the  perma- 
nent pasture,  temporary  pastures  should  be  grown,  as  cowpeas,  pea- 
nuts, etc.,  but  no  farmer  who  has  stock  can  afford  to  be  without  this 
permanent  pasture  combination  to  be  ready  for  use  when  the  tem- 
porary pastures  can  not  be  employed. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Hog  raising  can  seldom  be  made  profitable  (in  the  South)  with- 
out a  good  permanent  pasture  where  the  hogs  can  secure  a  large  part 
of  their  coarser  food  at  a  nominal  cost,  and  where  they  can  have 
the  exercise  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  good  health.  If  they 
have  an  extended  range  they  should  make  fully  half  their  growth 
without  further  cost,  and  when  such  a  range  is  not  available,  pasture 
should  be  provided.— (F.  B.  100.) 

Permanent  pastures  for  hogs  are  not  as  desirable  as  good  clover 
pastures.  In  fact,  they  cannot  be  compared  with  them.  Clover  pas- 
tures are  not  permanent  as  mast  of  the  clover  is  killed  out  the  first 
winter  after  it  is  pastured.  Quite  often  wood  lots  or  other  pieces  of 
land  that  cannot  be  cultivated  are  fenced  for  hogs  and  when  large 
enough  may  make  fairly  good  pastures,  though  as  a  rule,  much 
smaller  returns  per  acre  are  obtained  than  from  good  rotation  pas- 
tures. When  such  pastures  are  already  provided  on  a  farm,  it  is 
probably  not  wise  to  change  at  once. — (Minn.  B.  104.) 

Plants  for  Summer  Pasture. — The  pigs  which  are  born  in  late 
"winter  and  early  spring  should  be  finished  for  the  market,  or  for 


464  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

home  killing,  the  following  fall  or  early  winter.  It  will  seldom  pay 
to  keep  them  through  the  first  winter.  When  the  pig  is  sucking  the 
mother  both  should  be  given  the  run  of  a  pasture  crop  in  order  that 
grain  may  be  saved.  If  the  pig  is  born  in  late  winter,  any  of  the 
crops  heretofore  mentioned  can  be  used  until  the  summer  crops  be- 
gin to  come  on.  When  green  crops  and  pastures  are  thus  used  the 
pig  can  be  gotten  up  to  weaning  time  as  cheaply,  perhaps  more 
cheaply,  than  he  can  be  carried  from  weaning  time  to  a  finish.  Bur 
clover,  which  is  a  part  of  the  permanent  pasture  system,  should,  of 
course,  be  used  during  the  late  winter  and  early  spring  months. 
When  the  pigs  are  from  60  to  75  pounds  in  weight  they  are  ready  to 
begin  to  finish,  and  this  is  the  time  that  the  summer  pasture  crops 
should  be  ready  to  use.  This  date  will  be  about  August. — (F.  B. 
411.) 

It  is  not  safe  or  even  desirable  to  rely  upon  a  single  crop,  ex- 
cepting alfalfa  where  it  is  an  assured  success,  to  furnish  pasture  for 
our  hogs  throughout  the  entire  season.  It  is  better  to  arrange  for  a 
succession  of  pastures  from  the  beginning  of  the  season  until  the 
hogs  are  ready  for  market,  making  the  feed  richer  and  more  con- 
centrated toward  the  close  of  the  season  and  as  we  approach  the  fin- 
ishing or  fattening  period.  For  this  purpose  the  following  crops 
are  recommended,  red  clover  or  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  soy  beans. — (Mo. 
B.  79.) 

Red  clover,  sorghum  and  Spanish  peanuts  were  the  best  foods 
for  succession.  They  are  cheap  and  easy  to  produce,  and  their  sea- 
sons of  maturity  are  in  convenient  order  for  pigs  to  consume  them. 
Rooting  for  the  peanuts  was  too  slight  to  injure  the  soil.  By  this 
system  of  raising  and  fattening^  pigs  the  manure  remains  scattered 
over  the  soil  from  which  the  foods  were  eaten.  The  cost  to  produce 
a  pound  of  pork  with  a  pig  from  birth  to  10  months  of  age  on  red 
clover,  sorghum  and  peanuts,  and  6  3-5  bushels  of  corn  and  grown  on 
soil  that  would  produce  25  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  was  1^2  cents. 
The  rotation  of  red  clover,  sorghum  and  peanuts  is  a  system  that 
required  6  3-5  bushels  of  corn  to  produce  a  hog  weighing  243  pounds 
at  10  months  old.  Less  corn  could  have  been  fed  in  farm  practice 
by  keeping  the  pigs  two  weeks  longer  on  peanuts  in  December,  and 
feeding  corn  only  while  the  ground  was  frozen.  The  time  could  be 
shortened  probably  a  month,  and  produce  the  same  weight,  243 
pounds,  by  grazing  peanuts  earlier,  and  by  feeding  on  alfalfa  in- 
stead of  red  clover.  By  this  system  of  pig  grazing  the  farmer  raises 
the  crops  and  the  pigs  gather  them. —  (Ark.  B.  73.) 

When  com  is  used  alone  as  a  hog  feed  money  is  almost  sure 
to  be  lost.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  feeding  value  of  corn  is  in- 
creased as  a  result  of  the  use  of  almost  any  supplement.  But  even 
•when  com  is  assisted  by  the  supplementary  feeds  mentioned,  there 
are  but  few  cases  where  70  cents  is  realized  for  a  bushel  of  corn; 
that  is,  when  hogs  sell  for  5  cents  a  pound  live  weight.  Under  pres- 
ent conditions  the  southern  farmer  must  see  his  way  clear  to  realize 
at  least  70  cents  a  bushel  upon  his  corn  when  fed  to  hogs  before  he 
can  look  upon  the  hog  business  as  a  profitable  one.    In  short,  con- 


Berkshire  Hogs.     Dept.  of  Age. 


Berkshire  Sow  in  Show  Condition.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  467 

centrated  feeds  of  all  kinds  are  upon  such  a  high  level  of  pricas  that 
the  farmer  can  not  afford  to  limit  the  feed  of  the  hog  to  them  alone. 
Help  must  be  sought  outside  the  concentrated  feeds. 

The  supplementary  feeds  heretofore  mentioned  are  almost  all 
good  and  should  be  used  in  hog-feeding  operations,  but  the  future  of 
profitable  hog  production  in  the  South  depends  upon  the  use  of 
green  or  pasture  crops.  It  is  possible  for  the  southern  farmer  to  have 
grazing  crops  practically  the  year  through,  and  many  of  the  best 
farmers  have  them.  The  southern  farmer  has,  in  fact,  a  decided  ad- 
vantage over  the  northern  farmer  in  this  respect.  We  have  seen 
that  a  variety  of  feeds  almost  always  produced  more  satisfactory  re- 
sults than  one  feed.  Pastures  and  green  crops  can  be  used  to  fur- 
nish variety  better  than  any  other  feeds.  The  southern  farmer  has 
grown  so  accustomed  to  placing  his  hogs  in  a  small  pen  when  the 
fattening  period  arrives  that  he  has  almost  forgotten  that  the  hog 
can  make  valuable  use  of  many  green  crops  if  he  be  given  the  op- 
portunity.—(F.  B.  411.) 

Keep  the  pasture  short  for  young  pigs,  as  fresh  growth  is  the 
most  easily  digested,  and  tall  pastures,  when  wet,  often  make  the 
pigs  have  sore  skins.  Have  two  pastures  and  change  from  one  to 
the  other,  so  that  the  pigs  will  always  have  clean  feed. —  (Colo.  Cir.  2.) 

Alfalfa  Pasture. — Many  sections  are  admirably  suited  to  grow- 
ing alfalfa.  When  the  farmer  is  so  situated  that  he  can  sell  alfalfa 
hay  it  may  not  be  wise  to  keep  the  pasture  grazed  down  with  hogs, 
but  at  certain  times  of  the  year  the  pasture  can  be  grazed  without 
at  all  injuring  the  hay  crop.  Some  farmers  are  so  situated  with  ref- 
erence to  markets  that  it  would  be  far  more  profitable  to  keep  the 
alfalfa  pasture  grazed  down  by  hogs  than  to  undertake  to  make  hay 
of  it.  It  is  one  of  the  best  pastures  that  can  be  secured,  since  it  fur- 
nishes a  large  amount  of  feed  to  the  acre  and  the  grazing  season 
extends  over  several  months  of  the  year. 

While  the  rape  pasture  in  the  Kansas  test  proved  to  be  a  good 
feed  to  use  along  with  the  grain,  the  alfalfa  pasture  proved  to  be  a 
little  more  than  twice  as  valuable.  One  acre  of  rape  was  equal  to 
753  pounds  of  grain,  while  1  acre  of  alfalfa  pasture  was  equal  to 
1,544  pounds  of  grain.  The  pastures  were  grazed  only  98  days, 
whereas  the  alfalfa  pasture,  in  the  South  at  least,  can  be  grazed  for 
twice  that  length  of  time.  When  a  price  of  $30  a  ton  is  placed  upon 
the  grain  used,  an  acre  of  rape  pasture  proved  to  be  worth  $11.29, 
while  an  acre  of  alfalfa  pasture  w^as  worth  $23.16. 

In  the  Missouri  test  the  alfalfa  was  cut  and  carried  to  the  hogs, 
which  were  confined  in  a  dry  lot.  There  were  6  hogs  in  the  lot. 
They  ate  463  pounds  of  green  alfalfa  in  102  days.— (F.  B.  411.) 

The  number  of  hogs  that  may  be  pastured  profitably  on  an 
acre  depends  very  largely  on  the  amount  of  grain  fed.  Probably 
from  six  to  eight  hogn,  under  ordinary  conditions,  would  be  about 
the  right  number.  This  would  allow  enough  alfalfa  to  grow  to  make 
three  fair  crops  per  year.  The  fields  should  be  small  rather  than 
large,  so  that  the  part  nearest  the  water  and  sheds,  will  not  be  kept 


468  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

too  close  to  the  ground,  leaving  the  far  end  untouched. —  (Neb. 
B.  99.) 

At  the  Utah  Station  some  5  months  old  pigs  were  fed  on  alfalfa 
pasture  alone.  This  test  indicated  that  alfalfa  furnishes  only  a 
maintenance  ration  and  that  additional  food  must  be  given  to  secure 
gains  in  live  weight.  During  the  progress  of  the  experiment  the  gen- 
eral appearance  of  the  pigs  was  greatly  changed.  The  plump  rounded 
form  gave  place  to  large,  coarse  frames  and  large  stomachs.  At  the 
end  of  the  experiment  they  looked  very  much  larger  than  at  the 
beginning,  but  the  scales  failed  to  show  any  gains.  What  is  said 
above  would  apply  also  to  the  mixed  pasture  set,  only  in  that  case  the 
eye  was  not  as  badly  deceived,  for  small  gains  w^ere  made. 

While  the  pasture  had  the  effect  to  develop  strong  frames  and 
large  stomachs,  and  while  the  gains  from  the  after  feeding  were  very 
high  and  the  consumption  of  food  enormous,  the  profits  from  this 
method  of  feeding,  even  for  the  short  period  of  after  feeding,  were  not 
as  large  as  from  a  number  of  others,  and  the  practice  is  not  to  be 
recommended. 

Alfalfa  without  other  food,  whether  pastured  by  pigs  or  cut 
and  fed  to  them  in  pens,  furnished  only  enough  nutriment  for  bare 
maintenance.  When  additional  food  was  given  the  rates  of  gain 
were  nearly  proportional  to  the  extra  quantities  they  received.  It 
supplies  a  good  supplementary  food  in  connection  with  bran  and 
grain,  but  it  is  too  coarse  and  bulky  to  be  fed  alone  to  the  pig  whose 
digestive  tract  is  especially  adapted  to  concentrates. — (Utah  B.  70.) 

Food  Character  of  Alfalfa. — It  not  only  furnishes  a  great  amount 
of  pasture,  but  it  is  of  a  character  that  goes  to  make  bone  and  muscle. 
It  belongs  to  the  leguminous  family  of  plants,  as  do  the  clovers,  the 
cowpea,  the  field  pea,  the  soy  bean,  and  the  vetches,  and,  while  it  is 
furnishing  this  valuable  food,  it  is  adding  fertility  to  the  land.  Either 
alfalfa  pasture  or  alfalfa  hay,  with  corn,  forms  very  nearly. a  bal- 
anced ration  for  animals ;  and,  while  it  is  better  to  have  grain  ration 
fed  with  it  to  hogs  as  well  as  other  animals,  a  healthier,  thriftier  hog 
can  be  raised  on  alfalfa  alone  than  on  com  alone.  Many  instances 
are  found  where  hogs  have  been  raised  on  alfalfa  alone. — (F.  B. 
331.) 

Alfalfa  Hay. — While  alfalfa  pasture  has  been  found  to  be  very 
valuable  for  hogs,  the  hay  as  a  part  ration  for  winter  is  scarcely  less 
important.  Throughout  the  region  referred  to  the  farmers  are 
feeding  the  hay  to  hogs  in  winter.  The  hay  has  been  found  to  be 
especially  valuable  for  brood  sows  before  farrowing.  Where  it  is 
fed  during  the  winter  only  a  small  ration  of  grain  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  sows  in  good  flesh  and  in  healthy  conditions.  Sows  thus  fed  also 
farrow  good  litters  of  strong,  healthy  pigs. 

Many  feed  the  hay  by  throwing  it  on  the  ground  in  forkfuls ; 
others  have  made  low  racks  in  which  the  hay  is  placed,  where  the 
hogs  can  feed  like  cattle  or  sheep.  The  hay  is  usually  fed  dry.  The 
leaves  are  more  readily  eaten  by  the  hogs  than  the  stems,  and  they 
contain  more  of  the  nutritive  value  of  the  plant.  For  these  reasons 
some  farmers  save  the  last  cutting  of  hay  for  the  hogs  because  it  is 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  469 

more  relished.  It  is  eaten  up  cleaner,  as  the  stems  are  not  so  woody. 
Sometimes  the  hay  is  cut  up  fine,  wet,  and  mixed  with  other  feed, 
and  sometimes  it  is  fed  ground,  as  there  are  now  alfalfa  mills  scat- 
tered throughout  the  alfalfa  regions.  But  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
this  extra  expense  will  pay,  unless  it  be  for  a  ration  for  young  pigs. 

To  avoid  the  expense  of  cutting  or  grinding,  some  farmers  in 
order  to  get  the  hay  all  eaten  have  soaked  it  in  water  and  fed  it. 
This  has  proved  very  satisfactory  where  tried.  One  Oklahoma  farmer 
carried  his  hogs  through  a  winter  by  feeding  them  alfalfa  leaves 
soaked  in  hot  water  for  one  day  and  the  next  day  shorts  mixed  with 
the  pulp  and  water.  He  feeds  much  alfalfa  hay  to  his  hogs  and  is 
very  successful  with  them.  He  puts  the  last  cutting  in  shock  as  soon 
as  wilted,  and  this  cures  it  without  bleaching  and  feeds  it  to  his 
hogs.— (F.  B.  331.) 

Alfalfa  Flay. — Where  a  good  quality  of  leafy  alfalfa  hay  may 
be  had  at  reasonable  cost,  and  other  protein  feeds  are  difficult  to 
obtain  or  are  high  in  price,  the  alfalfa  hay  may  be  used  to  supple- 
ment grain  feed  for  fattening  pigs.  It  should  not  be  fed  with  the 
grain,  but  should  be  put  in  specially  constructed  racks  where  the 
pigs  may  go  to  it  at  pleasure.  Mixed  grains,  with  alfalfa  hay  will 
give  better  results  than  a  single  grain  with  hay  as  a  rule. — (Colo. 
B.  165.) 

The  leaves  only,  are  of  value,  the  stems  being  too  woody,  and 
the  hogs  should  be  fed  a  sufficient  quantity  so  that  they  will  get 
all  they  want  when  they  have  eaten  the  leaves.  For  this  reason  it 
does  not  pay  to  cut  or  grind  alfalfa  hay  for  hogs,  as  these  methods 
compel  the  hog  to  eat  the  indigestible  stems.  In  a  test  made  by  the 
writer,  hogs  fed  whole  alfalfa  hay  ate  515  pounds  of  grain  for 
each  100  pounds  of  gain,  while  those  fed  finely  cut  alfalfa  hay  re- 
quired 538  pounds  of  grain  for  each  100  pounds  of  gain. 

Alfalfa  for  hay  for  hogs  should  be  cut  when  the  first  few 
blooms  appear,  cured  with  as  little  exposure  to  the  sun  as  possible, 
and  handled  in  such  a  way  as  to  preserve  the  leaves.  In  feeding 
tests  made  by  the  writer  with  hogs  fattened  on  grain  and  alfalfa 
hay,  a  ton  of  early,  green-cured  alfalfa  hay  was  equivalent  to  868 
pounds  of  grain,  and  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  cut  late  was  equivalent 
to  333  pounds  of  grain.— (Colo.  B.  146.) 

A  ration  three-fourths  corn  and  one-fourth  alfalfa  produces 
greater  gains  than  when  one-half  alfalfa  is  fed.  Where  alfalfa  is 
raised  on  the  farm,  and  when  there  is  no  particular  need  to  hasten 
groAvth  in  the  pigs,  a  ration  one-half  alfalfa  hay  and  one-half  com 
may  give  cheaper  gains  than  when  a  heavier  corn  ration  is  fed. — 
(Neb.  B.  20.) 

Alfalfa,  the  leading  crop  in  New  Mexico  at  the  present  time, 
forms  an  excellent  pig  feed  when  combined  with  grain.  Alfalfa  fed 
alone  is  a  very  poor  food  for  fattening  pigs.  The  lot  of  pigs  which 
received  a  ration  composed  of  nearly  equal  parts  of  alfalfa  hay  and 
com,  made  greater  gains  and  larger  profits  (Alfalfa  hay  at  $7.00 
per  ton)  than  either  the  lot  that  received  a  ration  composed  of  nearly 
three  parts  of  com  to  one  of  alfalfa  hay,  or  the  lot  that  received  a 


470 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


ration  composed  of  practically  two  parts  of  alfalfa  hay  to  one  of  com. 
The  largest  return  per  ton  for  the  alfalfa  hay,  after  paying  for  the 
corn  consumed,  was  made  by  the  lot  that  received  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  corn  in  the  ration.  Furthermore,  the  return  per  ton  for  the 
alfalfa  hay  decreased  with  the  decrease  in  the  proportion  of  corn  in 
the  ration. —  (N.  M.  B,  62.)  Clover  or  alfalfa  fed  as  hogs  will  eat 
it,  together  with  a  grain  ration,  improves  materially  the  rapidity  of 
the  gain  and  the  economy  of  the  feeding. — (Mon,  B.  73.) 

Cowpeas  as  a  Grazing  Crop. — Through  the  use  of  quick-matur- 
ing varieties  of  cowpeas  this  plant  can  be  made  to  be  one  of  the  very 
early  summer  grazing  pastures.  If  two  or  more  varieties  be  used,  or 
if  the  same  variety  be  planted  at  different  dates,  the  grazing  period 
can  be  extended  over  several  months.  It  is,  perhaps,  best  to  use  other 
plants,  which  will  be  mentioned  later,  to  extend  the  grazing  period. 
Several  of  the  southern  stations  have  used  the  cowpea  pasture  for 
hogs.  The  value  of  this  pasturage  is  shown  by  the  following  results 
at  the  Alabama  station : 


Cowpea  Pasture  for  Fattening  Hogs. 

station. 

Ration. 

Feed  to  make 

100  pounds 

gain. 

Cost  of 

100  lbs. 

gain 

Value  of 

1  acre 

in  terms 

of  corn 

586  pounds 

307  pounds 

0.137  acre 

$7.33 
3.84 

Bushels 

Alabama 

Bulletin  93, 

36.4 

The  Unknown  variety  of  cowpeas  was  used  in  the  foregoing 
work.  When  the  pigs  were  placed  in  the  field  the  leaves  were  all 
green  and  only  one-half  of  the  peas  had  taken  on  the  color  of  ma- 
turity. The  other  pods  were  all  green,  but  most  of  them  had  attained 
full  size.  Even  with  the  thin  stand  and  the  rows  far  apart  good 
results  were  secured.  When  the  corn  was  fed  alone  only  47.8  cents 
was  realized  for  each  bushel,  but  when  cowpea  pasture  was  used  in 
addition  to  the  corn  each  bushel  was  worth  71.3  cents  (charging 
the  crop  at  $8  an  acre,  fertilizer  not  considered).  When  the  cost 
of  the  crop  was  not  taken  into  account  each  bushel  of  corn  proved  to 
be  worth  91.3  cents. 

At  the  Mississippi  station  cowpea  pasture  was  grazed  without 
grain.  In  1903,  although  the  crop  was  grown  on  thin  land,  1  acre  of 
cowpeas  produced  350  pounds  of  pork.  In  1904  the  crop  was  grown 
on  good  valley  land  and  produced  483  pounds  of  pork  to  the  acre. 
The  hogs  were  turned  on  the  crop  when  tho  peas  were  ripe.  Better 
results  would  no  doubt  have  been  secured  if  the  animals  had^  been 
given  the  run  of  the  field  about  two  weeks  before  the  maturity  of 
the  peas. 

In  1906  the  Mississippi  substation  turned  8  sows  with  their  30 
pigs  into  a  red-clover  pasture  of  31/2  acres  on  March  20,  the  red  clover 
having  been  sown  the  previous  fall.  This  furnished  ample  grazing 
until  August  20,  when  they  were  turned  into  a  4V2-acre  lot  of  com 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  471 

and  peas.  The  30  pigs  were  killed  out  of  this  pasture  November  1 
without  the  addition  of  any  other  feed  and  dressed  117  pounds  each, 
at  an  average  age  of  196  days.  The  pigs  ate  approximately  6  bushels 
of  corn  each.  When  land  rent  is  estimated  at  $5  an  acre,  corn  at  70 
cents  a  bushel,  and  the  cost  of  seeding  the  red  clover  is  also  taken 
into  account,  each  pig  cost  $4.98. 

It  is  getting  to  be  a  common  practice  in  the  Middle  States,  where 
cowpeas  thrive  well,  to  plant  the  peas  in  the  corn  at  the  last  cultiva* 
tion  and  graze  the  hogs  on  both  crops.  This  method  saves  a  great 
amount  of  labor,  and  the  waste  of  corn  is  very  small  indeed  if  small 
pigs  are  given  the  run  of  the  field  after  the  fattening  animals  are 
taken  off ;  in  fact,  the  loss  of  corn  is  not  as  great  as  is  usually  the  case 
when  hired  help  gathers  it. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Soy-Bean  Pasture. — The  soy  bean  is  a  very  valuable  crop  both 
for  hay  and  for  use  as  a  pasture  for  hogs.  The  Tennessee  station, 
Bulletin  82,  has  compared  the  cowpea  and  the  soy  bean  as  to  their 
habits  of  growth,  yields,  etc.  According  to  this  bulletin  the  cowpea 
has  the  following  advantages  over  the  soy  bean:  (1)  The  soy  bean 
may  fail  to  come  up  through  a  crust  which  would  offer  little  resist- 
ance to  cowpeas.  (2)  The  germination  of  the  cowpea  seed  is  surer 
than  that  of  the  soy-bean  seed,  which  is  liable  to  be  spoiled  by  heating. 
The  cowpea  is  therefore  better  than  the  soy  bean  for  broadcasting, 
especially  on  land  that  is  heavy  and  liable  to  bake.  (3)  The  cowpea 
is  much  better  suited  than  the  soy  bean  for  planting  with  either  com 
or  sorghum.  (4)  Cowpea  hay  is  more  easily  cured  by  the  methods 
in  common  use,  without  the  increased  loss  of  either  leaves  or  fruit, 
than  soy-bean  hay. 

The  soy  bean,  on  the  other  hand,  appears  more  valuable  than 
the  cowpea  (1)  as  a  grain  producer,  (2)  as  an  intensive  farm  crop, 

(3)  as  an  early  hay  or  grazing  crop  (for  which  purposes  the  early 
and  medium  varieties  will  produce  either  hay  or  seed  several  weeks 
ahead  of  any  variety  of  cowpeas  which  had  been  tested  at  the  station) , 

(4)  the  seed  decay  more  slowly  than  those  of  the  cowpea  when  left 
on  the  ground,  so  are  better  adapted  to  being  pastured  off  by  hogs. 

Rabbits  feast  upon  the  soy  bean  while  they  will  not  bother  the 
cowpea  at  all.  Therefore  the  farmer  who  plants  soy  beans  should 
plant  enough  for  both  himself  and  the  rabbits.  The  soy  beans  proved 
to  be  greatly  superior  to  sorghum.  In  fact,  sorghum  was  practically 
worthless,  while  satisfactory  results  were  secured  from  soy  beans. 
When  com  alone  was  used  61.4  cents  were  realized  upon  each  bushel, 
with  hogs  at  5  cents;  but  when  the  com  was  supplemented  by  the 
soy-bean  pasture  each  bushel  of  corn  used  was  worth  98.6  cents  (al- 
lowing $8  to  make  each  acre  of  soy  beans). 

Even  when  the  interest  on  the  land  and  the  cost  of  putting  in 
the  crop  were  counted  against  the  gains,  pork  was  still  made  for  less 
than  one-half  of  what  it  co.«t  when  corn  was  used  alone.  Again,  when 
com  alone  was  used  only  48.9  cents  were  secured  for  each  bushel,  but 
when  a  three-fourths,  a  one-half,  and  a  one-fourth  ration  of  corn 
were  used  along  with  the  pasture  the  value  of  a  bushel  of  com  was 


472  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

raised  to  $1.59,  $1.69,  and  $3.35,  respectively  (estimating  the  cost 
of  making  the  crop  at  $8  an  acre). 

The  Southern  Yellow  variety  of  bean  was  used  in  all  cases. 
Other  varieties  can  he  used  if  it  is  desired  that  the  grazing  period 
should  be  extended.  For  instance,  the  Hollybrook  variety  is  ready 
for  grazing  two  or  three  weeks  before  the  Southern  Yellow,  although 
planted  at  the  same  time. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Soy  beans  will  furnish  pasture  for  hogs  during  the  latter  part 
of  August  and  September,  and  the  green  and  ripening  beans  when 
harvested  by  the  hogs  in  this  way  make  an  excellent  feed.  The  beans 
when  fed  in  a  ration  consisting  of  one  part  beans  and  three  to  five 
parts  of  corn  or  Kafir  corn,  as  shown  by  the  Kansas  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  make  a  very  profitable  ration  for  fattening  hogs. — 
(F.  B.  331.) 

The  soy  bean  is  regarded  as  somewhat  better  adapted  for  finish- 
ing a  bunch  of  hogs  than  the  cowpea ;  at  the  same  time  if  one  does 
not  care  to  bother  with  so  many  different  crops,  the  cowpea  may  be 
used  instead  with  satisfactory  results. — (Mo.  B.  79.) 

Canada  Field  Peas.— The  seeding  is  done  in  April  or  early  in 
May,  and  the  crop  can  be  pastured  by  midsummer.  The  best  season 
for  pasturing  is  when  the  peas  have  formed,  the  stock  being  allowed 
to  harvest  the  crop.  Hogs  make  a  very  thorough  harvesting,  clean- 
ing up  the  peas  and  the  vines  quite  thoroughly.  What  vines  are  left 
on  the  ground,  together  with  the  manure,  enrich  the  soil  and  add 
more  humus  to  it.  In  addition  to  this  the  labor  of  harvesting  is 
saved.— (F.B.  33.) 

Peanuts. — Other  things  being  equal,  legumes  should  always  be 
made  use  of  when  planning  a  succession  of  crops  for  hogs,  on  account 
of  their  favorable  influence  in  building  up  soils.  Peanuts  range  among 
the  exceedingly  valuable  leguminous  hog  crops.  Many  farmers  are 
already  aware  of  their  high  feeding  value,  and  they  are  used  in  those 
few  sections  of  the  South  that  at  the  present  time  are  producing  more 
pork  than  is  used  at  home.  As  a  rule,  when  a  hog-producing  section 
is  found  in  the  South,  a  peanut-growing  section  is  also  found.  This 
plant,  used  along  with  soy  beans,  affords  a  long  summer  and  fall 
grazing  season.  It  is  a  very  valuable  crop  for  fattening  hogs.  It 
should  also  be  remembered  in  this  connection  that  these  hog-grazing 
crops  do  not  cost  a  cent  to  harvest ;  the  hogs  save  the  expense  by  con- 
suming the  crops  in  the  field.  Again,  when  the  hog  grazes  on  the 
crop  there  is  practically  no  danger  of  losing  it  on  account  of  con- 
tinued rain  at  harvesting  time. —  (F.  B.  411.) 

As  a  whole,  peanut  pasture  was  found  to  be  more  useful  than 
any  other  pasture  tried.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  peanut 
pastures  were  not  good  two  years  out  of  the  three  they  still  gave  ex- 
cellent results.  Pork  was  made  at  a  good  profit  when  peanut  pasture 
was  used  in  conjunction  with  corn. — (Ala.  B.  143.) 

Spanish  peanuts  fed  alone  yielded  a  larger  gain  than  corn  fed 
alone.  The  results  indicated  that  an  acre  of  peanuts  of  a  yield  of 
forty  bushels  would  produce  approximately  $18.40  worth  of  pork  at 
^6.25  per  100  pounds.    With  pork  at  $9  per  100  pounds  the  sam^ 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  473 

acre  would  produce  $26.64  worth.  Peanuts  and  com  combined  pro- 
duced much  more  rapid  gains  than  peanuts  alone.  The  quality  of  the 
pork  produced  by  peanuts  was  much  inferior  to  that  produced  by 
com.— (Tex.  B.  131.) 

Sorghum. — Sorghum  is  less  palatable  and  nutritious  than  many 
other  forage  crops  adapted  to  this  region.  For  this  reason  many  do 
not  like  it  as  a  pasture  crop.  Hogs  do  not  thrive  as  well  on  it  as  on 
alfalfa  and  require  more  grain  to  keep  them  growing  nicely.  The 
special  value  of  sorghum  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  furnishes  a  great 
abundance  of  pasture  in  dry  hot  weather  when  alfalfa  makes  little 
growth.  After  it  is  well  started,  say  2  feet  high,  it  will  furnish  fairly 
good  pasture  for  30  hogs  to  the  acre  for  a  few  weeks,  and  a  good  crop 
will  carry  25  head  of  100-pound  pigs  nearly  all  summer. — (F.  B. 
331.)  Mature  sorghum  pasture  has  very  little  to  recommend  it  as.  a 
feed  for  fattening  swine.  Both  the  gains  and  the  financial  outcome 
were  unsatisfactory.  When  the  sorghum  was  cut  and  carried  to  the 
hogs  the  results  were  better  than  when  the  hogs  were  made  to  graze 
the  crop.— (Ala.  B.  143.) 

Sorghum  is  a  green  crop  well  thought  of  in  the  South  as  a  feed 
for  swine.  Its  chief  advantage  lies  in  the  large  yields  and  the  sure- 
ness  of  the  crop,  there  being  very  few  seasons  in  which  it  fails.  But 
it  must  be  remembered  in  plantmg  a  rotation  of  crops  that  sorghum 
is  not  a  legume,  so  that  the  land  will  not  be  made  better  on  account 
of  its  having  been  grown.  It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that 
com  and  sorghum  do  not  make  up  a  balanced  ration  for  animals. 
They  are  both  low  in  protein,  so  if  sorghum  is  to  be  used  at  all,  the 
concentrate  feed  should  be  partly  made  up  of  a  feed  high  in  protein, 
as  cotton-seed  meal  or  tankage.  Sorghum  has  probably  one  valuable 
place  as  a  hog  feed — to  help  carry  the  brood  sows  through  the  sum- 
mer months  economically  when  the  pastures  are  short.  Sorghum  is 
a  bulky  feed  and  is  more  suited  to  ruminants  than  to  the  hog.  The 
young  hog  makes  no  use  at  all  of  the  leaves  and  the  fibrous  part  of 
the  stalk;  his  stomach  is  too  small  for  such  bulky  roughage,  but  older 
hogs  can  use  roughage  to  a  considerable  extent. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Plants  for  Winter  Pasture. — Many  plants,  in  addition  to  the 
ones  previously  mentioned,  can  be  used  for  winter  pasture.  Of  course 
it  is  more  difficult  to  secure  winter  than  summer  grazing,  but  with 
the  proper  use  of  bur  clover,  rye,  oats,  vetch,  and  crimson  clover — all 
fall  sown — there  is  little  trouble  to  secure  grazing  areas  throughout 
the  whole  winter.  Bur  clover  is  a  permanent  pasture  and  will  grow 
upon  almost  any  character  of  soil.  It  occupies  the  land  with  Ber- 
muda, but  makes  its  growth  in  the  winter  time  and  dies  down  when 
spring  appears,  and  the  Bermuda  takes  its  place.  Rye,  oats,  vetch, 
and  crimson  clover  can  be  fall  sown,  following  the  general  summer 
crops,  and  be  ready  for  use  during  the  winter  and  early  spring 
months. 

Oats  Pasture. — The  great  value  of  oats  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  furnish  succulent  feed  at  a  season  when  it  is  much  needed. 
They  are  also  greatly  relished  by  hogs.  Oats  are  particularly  val- 
Viable  as  pasture  for  sows  and  young  pigs,  many  farmers  sowing 


474  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

them  for  this  purpose.  One  farmer  claims  that  he  is  less  troubled 
with  scours  in  pigs  on  oat  pasture  than  on  alfalfa. —  (F.  B.  331.) 

Rwpe  Pasture. — One  of  the  valuable  green  crops  for  hogs  is  rape. 
It  can  be  sown  in  the  fall  after  the  summer  crops  are  taken  off  the 
land,  and  within  seventy  days  is  ready  for  the  hogs  to  be  turned 
upon  it.  It  is  a  winter  growing  crop,  or  one  that  can  be  used  be- 
tween the  two  summer  crops.  As  a  result  of  its  use  the  land  can  be 
kept  in  use  and  covered  with  green  vegetation  the  year  round.  Sev- 
eral experiment  stations  have  demonstrated  its  value  as  a  hog  feed. 
While  rape  when  planted  in  the  spring  will  make  a  summer  growth 
almost  anywhere  in  the  South,  it  is  not  advisable  for  the  farmer  to 
use  it  as  a  summer  pasture.  Other  pastures  can  be  used  during  the 
summer  months,  and  the  rape  can  be  sown  in  the  fall,  after  the  sum- 
mer crops  are  taken  off  the  land,  and  be  ready  for  pasturing  by  Janu- 
ary. As  a  rule,  lands  lie  idle  throughout  the  winter  months,  thus 
exposing  them  to  the  heavy  washes,  but  if  rape  is  used  the  land  can 
be  made  to  produce  a  green  crop  the  year  round,  and  at  the  same  time 
afford  the  fattening  or  breeding  hogs  a  good  winter  pasture. 

The  experimental  work  in  both  Alabama  and  Wisconsin  has 
shown  rape  to  be  an  excellent  grazing  crop  to  supplement  corn.  In 
Alabama  the  area  was  grazed  twice,  as  the  rape  grew  up  behind  the 
hogs  after  they  had  grazed  it  the  first  time,  and  as  a  result  of  both 
grazings  it  was  learned  that  1  acre  of  the  ra|)e  pasture  was  equivalent 
to  61.9  bushels  of  corn  (assuming  that  580  pounds  of  corn  will  make 
100  pounds  gain) ;  or,  leaving  out  of  consideration  the  expense  of 
making  the  crop,  each  bushel  fed  at  the  first  grazing  was  worth  95.8 
cents  (hogs  at  5  cents)  and  each  bushel  during  the  second  grazing 
realized  $1.36.  If  it  cost  $8  to  make  an  acre  of  rape,  and  this  ex- 
pense is  charged  against  the  gain,  the  corn  during  the  first  grazing 
sold  for  67.8  cents  a  bushel  while  that  of  the  second  grazing  sold  for 
91.6  cents.  In  the  Wisconsin  test  1  acre  of  rape  was  found  to  be  equal 
in  feeding  value  to  45  bushels  of  corn,  or,  estimating,  as  in  the  Ala- 
bama test,  the  corn  sold  for  99.6  cents  a  bushel  when  the  cost  of 
making  the  rape  crop  was  not  considered,  and  for  91.9  cents  a  bushel 
when  the  cost  is  counted  against  the  gain  at  the  rate  of  $8  an  acre. 
These  results  were  secured  in  winter,  a  time  of  year  when  the  average 
farmer  is  realizing  no  returns  at  all  upon  his  land.  Thus  the  farmer 
is  one  crop  ahead,  equal  to  about  30  bushels  of  corn. 

Rape  is  not  a  legume ;  it  will  not  enrich  the  soil.  Its  chief  value 
lies  in  the  fact  that  it  can  be  grown  in  the  winter  time  between  the 
main  farm  crops.  It  comes  off  in  the  spring  in  ample  time  for  the 
same  area  to  be  planted  in  any  of  the  general  farm  crops. —  (F.  B. 
411.)  Rape  at  the  present  time  is  the  most  favorably  known  of  the 
fleshy-leaved  plants  for  swine  pasture. — (Ind.  B.  82.) 

Chufas. — The  chufa  plant  is  one  that  can  be  used  for  winter 
grazing  also,  but  it  has  two  disadvantages.  One  of  these  is  that  it 
must  be  planted  in  the  spring  and  occupies  the  land  throughout  the 
whole  summer;  the  other  is  that  while  it  occupies  the  ground  for  a 
long  time  it  is  not  a  soil  improver.  Nevertheless  many  farmers  make 
excellent  use  of.  it  for  pigs  that  they  wish  to  finish  for  late  spring  kill- 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  475 

ing  or  for  the  early  spring  or  late  winter  markets.  Some  farmers  make 
a  practice  of  planting  it  upon  the  same  land  and  at  the  same  time  with 
peanuts,  but  in  alternate  rows.  This  is  a  good  practice.  The  peanuts 
are  ready  to  graze  before  the  chufas  are  matured,  so  the  animals 
when  turned  into  the  field  first  consume  the  peanuts  and  later  on  in 
the  fall  or  winter  make  use  of  the  chufas.  The  chufas  lies  in  the 
ground  without  much  loss  by  rotting. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Grain  to  Feed  When  on  Pasture. — It  would  be  of  interest  to  the 
farmer  to  know  just  how  much  grain  to  feed  along  with  the  pasture 
crops.  Of  course  the  amount  of  grain  fed  depends  upon  the  kind  of 
pasture  used  and  whether  the  animals  are  just  being  carried  along  or 
are  being  rushed  to  a  finish. 

No  farmer  can  afford  under  present  conditions  to  sell  his  com 
directly  upon  the  market  as  corn,  even  for  $1  a  bushel.  He  should 
market  it  through  hogs.  In  the  Alabama  test  from  $1.42  to  $2.82 
was  secured  for  each  bushel  of  corn  fed  when  hogs  sold  for  5  cents 
a  pound  live  weight.  Some  farmers  hold  that  the  most  profitable 
method  is  to  feed  no  grain  at  all  while  the  hogs  have  the  freedom 
of  a  good  pasture,  but  it  is  seen  from  the  above  prices  realized  upon 
corn  that  the  man  who  has  corn  to  sell  should  make  more  money 
by  feeding  it  in  conjunction  with  the  pasture.  Third,  the  amount  of 
available  pasture  will  have  something  to  do  with  the  amount  of  com 
to  feed.  If  the  area  of  pasture  is  small  for  the  number  of  hogs  on 
hand,  it  would  pay  to  be  liberal  with  the  corn  in  order  that  the  pas- 
ture may  be  extended  over  as  long  a  time  as  possible.  Fourth,  the 
amount  of  grain  used  depends  upon  the  length  of  time  the  farmer 
has  in  which  to  get  the  animals  ready  for  the  market.  If  prices  are 
ruling  low,  it  may  be  wise  to  simply  carry  the  animals  along  slowly 
until  the  prices  advance.  If  hogs  are  selling  at  a  good  figure  and  there 
is  danger  of  their  depreciating  in  value  on  account  of  prices  falling, 
it  would  be  the  part  of  wisdom  to  finish  rapidly  through  the  liberal 
use  of  grain. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Grass  alone  does  not  furnish  a  satisfactory  ration  for  hogs. 
When  they  have  the  run  of  a  large  pasture  with  opportunity  for  root- 
ing, the  supplementary  food  thus  obtained  enables  them  to  maintain 
their  weight,  and  probably  gain  slightly.  When  the  grass  pasture 
is  supplemented  by  a  small  grain  ration,  or  by  skim  milk,  or  possibly 
by  the  slops  from  the  house,  the  hogs  make  much  better  use  of  the 
pasture,  and  they  will  make  quite  satisfactory  gains  -on  a  small 
amount  of  supplementary  food.  The  hogs  gain  in  live  weight  more 
slowly,  but  the  gain  is  made  at  a  lower  food  coi^t  on  the  part  ration 
than  on  the  full  grain  ration.  In  this  conclusion  nothing  is  allowed 
for  the  pasture.  By  feeding  a  part  grain  ration  on  pasture  the  hogs 
eat  more  of  the  pasture  and  thus  make  a  pound  of  gain  on  less  grain 
than  when  fed  a  full  grain  ration,  but  do  not  gain  so  rapidly.  Thus, 
on  one  side  there  are  more  economical  but  sloAver  gains,  accom- 
panied by  slower  returns,  greater  risk  and  more  labor;  contrasted 
with  more  costly  gains,  less  risk  and  labor,  and  quicker  returns. 
Which  of  these  methods  to  adopt,  the  feeder  will  have  to  decide  for 
himself,  according  to  his  market  or  circumstances. — (Utah  B.  94.) 


476  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Hogs  fed  a  half  grain  ration  on  clover  and  alfalfa  pasture 
made,  in  proportion  to  the  grain  fed,  much  faster  gains  and  much 
more  economic  gains  that  those  fed  a  full  grain  ration. — (Mon.  B. 
73.)  In  pork  production  economic  use  may  be  made  of  pasture 
in  connection  with  a  full  grain  ration.  This  is  shown  not  only  by  the 
average  results  of  all  the  experiments  conducted  but  also  by  every 
point  of  comparison  in  each  separate  test.  The  average  shows  the 
gains  of  the  pasture  sets  to  be  33  per  cent  the  higher  and  to  have  been 
made  on  10  per  cent  less  grain.  The  average  results  of  four  seasons* 
experiments  show  quite  conclusively  that  mixed  pasture  is  not  bene- 
ficial to  pigs  having  a  full  supply  of  grain  and  skim  milk.  Pasture 
with  grain  rations,  averaging  all  the  experiments,  gave  slightly  better 
results  than  green  stuff  cut  and  fed  in  connection  with  grain  in  pens 
and  yards.  Where  lands  are  cheap  and  labor  comparatively  dear, 
it  seems  advisable  to  follow  the  pasture  method. —  (Utah  B.  70.) 

An  extensive  use  of  pasture  should  often  be  made  in  pork  produc- 
tion, especially  when  grain  is  very  high  in  price.  With  hogs  upon 
pasture  the  proposition  is  very  different  from  dry  lot  feeding,  and  it 
is  often  possible,  by  feeding  relatively  light  grain  rations,  to  induce 
hogs  to  eat  a  much  larger  amount  of  grass  than  when  heavier  grain 
rations  are  supplied,  and  thus  effect  a  marked  economy  in  produc- 
tion. Marked  economy  in  cost  of  gains  resulted  from  the  use  of  a 
light  grain  ration  in  place  of  a  heavy  grain  ration  for  swine  on  pas- 
ture. If  a  cheaper  feed  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  grain,  it  is  often 
possible  to  lessen  very  materially  the  cost  of  pork  production  by  feed- 
ing a  light  grain  ration.  If  concentrates  are  to  be  used  exclusively, 
the  use  of  a  heavy  grain  ration  would  be  advisable,  unless  the  aim  of 
the  feeder  is  to  hold  the  stock  in  a  low  or  moderate  condition  in  order 
to  secure  cheaper  feeds  for  fattening  later.  It  is  important  for  feeders 
to  understand  market  conditions  as  well  as  efficiency  of  feeds.  The 
rations  that  produce  the  most  rapid  gains  are  not  necessarily  the  most 
profitable  feeds  to  use.  On  the  other  hand,  rations  that  produce  cheap 
gains  may  produce  these  gains  so  slowly  that  the  profits  will  be  very 
email.— (O.  B.  209.) 

Roots. — In  some  form  they  are  a  desirable  food  for  pigs  in  win- 
ter, as  an  addition  to  the  grain  ration,  in  promoting  healthful  activity 
of  the  digestive  organs  and  acting  as  an  appetizer.  Sugar  beets,  arti- 
chokes or  carrots  would  no  doubt  serve  this  purpK)se  better  than  man- 
gels. They  are  more  expensive  in  view  of  greater  cost  of  production, 
but  this  difference  is  not  important.  They,  however,  contain  enough- 
more  sugar  to  make  them  somewhat  more  relished  by  the  pigs  than 
are  the  mangels. — (Ind.  B.  79.) 

The  real  value  of  succulent  food  for  swine  cannot  be  measured 
by  simple  gains  in  weights  of  pigs  given  such  food.  Undoubtedly 
where  animals  are  confined  to  a  pure  grain  diet,  the  digestive  tract  is 
more  torpid  and  sickness  is  more  likely  to  occur  than  when  succu- 
lent food  is  given.  Then  the  digestive  organs  are  more  active  and 
natural  in  movement  and  the  body  is  better  prepared  to  resist  dis- 
ease than  when  pure  grain  food  is  fed.  The  influence  of  this  succu- 
lent food  on  sows  in  pig  or  sucking  pigs  cannot  be  measured  by  the 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  477 

scales,  but  the  general  testimony  of  practical  feeders  of  experience 
is  that  such  diet  promotes  easy  parturition,  a  generous  milk  flow  and 
vigorous  oti'spring.  Pigs  that  are  to  be  fattened  in  a  short  period 
of  feeding  do  not  perhaps  need  roots  in  their  diet,  though  I  believe 
it  would  be  to  their  advantage,  but  breeding  stock,  both  male  and 
female,  and  suckling  sows  will  certainly  be  materially  benefited  by 
summer  pasturage  and  roots  in  winter.  Swine  should  always  be  fed 
with  discretion  the  first  few  days  after  turning  on. pasture  to  prevent 
bloat,  but  where  roots  are  fed  no  special  danger  is  likely  to  occur. — 
(Ind.  B.  82.) 

It  may  be  stated,  as  a  general  rule,  that  root  crops  can  not  be  as 
profitably  used  for  fattening  hogs  as  can  some  of  the  crops  hereto- 
fore mentioned.  The  South  must  adopt  a  system  of  farming  that 
requires  as  little  labor  as  possible,  and  when  the  root  plants  are 
grown  much  labor  must  be  expended  upon  them.  One  of  the  advan- 
tages of  stock  farming  is  that  it  lends  itself  to  handling  large  areas  of 
land  without  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  amount  of  labor  used. 
If,  through  the  addition  of  stock  to  our  system  of  farming,  we  should 
materially  increase  the  amount  of  labor  required',  the  business  could 
not  be  made  a  success,  as  there  is  but  little  extra  labor  to  be  had. 
Then  again,  the  effect  of  the  crop  upon  the  soil  should  never  be  over- 
looked. The  common  root  crops  now  in  use  are  not  legumes,  so  the 
soil  will  not  be  improved  as  a  result  of  their  having  been  grown. 
Nevertheless  some  farmers  are  so  situated  and  their  soils  are  of  such 
a  character  that  they  can  probably  use  root  crops  to  advantage. — 
(F.  B.  411.)  Roots  as  a  supplemental  food  also  make  a  valuable 
addition  to  the  ration,  coming  next  in  value  to  skim  milk  and  tank- 
age.—(Mon.  B.  73.) 

Sugar  Beets. — For  light  weight  fattening  pigs,  weighing  from 
60  to  160  pounds,  sugar  beets  are  not  an  economical  fattening  feed 
in  connection  with  grain,  when  they  constitute  approximately  one- 
half  of  the  ration  by  weight.  Our  experience  indicates  that  when 
such  pigs  are  fed  beets  at  pleasure,  they  will  eat  the  beets  and  grain 
in  about  equal  proportions  by  weight. — (Colo.  B.  165.) 

In  experiments  made  on  the  Colorado  Agricultural  College  farm, 
hogs  fed  all  the  sugar  beets  they  would  eat,  and  no  other  feed,  just 
maintained  their  weight.  Hogs  fed  grain  and  all  the  sugar  beets 
they  would  eat  made  less  gains  than  those  fed  the  same  amount  of 
grain  and  no  beets,  A  small  quantity  of  beets  fed  as  a  conditioner 
were  valuable,  one  ton  taking  the  place  of  200  pounds  of  grain. — 
(Colo.  Cir.  2.) 

Potatoes. — No  tests  have  been  made  of  feeding  potatoes  to  fatten- 
ing hogs  at  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station,  Several  other  sta- 
tions have  tried  them,  and  it  has  been  found  that  potatoes  alone 
do  not  make  a  satisfactory  feed,  and  that  raw  potatoes  have  little 
feeding  value.  Potatoes  cooked  until  dry  and  mealy  and  mixed 
wuth  raw  grain  make  a  palatable  feed,  and  from  400  to  450  pounds 
of  potatoes  are  equal  to  100  pounds  of  grain, — (Colo,  B,  146.) 

At  Cornell  the  Irish  potato  was  fed  both  cooked  and  raw,  A 
little  grain  and  skim  milk  were  fed  in  addition  to  the  potatoes.    Over 


478  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

400  pounds  of  potatoes  were  eaten,  but  the  pigs  failed  to  make  prog- 
ress and  the  test  was  closed.  At  the  Central  Experimental  Farm, 
Ottawa,  Canada,  reasonable  results  were  secured  when  cooked  pota- 
toes were  used,  but  raw  potatoes  produced  practically  no  gains.  Sub- 
sequent experience  in  feeding  hogs  on  sweet  potatoes  in  the  ground 
did  not  prove  to  be  profitable.  The  potatoes  were  not  eaten  with 
relish,  and  after  being  rooted  up  they  were  left  upon  the  surface, 
some  of  them  remaining  there  until  they  decayed. —  (F.  B.  411.) 

In  feeding  potatoes  to  pigs  during  the  winter,  warm  dry  quar- 
ters should  be  furnished,  otherwise  the  potatoes  whether  cooked  or 
uncooked  may  do  more  harm  than  good. —  (N.  Y.  Cornell  B.  199.) 

Silage. — At  the  Virginia  Station  two  brood  sows  were  fed  for 
seven  weeks,  during  winter,  exclusively  on  silage.  The  animals  lost 
weight,  and  their  general  appearance  at  the  end  of  the  experiment 
was  such  as  to  discourage  the  further  use  of  silage  as  an  exclusive 
ration  for  hogs,  though  in  after-fattening  these  took  on  flesh  as 
rapidly  as  did  the  ones  fed  corn,  showing  that  the  exclusive  use  of 
silage  had  not  impaired  the  digestion.  In  the  experiments  in  which 
the  silage  constituted  only  a  part  of  the  ration,  the  animals  consumed 
from  28  to  35  pounds  of  silage  and  14  to  21  pounds  of  corn  on  the 
cob  per  week  during  a  period  of  ten  weeks.  The  animals  were  kept  in 
good  condition  through  a  severe  winter  on  this  ration.  By  using  the 
silage  a  saving  of  nearly  one-third  in  the  cost  of  feed  was  effected. 
Experiments  at  other  stations  have  not  generally  been  very  favorable 
to  the  use  of  silage  as  a  food  for  swine;  nor  do  the  rasults  of  experi- 
ments at  the  Virginia  Station  do  more  than  indicate  that  silage  is 
worthy  of  consideration  as  a  component  of  a  cheap  maintenance  ra- 
tion, to  be  used  for  such  purposes  as  carrying  brood  sows  over  winter, 
and  not  for  fattening.— (F.  B.  103.) 

Experiments  indicate  that  silage  cannot  be  profitably  substituted 
for  a  part  of  the  grain  ration  with  pigs.  In  this  experiment  it  was 
fed  in  addition  wnth  some  profit,  giving  quicker  gains  and  keeping 
the  animals  in  better  condition. —  (Ken.  B.  101.) 

Pumpkins. — Pumpkins  are  an  excellent  feed  for  keeping  hogs 
in  a  healthy  condition.  Many  farmers  claim  that  the  seeds  of  pump- 
kins will  prevent  worms  in  pigs  and  shoats  and  that  a  ration  of  pump- 
kins fed  with  grain  will  keep  hogs  thrifty  and  give  them  a  good 
appetite.  A  good  many  wagonloads  can  be  grown  on  an  acre  of  rich 
land.  Stumpy  land  or  low  moist  land  will  grow  good  pumpkins. — 
(F.  B.  331.) 

The  cooking  of  pumpkins  does  not  increase  their  feeding  value. 
When  pumpkins  are  available  for  pig  feeding  they  can  be  fed  most 
economically  in  connection  with  cornmeal.  While  raw  pumpkins 
fed  in  connection  with  milk  produced  a  pound  of  gain  at  small  cost, 
so  few  pounds  were  produced  it  is  advisable  to  feed  cornmeal  with 
them.  Apples,  even  at  the  low  price  of  10  cents  per  bushel,  are  not 
an  economical  food  for  pigs. — (N.  H.  B.  66.) 

Molasses. — Black  strap  molasses,  on  the  basis  of  its  composition, 
is  of  the  same  cla'^s  of  feed  stuffs  as  Indian  corn.  It  is  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates, the  same  constituent  that  makes  Indian  corn  valuable  as 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  479 

a  fat  producer.  Like  Indian  €orn,  it  is  deficient  in  protein,  only 
more  so,  and  this  is  the  constituent  which  is  necessary  in  a  feed  stuff 
to  produce  the  lean  meat  or  muscle  of  an  animal  and,  to  some  extent, 
the  frame  work.  Black  strap  or  feeding  molasses,  a  refuse  obtained 
in  refining  cane  sugar,  is  produced  in  this  State  annually  in  large 
quantities,  and  though  its  importance  as  a  cattle  feed  has  already  been 
thoroughly  demonstrated  by  this  Station  and  by  cattle  feeders  in 
different  portions  of  the  State  and  elsewhere,  its  value  as  a  feed  for 
hogs  has  not  been  so  clearly  determined. — (Tex.  B.  131.) 

Hotel  Slop. — Feeding  slop  from  hotels  is  practiced  in  some  parts 
of  the  State.  With  careful  management  it  sometimes  proves  profit- 
able, but  one  must  be  always  on  guard  against  contagious  diseases, 
such  as  cholera  and  contagious  sore  mouth,  the  germs  of  which  are 
frequently  found  in  such  slop. — (Wyo.  B.  74.)  The  cause  of  death 
in  certain  outbreaks  of  disease  among  swill-fed  hogs  is  the  direct  pois- 
oning of  the  animals  by  the  excess  of  free  alkali  (wa.shing  soda)  in  the 
swill.  These  alkalies  come  from  the  powdered  soaps  used  in  washing 
dishes.  It  appears  that  small  quantities  of  the  powdered  soaps  do  not 
produce  immediate  bad  results.  It  is  presumable  that  they  can  be 
used  in  quantities  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  cleanliness  with  perfect 
safety,  but  owing  to  the  danger  involved  in  their  use  it  is  safer  not 
to  give  the  -water  containing  them  to  animals.  In  addition  to  the 
unwholesomeness  of  garbage  and  kitchen  slops  for  animal  food,  and 
in  addition  to  the  losses  sustained  from  the  immediate  effect  of  such 
kinds  of  food,  hogs  fed  upon  it  are  very  liable  to  contract  specific  in- 
fectious diseases,  such  as  hog  cholera,  swine  plague  and  tuberculosis. 
(N.  Y.  Cornell  B.  141.) 

Climatic  Influences. — The  climate  and  soil  which  will  best  favor 
the  production  of  any  kind  of  live  stock  are  those  in  which  the  same 
kind  of  stock  is  found  wild.  In  his  native  state  the  hog  frequents 
those  localities  where  vegetation  is  abundant,  if  not  luxuriant.  The 
climate  is  usually  one  of  only  moderate  severity.  If  extremes  either 
of  heat  or  cold  are  common,  the  environment  provides  shelter  in  the 
dense  thickets  in  winter  and  shade  and  an  abundance  of  water  in  sum- 
mer. The  hog  is  a  heavy  and  promiscuous  feeder,  therefore  in  his 
domestic  state  he  thrives  best  where  pastures  are  most  luxuriant  and 
grain  crops,  nuts,  or  roots  are  most  abundant.  He  is  not  a  ranger, 
nor  does  he  thrive  on  grass  alone ;  he  can  not  endure  a  great  amount 
of  travel  at  a  time;  exercise  he  must  have,  yet  he  mu.st  be  able  to 
find  his  feed  mth  only  a  small  amount  of  searching,  and  water  should 
always  be  accessible.  During  hot  weather  he  craves  a  pool  of  water 
to  reduce  his  temperature,  for  he  perspires  little;  and  in  winter  he 
w^ants  shelter  from  storms.  Owing  to  these  requirements  there  are' 
few  hogs  in  the  semiarid  States  of  the  West,  and  in  that  section  hog 
raising  is  generally  coincident  with  irrigation  and  alfalfa  growing. 

The  firet  place  in  hog  raising  in  the  United  States  is  easily  with 
the  corn-growing  sections,  and  here  corn  is  the  first  grain  thought 
o-f  when  the  fattening  of  animals,  especially  hogs,  is  considered.  It 
is,  however,  fallacious  to  argue  that  hog  raising  will  not  give  profit- 
able returns  outside  of  the  corn  belt.    The  com  belt  has  wonderful 


480  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

advantages  for  economical  pork  production,  but  it  also  has  its  disad- 
vantages. The  cheapness  and  abundance  of  corn  in  the  corn  belt 
have  often  led  farmers  to  use  it  as  the  exclusive  grain  feed.  But 
breeding  stock  so  fed  does  not  thrive  so  well  and  is  not  so  prolific 
as  when  given  a  varied  ration,  and  when  used  for  fattening  an  ex- 
clusive corn  diet  is  not  generally  profitable.  The  work  of  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  and  experiment  station  during  recent  years  has 
done  much  to  show  breeders  and  feeders  the  undesirability  of  this 
practice,  and  the  increasing  price  of  corn  has  forced  farmers  to  econo- 
mize in  its  use  as  much  as  possible. 

Any  locality  that  will  grow  clover  of  any  species,  or  that  is  favor- 
able to  the  production  of  alfalfa,  peas,  or  beans,  or  where  grains  are 
readily  grown — not  only  corn,  but  barley,  wheat,  oats,  or  rye — will 
be  a  favorable  situation  for  the  successful  production  of  pork.  If 
it  is  also  a  locality  where  dairying  is  common,  no  better  advantages 
are  required;  for,  given  leguminous  pasture — clover,  alfalfa,  peas, 
beans,  etc. — as  a  basis,  with  a  grain  feed  that  can  be  readily  grown, 
and  also  dairy  by-products,  the  very  highest  grade  of  pork  can  be 
produced  at  a  minimum  cost.  Variety  of  feed  alone  is  an  item  of 
immense  importance  in  feeding.  An  animal  tires  of  a  constant  ration 
of  one  kind,  and  is  more  easily  put  off  feed  at  such  times  than  when 
he  is  occasionally  supplied  with  a  change  to  keep  his  appetite  keen. 
Not  only  has  variety  of  feed  an  influence  on  appetite,  but  it  results 
in  a  better  quality  of  pork. 

The  few  States  comprising  the  corn  belt  are  the  source  of  supply 
for  a  great  amount  of  the  meat  product,  especially  hams  and  bacon, 
that  is  consumed  in  other  portions  of  the  country.  Yet  the  advan- 
tages of  many  of  these  corn-belt  States  are  little,  if  at  all,  superior 
to  those  outside  of  that  district.  The  South  has  an  abundance  of 
vegetation.  Cowpeas,  velvet  beans,  and  peanuts  are  leguminous  crops 
that  are  peculiar  to  that  section.  Com  grows  readily  in  all  parts  of 
the  South,  and  in  the  subtropical  portions  the  experience  of  feeders 
with  cassava  seems  to  indicate  that  it  has  considerable  value  for  pork 
production.  In  addition,  there  is  generally  an  abundant  water  sup- 
ply; the  climate  is  mild,  and  there  is  a  long  period  during  which 
green  feed  is  available ;  the  expense  of  shelter  and  winter  feeding  is 
very  greatly  lessened.  These  conditions,  giving  a  long  period  of  pas- 
ture and  outdoor  life,  enhance  thrift,  and  with  proper  management 
insure  great  freedom  from  disease. 

In  the  extreme  West  the  alfalfa  of  the  irrigated  valleys  and  the 
clover  of  the  coast  districts  give  a  splendid  foundation  for  successful 
pork  production.  In  most  of  these  regions  there  is  an  abundance  of 
small  ^ain,  particularly  barley,  that  may  often  be  fed  economically, 
while  m  some  localities  com  is  a  successful  crop. 

Barley  is  of  so  much  interest  and  importance  in  the  production  of 
prime  pork  that  it  demands  more  than  a  passing  notice.  This  grain 
has  not  been  relied  upon  to  any  great  extent  in  America  as  the  princi- 
pal part  of  a  hog-fattening  ration,  but  the  practice  of  Danish  farmers 
and  the  results  of  experiments  can  very  well  be  studied  with  profit 
by  American  feeders.    The  Danish  bacon,  which  figures  so  prorai- 


BREEDS  OF  SWtNE  481 

nently  in  the  English  markets,  is  produced  mainly  with  barley  and 
dairy  by-products.  At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Day  has 
found  barley  so  valuable  in  the  production  of  prime  export  bacon  that 
it  is  now  used  as  a  standard  with  which  other  grains  are  compared. 
In  his  experiments  to  determine  the  nature  and  causes  of  soft  pork, 
Shutt  found  that  the  best  bacon  produced  was  by  a  ration  in  which 
barley  was  at  least  one-third  of  the  whole  amount.  Farmers  in  those 
parts  of  the  country  where  barley  is  a  prominent  crop  can  well  devote 
attention  to  their  opportunities  for  pork  production ;  besides,  in  addi- 
tion to  this  grain,  some  of  the  leguminous  crops  can  often  be  grown 
for  pasture,  thus  furnishing  materials  for  a  well-balanced  ration. 

The  purpose  of  these  remarks  is  not  to  minimize  the  value  of  com 
in  meat  production  of  any  kind.  Com  is,  perhaps,  with  a  favorable 
climate  and  soil,  the  most  economical  grain  that  is  at  the  command  of 
the  stock  raiser  and  feeder  in  those  sections  of  the  United  States 
where  it  can  be  grown  successfully.  It  is  nutritious  and  highly 
palatable.  Without  its  use  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  how  the  animal 
products  of  the  United  States  could  have  attained  their  present 
position  in  the  world's  commerce;  and  so  long  as  meat  products 
are  a  factor  of  American  agriculture  com  will  probably  be  a  leading 
element  in  meat  production  in  this  country,  and  the  corn  belt  will 
naturally  continue  to  be  more  or  less  the  center  of  feeding  operations. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  condition  is  ever  present  that  farmers  in  local- 
ities where  com  is  a  limited  product  have  their  own  wants  to  supply. 
If,  in  addition  to  their  own  needs,  the  farmei-s  of  these  localities  can 
supply  a  share  of  the  export  demand,  great  strides  will  have  been 
taken  in  their  agricultural  development,  for  live-stock  husbandry  is 
the  foundation  of  successful  agriculture.  A  market  for  the  surplus 
is,  of  course,  essential,  but  where  a  supply  is  available  the  market  will 
probably  be  forthcoming. — (F.  B.  205.) 

Feed  for  the  Boar. — A  boar  not  mature  will  need  nitrogenous 
food  to  develop  his  vital  organs,  muscles  and  bones,  while  the  mature 
boar  can  be  maintained  on  a  more  starchy  ration.  The  mature  boar 
should  carry  sufficient  flesh  to  be  thrifty  in  appearance.  Exercise 
is  of  prime  importance  to  the  boar,  and  an  over-abundant  amount  of 
flesh  is  not  conducive  to  exercise.  He  should  have  plenty  of  range 
with  good  pasturage.  If  he  be  given  forage  crops  of  rape  and  cow 
peas  and  alfalfa,  but  little  grain  need  be  given.  If  the  pasture  is  rich 
in  proteid.  he  should  be  given  one  or  two  pounds  of  com  a  day,  with 
perhaps  bran  or  middlings  slop.  The  ration  should  be  increased  in 
the  breeding  season,  as  any  weakened  condition  might  lessen  the 
number  of  pigs  in  the  litters. 

The  boar  should  not  be  confined  to  too  small  a  yard  in  winter, 
but  given  opportunity^  for  exercise.  The  ration  should  then  be  rather 
bulky,  and  may  consist  of  corn,  bran,  alfalfa,  meal,  or  hay  and  shorts. 
A  few  roots  make  a  good  appetizer  and  help  to  regulate  the  bowels. — 
(Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

The  boar  pig  should  be  pushed  with  growing  feeds,  so  that  he 
will  make  a  gain  every  day  until  he  reaches  full,  mature  weight.  A 
mixture  of  any  two  or  more  of  the  following  grains  is  good:    Cora, 


482  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

barley,  or  milo  maize,  with  wheat,  peas,  or  shorts.  A  liberal  supply 
of  skim  milk  is  especially  good.  He  should  have  all  the  alfafa  he 
will  eat  every  day,  either  pasture  or  hay.  A  small  feed  of  roots  or 
cooked  potatoes  is  good.  Stunting,  even  for  a  short  time,  will  per- 
manently injure  his  value.  He  should  weigh  300  to  400  pounds 
when  12  months  old. 

After  reaching  full  growth,  the  boar,  when  not  in  service,  should 
be  given  bulky  feeds  that  will  keep  him  full,  satisfied,  and  in  good 
condition,  but  that  will  not  put  on  fat — alfalfa,  roots,  and  a  small 
daily  ration  of  any  kind  of  grain,  A  few  weeks  before  the  beginning 
of  the  breeding  season  the  grain  feed  should  be  gradually  increased, 
giving  a  mixture  the  same  as  when  he  was  gro^^ing,  and  the  amount 
of  roots  and  alfalfa  should  be  slowly  reduced.  The  animal  should 
be  put  in  perfect  condition  and  good  flesh,  but  not  made  fat.  The 
best  results  are  not  secured  from  a  sire  that  is  either  fat  or  thin. 
During  the  breeding  season  the  boar  should  have  an  abundance  of 
food,  using  the  same  combination  as  recommended  for  him  while 
growing,  except  that  just  sufficient  succulent  feeds  (alfalfa  and  roots) 
should  be  given  to  keep  his  bowels  in  good  condition.  A  full  supply 
of  succulent  feeds  at  this  time  is  likely  to  make  him  infertile. — 
(Colo.  B.  146.) 

The  feed  of  the  boar  when  not  in  service  may  be  of  a  succulent 
nature — mainly  pasture  and  cut  green  forage  during  the  summer 
months  and  roots  in  winter.  A  boar  can  hardly  be  sustained  on  this 
alone,  and  some  grain  should  be  allowed  to  keep  him  in  condition. 
This  should  be  nitrogenous  in  character,  consisting  of  mill  feeds — 
such  as  shorts,  middlings,  and  bran — some  oil  meal,  and  the  legumi- 
nous grains,  with  a  little  com.  As  the  breeding  season  approaches 
the  feed  should  be  increased,  so  that  the  boar  will  be  in  good  condi- 
tion.—(F.  B.  205.) 

Feed  for  the  Sow. — The  sow  should  be  given  wide  range,  and  if 
in  good  condition  when  put  in  pasture,  will  need  but  little  if  any 
grain.  In  Nebraska  it  was  found  that  sows  weighing  200  pounds 
each  gained  nearly  half  a  pound  a  day  for  63  days  on  alfalfa  pasture 
and  no  grain. 

In  the  absence  of  alfalfa,  forage  can  be  provided  by  land  sown 
with  a  mixture  of  the  following:  rape  2  pounds,  cane  or  corn  20 
pounds,  cowpeas  8  pounds.  Or  if  sown  early,  oats  and  barley  may  be 
used.  It  is  well  to  plant  a  lot  of  ground  each  week,  and  so  have  a 
pasturage  of  green  forage  for  several  weeks  to  turn  into.  Over  10 
tons  of  green  forage  can  be  produced  on  an  acre. 

During  winter  the  sows  may  have  the  run  of  the  cattle  yards 
until  6  weeks  before  farrowing  time.  They  should  be  given  clean 
water,  a  little  corn  and  middlings  and  a  couple  of  roots  a  day.  After 
removing  them  from  the  yard,  give  laxative  foods.  Sows  are  more 
often  underfed  than  overfed.  They  should  have  plenty  of  protein 
feeds  of  a  bulky  nature. 

If  a  large  number  of  brood  sows  are  kept,  and  the  hog  cot  system 
used,  more  grain  will  be  required.  Feed  BYo  pounds  per  day  of  the 
following  ration :    Corn  3  parts,  shorts  3  parts,  oil  meal  or  tankage  1 


Large  Yorkshire,    (Courtesy  of  Prof.  DiEiRicH,  Ills.)    Dlpi.  ui  Aok. 


DUKOL-JLKSl.V    DUW     i>.    i\lK    .^liOW     v..  (J.NUl  1 1(J.^ .       IJIA'L.    Ul     .VoK. 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  485 

part,  with  some  alfalfa  meal  or  hay.  The  cost  of  this  method  is  2  to 
4  cents  per  sow  daily.  If  sows  have  been  summered  on  alfalfa,  they 
will  eat  a  larger  amount  of  alfalfa  hay  if  it  is  kept  clean  in  a  rack. — 
(Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

Feed  for  Sow  Before  Farrowing. — It  will  be  shown  later  on  that 
pastures  are  the  basis  for  the  profitable  handling  of  hogs.  The  pigs 
should  be  gotten  up  to  weaning  time  as  cheaply  as  possible,  and 
the  cheapest  way  to  do  this  is  to  have  a  pasture  for  the  sows  to  run 
upon  every  month  in  the  year.  It  is  very  little  trouble  to  have  pas- 
tures practically  the  year  round  in  the  South.  Of  course  the  sow 
should  be  provided  with  some  grain  in  addition  to  the  pasture,  but 
the  pastures  will  save  a  great  amount  of  grain.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  sow  must  be  nourished  in  such  a  way  that  the  pigs  will 
come  into  the  world  strong  and  healthy.  Com  alone  will  not  keep 
the  sow  in  a  good  healthy  condition,  neither  will  it  develop  the  pigs 
in  the  mother's  body.  But  corn  along  with  good  leguminous  pasture 
will  provide  her  with  a  good  ration.  When  pastures  are  not  avail- 
able such  feeds  as  skim  milk  and  bran  should  be  used  along  with  the 
com.  Not  more  than  one-half  of  her  ration  should  ever  be  made  up 
of  corn ;  the  other  half  should  be  made  up  of  a  feed  that  will  furnish 
plenty  of  ash  and  protein  to  build  up  the  litter  of  pigs  in  the  body. 
Leguminous  pastures  are  the  cheapest  feeds  that  can  be  found  to  go 
along  with  the  com.  With  a  good  leguminous  pasture  the  sow  will  be 
maintained  in  good  flesh  when  she  is  fed  a  ration  of  com  equivalent 
to  1  per  cent  of  her  live  weight.  For  a  200-pound  sow  this  would 
be  2  pounds  of  corn  daily.  When  no  pasture  is  provided  it  requires 
from  6  to  7  pounds  of  grain  to  maintain  a  200-pound  sow  in  proper 
condition. 

Some  farmers  make  use  of  a  leguminous  hay  for  the  sows  when 
the  pastures  become  short.  Alfalfa,  cowpea,  and  soy-bean  hay  are  all 
good  for  this  purpose.  They  save  a  great  amount  of  grain.  When 
the  farm  is  supplied  with  a  cutter  it  will  pay  to  cut  the  hay  into 
small  parts,  which  should  be  mixed  ^vith  the  com  and  fed  as  a  thick 
slop.  But  it  wnll  not  pay  to  go  to  any  extra  expense  to  get  ready  to 
cut  this  hay.  Some  feeders  throw  the  uncut  hajr  on  the  ground, 
but  this  causes  considerable  waste,  especially  in  rainy  weather.  In 
the  South,  where  hay  is  high  in  price,  it  will  pay  to  provide  a  small 
rack  so  that  the  animals  can  pull  the  hay  from  below  without  getting 
it  under  their  feet. 

If  neither  pastures  nor  hay  are  available,  the  feeder  should  use 
corn  along  with  wheat  shorts,  oran,  tankage,  skim  milk,  etc.  Corn 
should  never  be  used  alone.  Com  and  skim  milk  should  be  fed  in 
the  proportion  of  one  part  of  com  to  three  parts  of  skim  milk.  Under 
average  conditions  the  dry  sow  should  be  fed  about  one  part  of 
shorts  or  bran  to  three  parts  of  com,  or  one  part  of  tankage  to  nine 
parts  of  corn.  It  would  pay  some  farmers  to  use  cow^ieas  and  soy 
beans  along  with  the  com  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  the  peas 
to  about  six  parts  of  com. — (F.  B.  411.) 

During  pregnancy  two  facts  must  be  borne  in  mind.  The  first 
is  that  the  sow  is  doing  double  duty.    Not  only  is  she  keeping  up  her 


486  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

own  bodily  functions,  but  the  development  of  the  fetal  litter  is  a  con- 
stantly increasing  drain  on  her  system.  Although  feeding  at  this 
time  will  not  need  to  be  so  heavy  as  after  the  pigs  are  farrowed,  it 
should  be  liberal.  The  sow's  condition  should  be  good — neither  too 
fat  nor  too  lean.  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  mistakes  in 
feeding  breeding  animals  are  more  frequently  those  that  keep  such 
stock  in  a  thin,  half-starved  condition,  under  the  idea  that  the  repro- 
ductive organs  are  so  peculiarly  liable  to  become  transformed  into 
masses  of  fat.  The  use  of  the  reproductive  organs  in  either  sex 
creates  demands  of  an  unusual  nature  on  the  animal  organism,  and 
these  demands  must  be  met  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  a  differ- 
ent character — such  as  growth,  work,  etc. — and  that  is  by  providing 
liberal  supplies  of  the  proper  kinds  of  feed.  The  amount  of  nitro- 
genous, or  protein-bearing,  feeds  in  the  ration  at  this  time  should  bo 
increased.  These  are  bran,  peas,  beans,  oats,  and  barley,  and,  to  a 
moderate  extent,  wheat.  The  forage  plants  that  are  especially  suit- 
able to  pregnant  brood  sows  are  the  clovers  and  their  relatives — al- 
falfa, pease,  beans,  vetches,  etc.  The  ordinary  pasture  grasses  are 
also  of  much  value.  Feed  should  be  given  in  such  form  that  the 
system  of  the  sow  will  be  at  its  best.  All  breeders  lay  special  empha- 
sis on  the  condition  of  the  bowels  during  pregnancy,  and  particu- 
larly at  farrowing,  the  special  danger  to  be  avoided  being  constipa- 
tion. To  this  end  the  greater  part,  if  not  all,  of  the  grain  ration  is 
given  as  slop,  and  toward  the  close  of  the  period  of  gestation  oil 
meal  or  a  small  amount  of  flaxseed  meal  is  introduced  into  the 
ration. 

Corn  should  not  be  fed  in  large  amounts  to  breeding  stock.  If 
possible,  it  should  not  be  fed  at  all  to  any  but  fattening  animals.  In 
the  corn  belt  many  farmers  are  often  so  situated  that  they  have  no 
other  grain  feed  at  hand.  If  com  must  make  up  the  greater  part  of 
the  ration  of  the  brood  sow,  the  injurious  effects  may  be  counter- 
acted in  a  measure  by  compelling  the  sows  to  exercise.  Various 
schemes  may  be  necessary  to  bring  about  this  result,  such  as  having 
the  house  and  feeding  floor  or  the  feeding  floor  and  watering  place 
at  opposite  ends  of  the  hog  lot;  so  that  a  good  walk  is  a  necessity 
several  times  each  day.  If  the  lot  is  located  on  a  hillside,  the  walk 
is  made  a  climb.  Some  men  scatter  grain  among  straw  and  corn 
fodder  with  this  idea  of  exercise  in  mind,  and  others  resort  to  the 
whip  and  drive  the  sows  gently  for  a  mile  or  two  each  day. — (F.  B. 
205.) 

The  following  ration  is  for  brood  sows  during  pregnancy,  fed 
entirely  on  grain.  The  addition  of  the  bran  increases  the  bulk  and 
laxative  effect.  Corn  meal,  23  pounds;  ground  oats,  23  pounds; 
wheat  middlings,  23  pounds;  wheat  bran,  23  pounds;  oil  meal,  6 
pounds;  salt,  2  pounds;  total,  100  pounds.  This  should  be  fed  as 
a  slop.— (Wis.  B.  184.) 

Feed  for  Sow  After  Farrowing. — The  mother  should  receive  no 
feed  at  all  for  about  twenty-four  hours  after  giving  birth  to  the  pigs. 
She  is  feverish,  though,  and  should  be  liberally  supplied  with  fresh 
water.    The  second  day  after  farrowing  she  should  be  given  a  small 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  487 

feed.  It  is  well  to  start  her  on  a  light  slop  made  up  of  shorts  and 
skim  milk.  If  there  is  no  skim  milk  on  hand,  mix  aibout  four  parts 
of  corn  with  one  part  of  shorts,  cowpeas,  or  soy-bean  meal  and  give 
a  small  quantity.  She  should  be  gradualy  brought  up  to  a  full 
feed;  this  should  require  about  three  weeks.  If  she  is  overfed  at 
first  the  pigs  are  apt  to  take  scours  and  thumps.  When  she  is  on  full 
feed  she  will  be  eating  daily  an  amount  equivalent  to  about  4  per 
cent  of  her  live  weight,  provided  she  is  not  on  pasture.  If  she  has 
the  run  of  a  good  leguminous  pasture,  at  least  one-half  of  the  grain 
will  be  saved.  If  she  has  no  pasture,  she  should  be  fed  just  about  as 
she  was  fed  before  farrowing,  except  that  she  should  receive  more 
feed  than  when  she  was  dry.  When  the  pasture  is  composed  mainly 
of  blue  grass  or  Bermuda  grass  she  should  receive  a  grain  feed  equiv- 
alent to  about  3  per  cent  of  her  live  weight,  and  the  grain  part, 
of  the  ration  should  be  partly  composed  of  shorts,  tankage,  cowpeas, 
or  soy  beans.  When  the  pasture  is  made  up  of  a  leguminous  crop, 
a  grain  ration  equivalent  to  not  more  than  2  per  cent  of  her  body 
weight  will  keep  her  in  excellent  flesh,  and  in  this  case  corn  can  be 
used  for  the  grain  portion  of  the  feed. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Give  the  sow  all  the  water  she  wants  for  the  first  twenty-four 
hours  after  the  pigs  are  born,  but  no  grain.  Take  the  chill  off  the 
water  in  cold  weather.  For  three  or  four  days  after  the  first  twenty- 
four  hours,  give  plenty  of  water,  but  feed  grain  and  milk  sparingly. 
Then  slowly  increase  until,  when  the  pigs  are  three  weeks  old,  the 
sow  is  having  all  the  feed  she  will  consume.  Give  the  pigs  exercise 
and  sunshine  from  birth,  but  do  not  allow  them  to  get  damp  nor  to 
be  exposed  to  the  wind. 

"VATien  the  sow  is  given  a  warm,  rich  slop,  or  other  milk-pro- 
ducing feeds  just  after  her  pigs  are  bom,  a  strong  milk  fl.ow  is  forced. 
The  new-bom  pigs  get  too  much  and  have  diarrhoea,  which  often 
kills  them.  They  cannot  take  all  the  milk,  and  the  sow's  udder 
becomes  inflamed  and  caked.  When  the  pigs  suckle,  the  pain  be- 
comes so  intense  that  in  desperation  she  jumps  up,  kills,  and  eats 
them.  Overfeeding  and  lack  of  exercise  cause  the  thumps  in  young 
pigs,  but  usually  in  Colorado,  when  pi^  are  thought  to  have  the 
thumps,  they  actually  have  pneumonia,  due  either  to  damp  beds 
or  exposure  to  draughts. — (Colo.  B.  146.) 

A  sow  should  be  kept  quiet  and  fed  very  little,  if  at  all,  during 
the  first  24  hours  after  farrowing.  Begin  by  giving  a  drink  of  water, 
followed  by  a  Kght  bran  mash.  The  feed  can  be  increased  gradually 
up  to  the  fifth  day,  aft«r  which  the  sow  may  be  fed  more  liberally. 
At  farrowing  times  the  pigs  should  be  examined  and  the  useless  ones 
discarded. —  (Wis.  B.  184.)  Until  the  pigs  are  weaned,  the  sow 
should  be  fed  twice  a  day  a  thin  slop  of  -corn  meal  and  wheat  shorts 
or  rice  polish.  When  the  pigs  are  two  weeks  old  the  sow  is  to  be 
turned  out  to  pasture  for  a  few  hours,  and  soon  the  pigs  may  fol- 
low. Some  hog  raisers  feed  the  sow  only  soaked  com  after  she  is 
fully  accustomed  to  grazing;  generally,  however,  it  is  better  to  con- 
tinue the  slops  till  the  pigs  are  weaned,  about  eight  or  ten  weeks.-— 
(W.  S.  Cir.  30.) 


488  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

After  farrowing  increase  the  food  of  the  sow,  giving  her  all 
she  will  eat  of  a  ration  of  mixed  grains,  with  skim  milk  if  available. 
A  shady  pasture  in  summer,  and  a  warm,  dry,  sunny  pen  in  win- 
ter mean  health  and  thrift  for  the  young  pigs.  Probaibly  no  other 
farm  animals  gain  as  rapidly  as  young  pigs.  Weighing  from  two 
and  one-half  to  three  and  one-half  pounds  when  farrowed,  they  will 
nearly  double  their  weight  in  a  week,  and,  if  the  sow  is  generously 
fed,  will  weigh  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  pounds  at  a  month  old,  and 
will  double  it  at  two  months  old.  When  one  month  old,  the 
young  pigs  should  receive  food  in  addition  to  the  milk  of  the  dam. — 
(Utah  B.  94.) 

The  sow  should  be  fed  light  for  a  few  days  after  farrowing. 
If  sh6  does  not  eat  anything  for  a  day  or  two  after  farrowing,  it  is 
so  much  the  better.  For  a  few  days  she  should  be  fed  small  quan- 
tities of  thin  slop  made  of  middlings  and  water.  Increase  the  sup- 
ply gradually  from  day  to  day  until  she  gets  on  full  feed  at  the  end 
of  a  week  or  ten  days.  If  the  sow  has  a  large  litter,  she  will  require 
liberal  feeding,  but  if  the  litter  is  small,  it  may  be  necessary  to  feed 
more  sparingly. — (N.  D.  B.  83.) 

Feed  for  Pigs  Before  Weaning. — Here,  again,  the  most  im- 
portant point  of  all,  as  far  as  economy  of  gains  is  concerned,  is  to 
have  a  pasture  for  the  pigs  to  run  upon  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  eat. 
When  a  good  pasture  is  available  and  the  mother  is  fed  liberally  of 
the  proper  feeds,  the  little  pi^  will  need  little  in  addition  to  what 
they  obtain  from  the  pasture  and  the  mother.  But  the  pigs  will 
make  use  of  some  additional  feed,  especially  if  the  litter  is  a  large 
one.  The  pigs  will  begin  to  eat  when  they  are  about  3  weeks  old  if 
they  be  given  the  opportunity.  For  these  young  animals  nothing 
is  superior  to  skim  milk  mixed  with  shorts.  Many  farmers  have  no 
skim  milk,  though,  so  something  else  must  be  used.  In  such  case 
probably  the  best  thing  to  feed  is  a  thin  slop  of  shorts  up  to  the  time 
that  the  pigs  are  from  4  to  6  weeks  old,  after  which  the  ration  should 
be  made  up  of  equal  parts  of  com  meal  and  shorts.  These  young 
animals  should  never  be  fed  corn  alone.  The  feed  for  the  pigs  must 
be  fed  in  separate  troughs,  around  which  a  fence  has  been  built  to 
keep  the  sows  away. 

There  is  no  advantage  to  be  gained  by  pushing  the  pigs  too 
rapidly  with  supplementary  feeds.  They  should  not  be  fed  much 
fattening  feeds,  as  corn;  they  should  rather  be  given  feeds  which 
tend  to  make  bone  and  muscle,  as  skim  milk,  shorts,  pasture,  cow- 
peas,  soy-bean  meal,  etc.,  so  that  when  the  time  arrives  to  finish  them 
for  the  market  they  will  have  a  well-developed  body  upon  which  to 
put  the  fat.  They  should,  while  young,  be  given  just  enough  feed 
to  keep  them  in  a  good  healthy  growing  condition. 

Oftentimes  when  the  litter  is  small  and  the  mother  is  a  good 
milker  the  little  pigs  will  need  no  feed  at  all  in  addition  to  the  pas- 
ture and  the  mother's  milk.  The  Wisconsin  station  has  done  some 
experimental  work  which  seems  to  show  that  gains  on  young  pigg 
can  be  made  as  economically  by  feeding  a  given  amount  of  feed  to 
the  mother  as  by  feeding  directly  to  the  pigs.    To  be  able  to  keep 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  489 

up  an  average-sized  litter  in  this  way,  the  mother  must  be  fed  Kb- 
erally.  The  motlier  and  the  pasture  should  be  depended  upon  to 
furnish  the  greater  part  of  the  feed  for  the  small  pig. — (F.  B.  411.) 

About  one-half  pound  of  shorts  mixed  with  one  or  two  quarts 
of  skim  milk,  will  make  an  excellent  ration.  Feed  it  in  a  small  pen 
apart  from  the  sow.  Start  with  a  small  quantity,  and  increase  as 
fast  as  the  pigs  will  eat  it.  Wean  the  pigs  at  seven  to  eight  weeks 
old.  Remove  two  of  the  strongest  pigs  the  first  day,  in  two  or  three 
days  the  next  two  most  vigorous,  and  so  continue  till  all  are  removed. 
Such  a  method  will  tend  to  dry  up  the  milk  of  the  sow,  thus  avoid- 
ing trouble  from  that  cause. — (Utah  B.  94.) 

The  appetite  for  something  besides  the  dam's  milk  may  begin 
to  assert  itself  by  the  time  the  pi^  reach  three  weeks  of  age.  This 
time  will  vary,  of  course,  some  pigs  being  more  precocious  than 
others.  They  will  be  noticed  nibbling  at  grass,  rooting  a  little,  and 
even  investigating  the  sow's  feed.  A  pen  should  be  arranged  adjoin- 
ing that  of  the  dam  and  separated  from  it  by  a  partition,  with  suf- 
ficient room  at  the  bottom  to  allow  the  pigs  to  run  under.  In  this 
inclosure  put  a  low,  shallow  trough  and  place  in  it  a  little  skim  milk 
or  a  thin  gruel  similar  to  that  recommended  for  the  sow  the  first 
day  after  farrowing.  This  gruel  may  be  made  with  any  concentrate 
that  is  free  from  woody  matter.  If  ground  barley  or  oats  is  fed  the 
meal  should  be  first  sifted  to  remove  the  hulls.  There  is  a  great  va- 
riety of  feeding  stuflFs  that  can  be  used.  The  main  point  to  be  ob- 
served is  that  the  pig's  stomach  is  very  easily  deranged  at  this  a^ 
and  feeds  must  be  given  that  will  digest  readily.  The  trough  in 
which  the  pigs  are  fed  should  be  kept  clean.  No  stale  feed  should  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  it  from  one  feed  to  the  next. 

As  the  pigs  learn  to  eat  the  feed  may  be  increased.  Skim  milk 
should  be  used  liberally,  using  rather  large  quantities  at  first — from 
6  to  12  pounds  of  milk  to  eacli  .pound  of  gram.  During  this  period 
comparatively  little  com  should  be  fed,  as  a  rule.  More  growth  can 
be  obtained  with  a  narrow  ration,  and  the  com  should  be  withheld 
until  the  fattening  period  comes.  The  pigs  should  be  kept  growing 
con.«!tantly,  and  the  best  results  will  come  with  feeding  a  little  under 
their  capacity  rather  than  all  they  can  consume.  To  counteract  the 
tendency  to  become  too  fat  they  should  have  plenty  of  exercise. 

Scours  and  thumps  often  cause  very  serious  losses  among  young 
pigs.  The  former  is  caused  usually  by  overfeeding,  by  feeding 
badly  spoiled  feed,  by  an  abmpt  change  of  feed,  or  by  a  change  in 
the  feed  of  the  dam  that  affects  her  milk.  Thumps  is  generally 
caused  by  overfeeding  and  lack  of  exercise. — (F.  B.  205.) 

Make  a  creep  for  the  pigs,  and  in  a  low  trough  supply  a  thin 
slop  made  of  2  parts  com,  3  parts  shorts  stirred  in  milk.  Forcing  a 
pig  to  eat  from  a  high  trough  mav  produce  a  weak  and  sway  back.— 
(Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

The  following  ration  is  especially  useful  for  feeding  small  pigs 
during  a  short  period  just  before  and  after  the  weaning  time.  When 
supplemented  with  warm  skim  milk,  young  pigs  take  to  it  very 
readily.    If  it  is  desired  to  wean  pigs  early,  in  order  to  breed  for  fall 


490  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

litters,  the  ration  should  be  carefully  prepared  to  suit  their  needs. 
It  is  very  important  to  avoid  stunting  little  pigs,  for  gTO\\i:h  once 
checked  proves  permanent  and  means  loss  of  profit.  Begin  feeding 
small  quantities  of  this  ration  to  pigs  about  four  weeks  old,  and  con- 
tinue for  2  weeks:  Ground  oats  (hull  free),  35  pounds;  wheat  mid- 
dlings, 35  pounds;  com  meal,  20  pounds;  oil  meal,  8  pounds;  salt, 
2  pounds.— (Wis.  B.  184.) 

Feed  for  Pigs  After  Weaning. — Pigs  just  weaned  should  be  fed 
from  3  to  5  times  a  day.  They  took  meals  from  their  mother  every 
two  hours,  and  too  sudden  a  change  is  detrimental.  After  they 
start  growing  vigorously,  cut  down  to  2  meals  a  day.  When  they 
weigh  75  pounds  each,  if  on  good  pasture,  feed  once  a  day  and  that 
at  night. 

A  variety  of  grains  will  give  larger  and  cheaper  gains  than 
will  any  single  feeds.  Peas,  barley,  wheat,  rye,  milo  maize  and 
corn  are  the  grains  used  in  Colorado.  Soak  from  24  to  48  hours, 
feeding  at  least  2  grains.  Do  not  sour  the  feed,  and  keep  all  uten- 
sils sweet  and  clean.  Half  the  weight  of  a  200  pound  pig  should  bo 
made  from  pasture.  Alfalfa  makes  the  best  pasture,  followed  by 
rape,  clover  and  a  mixture  of  wheat,  oats  and  barley,  sown  thick. — 
(Colo.  B.  146.) 

The  following  ration  is  suited  to  swine  from  weaning  time 
until  weighing  250  to  300  pounds.  If  for  market,  supply  all  the  ear 
corn  they  will  eat  in  addition.  Skim  milk  will  be  valuable  also. 
The  oil  meal  in  the  slop  keeps  the  other  feeds  from  settling  in  the 
barrel.  It  also  regulates  the  digestive  organs.  Corn  meal,  30 
pounds;  ground  oats,  30  pounds;  wheat  middlings,  30  pounds;  oil 
meal,  8  pounds;  salt,  2  pounds.    Feed  as  a  slop. — (Wis  B.  184.) 

After  weaning  the  pigs,  continue  the  skim-milk  and  shorts  ra- 
tion, gradually  adding  heavier  grains  and  giving  a  larger  proportion 
of  skim  milk  as  they  grow  and  develop.  In  our  experience,  skim 
milk  is  almost  an  indispensable  food  for  young  pigs.  When  fed  on 
grain  alone,  whether  wheat,  barley  or  corn,  especially  if  confined  in 
a  pen,  they  make  very  slow  growth,  and  make  verj'^  poor  use  of  the 
food  consumed.  This  probably  would  not  apply  to  hogs  after  they 
attain  a  live  weight  of  forty  to  sixty  pounds.  Young  pigs  always 
do  better,  however,  on  a  variety  of  foods,  and  for  this  reason,  as  well 
as  for  the  advantage  of  the  exercise  and  healthful  surroundings,  a 
shady  pasture  is  an  excellent  place  to  raise  them.  In  addition  to 
the  pasturage,  however,  young  pigs,  especially,  need  some  grain 
feed.— (Utah  B.  94.) 

The  pigs  should  be  fed  a  slop  of  equal  parts  com  meal  and 
shorts  twice  a  day  till  they  are  twelve  or  fourteen  weeks  old,  so  as  to 
give  them  a  vigorous  start,  and  they  should  receive  all  the  soaked 
corn  they  will  eat  up  till  they  are  turned  into  the  early  cowpea  pas- 
ture in  July.  This  may  be  done  when  about  half  the  pods  begin  to 
turn  (from  July  15  to  August  1).  Prior  to  this  time  the  pigsare 
pastured  on  rape  and  clover.  About  August  20  turn  the  pigs  into 
the  corn,  and  after  September  20  give  them  full  range  of  the  com, 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  491 

peavine,  and  peanut  pastures.  If  soy  beans  are  planted,  turn  on 
them  akc— (U.  S.  Cir.  30.) 

After  weaning  hogs  should  be  supplied  with  a  good  pasture,  a 
leguminous  pasture  preferred.  Alfalfa  affords  one  of  the  best  pas- 
tures obtainable  for  young  pigs.  With  a  good  pasture  and  a  half 
ration  of  grain  they  will  make  good  and  profitable  gains  up  to  the 
time  they  are  ready  to  finish  for  the  market. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Overfeeding  and  lack  of  exercise  cause  the  thumps  in  young 
pigs,  but  usually  in  Colorado,  when  pigs  are  thought  to  have  the 
thumps,  they  actually  have  pneumonia,  due  either  to  damp  beds  or 
exposure  to  draughts.  The  sow  pig  intended  for  a  breeder  should 
be  pushed  for  the  first  year  and  given  feeds  that  will  make  rapid 
growth,  but  that  will  not  fatten.  Such  feeds  as  milk,  alfalfa  pas- 
ture, or  hay,  and  moderate  quantities  of  grain,  such  as  wheat,  peas, 
barley,  milo  maize,  and  shorts.  Ample  exercise  every  day  is  neces- 
sary for  health  and  to  develop  muscles  and  lungs.  If  the  sow  has 
made  a  good  growth,  she  may  be  bred  to  drop  her  first  litter  when 
she  becomes  twelve  months  of  age.  The  gestation  period  for  the  sow 
is  112  days.— (Colo.  Cir.  2.) 

Fattening  for  Market. — The  cost  per  pound  of  growing  and  fat- 
tening a  hog  for  market  increases  with  the  size  and  age  of  the  ani- 
mal. It  costs  much  less  to  raise  two  hogs  weighing  300  pounds  each 
than  to  grow  one  weighing  600  pounds,  and  even  500  pounds  is  too 
heavy  to  be  profitable  under  ordinary  circumstances.  A  hog  must 
consume  a  certain  amount  of  food  to  maintain  his  present  weight, 
and  for  that  food  the  owner  receives  no  returns.  Whatever  the 
hog  can  be  induced  to  eat  in  excess  of  the  amount  required  for  main- 
tenance goes  to  the  production  of  growth,  and  it  is  from  this  excess 
that  all  gains  and  profits  are  made. 

These  facts  make  it  to  the  interest  of  the  feeder  to  induce  his 
hoes  to  eat  all  they  can  digest  and  to  secure  gains  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible. A  pig  which  is  made  to  weigh  200  pounds  at  six  months  or 
300  pounds  at  a  year  old  is  always  profitable,  while  if  it  takes  two 
years  to  make  300  pounds  the  last  100  pounds  will  usually  be  made 
at  a  loss.  As  the  rate  of  growth,  both  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
animal  and  to  the  amount  of  food  given,  decreases  as  the  hog  be- 
comes larger,  there  must  come  a  time  when  a  pound  of  increase  will 
cost  more  than  it  will  bring  on  the  market,  and  it  is  a  nice  point 
with  the  feeder  to  decide  when  that  time  vnW  come  and  to  market 
his  hogs  before  it  is  reached.  Ordinarily,  this  time  will  come  when 
the  hog  weighs  from  250  to  300  pounds,  but  may  be  reached  either 
above  or  below  those  weights.  A  hog  1  year  old  and  weighing  300 
pounds  in  November  may  still  make  a  profitable  gain  if  he  has  the 
gleaning  of  a  recently  harvested  cornfield  with  an  abundance  of 
cowpeas,  the  leavings  of  a  sweet  potato  field,  or  any  similar  food 
which  would  otherwi-^e  be  wasted,  but  if  none  of  these  feeds  are  avail- 
able, and  all  the  food  consumed  mu.st  be  purchased,  it  will  be  more 
profitable  to  sell  at  once,  even  if  the  weight  is  not  more  than  200 
pounds. 


492 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 


As  showing  the  increased  cost  per  pound  of  gain  with  the  in- 
crease in  weight,  Professor  Henry,  of  the  Wisconsin  Station,  has  com- 
piled the  results  of  more  than  500  tests  made  at  many  different  ex- 
periment stations.  More  than  2,200  hogs  were  used  in  these  tests, 
and  the  work  has  been  so  extensive  and  carried  on  through  so  many 
years  that  the  results  may  he  regarded  as  very  conclusive  evidence. 
The  figures  are  as  follows : 


Weight  of  pigs. 

Average  feed  per 
day. 

Feed  eaten  daily 
per  100  pounds 
of  live  weight. 

Average  gain  per 
day. 

Feed  eaten  for 

each  100  pounds 

of  pain. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

15-50 

0.223 

5.95 

0.76 

293 

50-100 

3.35 

4.32 

.83 

400 

10O-150 

4.79 

3.75 

1.10 

437 

150-200 

5.91 

3.43 

1.24 

482 

200-250 

6.57 

2.91 

1.33 

498 

250-300 

7.40 

2.74 

1.46 

511 

300-350 

7.50 

2.35 

1.40 

535 

From  these  figures  it  is  seen  very  plainly  that  the  greatest  as 
well  as  the  most  profitable  gains  are  made  on  the  lighter  hogs,  the 
last  column  showing  a  constant  and  almost  regular  increase  in  the 
amount  of  feed  consumed  for  each  100  pounds  of  gain.  Up  to  the 
time  when  the  pigs  weighed  from  200  to  250  pounds  each  it  required 
an  average  of  422  pounds  of  feed  for  each  100  pounds  of  gain, 
while  for  those  exceeding  250  pounds  in  weight  523  pounds,  or 
nearly  24  per  cent  more  food  was  required  to  produce  an  equal  gain. 
Pigs  weighing  less  than  100  pounds  each  made  the  greatest  gains 
for  the  food  consumed,  needing  only  347  pounds  of  feed  for  each 
100  pounds  of  gain,  and,  if  feed  were  the  only  consideration,  the 
100-pound  pig  would  be  the  most  profitable ;  but  there  are  other  ex- 
penses which  must  be  charged  against  him.  The  cost  and  care  of 
the  boar  and  sow  are  the  same  whether  the  pigs  are  butchered  at 
100  or  500  pounds.  Losses  are  much  more  frequent  among  young 
pigs  than  among  those  which  weigh  more  than  100  pounds  each, 
and,  while  there  is  a  limited  demand  for  "pig  pork"  at  good  prices, 
such  pork  can  not  be  sold  in  unlimited  quantities,  as  packers  want 
only  hogs  which  are  fairly  well  matured.  These  expenses,  risks, 
and  market  conditions  all  combine  to  make  a  somewhat  heavier  ani- 
mal more  profitable,  even  at  some  additional  expense  for  feed.  Al- 
though the  figures  given  above  represent  the  actual  amounts  of  food 
consumed  by  pigs  of  different  weights,  they  do  not  represent  exactly 
the  cost  of  the  feed.  The  food  of  the  younger  pigs  must  consist 
largely  of  the  more  costly  feeds,  shorts,  oats,  pease,  etc.,  while  the 
older  animals  can  be  kept  in  good  condition  on  coarser  and  cheaper 
foods,  such  as  sweet  potatoes,  sorghum,  or  artichokes.  When  steers 
are  being  fattened  on  whole  corn,  hogs  running  in  the  same  feed 
lot  will  secure  a  large  proportion  of  their  feed  without  expense  from 
the  droppings  of  the  cattle.  This  will  not  be  the  ca.se,  however, 
when  the  steers  are  fattened  on  other  feeds,  com  meal  giving  very 
little  feed  for  the  hogs,  and  droppings  from  the  steers  fed  on  cotton- 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  493 

seed  meal,  the  common  fattening  feed  in  the  South,  often  prove 
positively  injurious. — (F.  B.  100.) 

The  previous  treatment  and  the  condition  of  the  hogs  when 
the  fattening  process  begins,  have  as  much  influence  on  the  subse- 
quent gains  as  does  the  kind  of  feed  used. — (Ind.  B.  137.)  The  fat 
hog  should  be  sent  to  market  carrying  a  deep,  uniform  covering  of 
flesh  all  over  the  body.  The  flesh  should  be  comparatively  firm. 
Corn  makes  the  best  grain  for  the  major  part  of  the  ration  during 
the  finishing  period.  There  is  some  danger,  however,  of  producing 
a  carcass  with  too  much  flabbiness  if  corn  is  too  exclusively  used. — 
(N.  D.  B.  83.) 

From  60  to  75  days  before  the  pig  is  to  be  market^  he  should 
be  confined  in  limited  quarters  and  fed  heavily  on  grain  until  he  be- 
comes well  finished  and  fattened.  Up  to  this  time  he  should  be 
kept  growing  every  day,  but  fed  as  little  grain  and  as  much  forage  as 
can  be  done  and  maintain  a  thrifty  growth,  and  he  should  be  given 
ample  exercise.  Fattening  hogs  will  make  the  greatest  gains  when 
they  have  just  enough  exercise  to  keep  their  appetites  sharp.  A  fat- 
tening hog  should  be  limited  to  half  an  acre,  and  25  fattening  hogs 
kept  on  this  area  will  do  better  than  a  greater  number.  The  hogs 
should  be  sorted  to  lots  of  even  size  and  age,  and  no  matter  how 
many  are  being  fattened,  not  over  25  should  be  allowed  to  run  to- 
gether.    Brood  sows  should  not  be  kept  with  fattening  hogs. 

The  hogs  should  be  fed  at  regular  hours,  either  two  or  three 
times  a  day,  and  at  each  feed  should  be  given  just  a  trifle  less  than 
they  will  eat  up  clean.  The  profits  come  from  inducing  the  hog  to 
consume  a  large  quantity  of  grain  and  maintain  a  sharp  appetite. 
The  feeder  will  secure  the  best  results  by  watching  the  hogs  each 
time  until  they  finish  eating.  He  will  then  know  whether  the  hogs 
are  slow  about  cleaning  up  the  feed,  showing  over  feeding,  or 
whether  they  clean  up  the  feed  quickly  and  need  more.  The  hogs 
should  have  all  the  clean,  pure  water  they  will  drink  at  least  three 
times  a  day.  Colorado  feeds  are  rich  in  protein,  and  a  hog  eating 
them  needs  much  more  water  than  when  eating  com.  The  hog 
should,  before  being  marketed,  be  well  fattened,  smooth  and  well 
rounded  ^nth  a  good  outer  covering  of  fat,  and  be  firm  and  solid  to 
the  touch.  If  the  feeder  will  go  into  a  pen  of  thin  hogs  and  feel 
them  along  the  loin  and  back,  and  then  into  a  pen  of  well  fattened 
hogs,  he  can  quickly  learn  the  "feel"  that  indicates  a  good  finish. 
The  hogs  should  be  sorted  to  an  even  size  and  weight  before  being 
shipped.— (Colo.  B.  146.) 

Finishing. — The  feeding  period  for  finishing  should  not  last 
over  6  weeks.  During  this  time  the  hog  should  eat  a  ration  in 
weight  equal  to  4^2  per  cent  of  his  own  weight  at  the  beginning 
of  the  finishing  perioa.  This  should  consist  mostly  of  com,  supple- 
mented with  the  proteid  feeds,  middlings,  oilmeaJ,  tankage  and 
bloodmeal,  depending  on  prices. —  (Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

Among  the  hogs  produced  by  the  supplemented  rations,  the 
most  profitable  ones  to  the  packer  were  those  which  had  received  con- 
centrated rations.    Bulk  in  the  ration  is  prejudicial  to  the  packer's 


494  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

interest.  The  hog  which  shrinks  the  least  in  killing  is  the  corn- 
fed  hog.  Bought  at  the  same  price  and  the  products  sold  at  the 
same  prices,  the  hog  which  has  been  fed  on  whole  corn  without  sup- 
plements, is  the  most  profitalble  to  the  packer.  This  is  the  least 
profitable  hog  to  the  farmer.  The  higher  the  proportion  of  corn 
that  is  in  the  ration  and  the  less  the  feed  the  hog  has  been  in  the 
habit  of  eating,  the  cheaper  is  the  cost  per  pound,  net  dressed  weight, 
to  the  packer.  The  hog  with  which  the  farmer  has  made  the  cheap- 
est pork  has  probably  been  raised  on  grass  or  has  received  milk  or 
nitrogenous  grain  supplements  along  with  its  com. — (Mo.  B.  65.) 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  beans  and  peas  make  a  softer  flesh 
and  fat  than  com.  Com  pork  is  the  standard  in  this  country,  and 
the  flesh  and  fat  produced  by  com  in  this  experiment  was  dry  and 
firm.  Soja  beans  and  chufas  made  fat  of  about  the  same  firmness, 
but  not  quite  equal  to  corn.  Peanuts  made  a  soft  and  oily  fat.  As 
to  the  flavor  when  cooked,  no  difference  between  the  meats  could  be 
detected.  The  usual  practice,  when  pigs  are  fattened  on  other  foods 
than  com  and  grain,  is  to  feed  corn  to  them  for  a  few  weeks  to 
harden  the  flesh  and  fat  before  marketing. —  (Ark.  B.  54.) 

Short  or  Long  Period. — For  the  short  growing  period  the 
March  and  April  pigs  are  grown  rapidly  and  marketed  in  6  to  10 
months,  while  the  long  period  pigs  are  grown  through  the  summer 
and  winter,  and  marketed  the  following  spring  and  fall.  Ordinarily 
the  short  feeding  period  is  the  more  profitable.  There  is  a  consider- 
able saving  in  cost  of  feed  by  the  latter  method. 

The  cost  of  producing  a  pound  of  gain  increases  as  the  pig  ad- 
vances in  age.  The  risk  in  growing  the  pig  for  a  longer  period  is 
also  greater.  In  special  cases  it  may  pay  to  keep  the  hogs  over 
the  second  summer,  feeding  clover  with  a  small  grain  ration,  pro- 
vided an  extra  price  can  be  obtained  for  them  in  the  fall. — (Mo. 
Cir.  28.) 

Usually  it  is  better  to  have  hogs  ready  for  market  as  early  as 
November  or  December,  and  it  rarely  pays  to  feed  through  the  win- 
ter for  making  pork.  Summer  feeding  is  cheap  while  winter  feed- 
ing is  expensive.  Pigs  farrowed  in  the  spring  should  weigh  from 
200  to  250  pounds  by  fall,  and  if  the  market  is  not  unusually  de- 
pressed it  is  better  to  let  them  go  then  rather  than  to  feed  through 
the  cold  weather  and  risk  still  lower  prices  in  the  spring.  If  good 
grazing  is  assured  through  the  entire  winter  and  grain  is  not  too 
expensive,  winter  feeding  is  sometimes  profitable  on  account  of  the 
higher  prices  which  usually  prevail  in  the  spring,  but  ordinarily 
it  is  better  to  winter  only  the  breeding  animals  and  the  fall  pigs. — 
(F.  B.  100.) 

In  rare  instances  it  may  pay  to  keep  a  pig  over  winter  as  a 
store  hog,  but  generally  he  loses  the  flesh  he  accumulated  while  suck- 
ling his  dam,  and  this  can  not  be  replaced  except  at  increased  ex- 
pense. Corn  will  now  come  into  the  ration,  and  should  be  supple- 
mented by  all  the  variety  of  feed  at  the  feeder's  command,  to  keep 
the  appetite  keen  and  the  digestive  system  in  the  best  condition.  This 
variety  should  consist  of  mill  feeds,  dairy  by-products,  and  succu- 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  495 

lent  feeds,  and,  according  to  some  authorities,  pasture.  If  skim 
milk,  whey,  and  buttermilk  are  at  command  they  can  be  combined 
to  very  good  advantage  with  the  ration,  commencing  with  a  propor- 
tion of  about  2  pounds  of  milk  to  1  of  grain  at  weaning  time,  and 
reducing  the  quantity  of  milk  until  the  pigs  are  finished  on  grain 
alone.  A  pig  gives  best  returns  from  dairy  by-products  while  young. 
The  fattening  pigs  should  gain  from  1  pound  to  IV^  pounds  daily, 
and  should  weigh  between  250  and  300  pounds  at  9  or  10  months  of 
age.  Gains  made  after  this  weight  are  nearjy  twice  as  expensive 
as  those  made  when  weighing  from  50  to  100  pounds,  and  a  well- 
bred  pig  having  good  quality  and  conformation  finished  at  a  weight 
of  about  250  pounds  will  very  nearly  fill  the  market  requirements 
fed.— (Mich.  B.  243.) 

In  winter  feeding  it  will  be  advisable  to  supply  the  feed  while 
warm,  but  in  the  use  of  all  warm  feeds  every  pailful  used  should  be 
stirred  until  at  an  even  temperature  and  then  tested  wdth  the  finger. 
It  is  a  cruel  neglect  to  supply  hot  food  to  a  hungry  pig.  Sore 
mouths,  dislike  of  food,  and  apparent  loss  of  appetite  are  sometimes 
traceable  to  no  other  cause.  Such  mistakes  will  sometimes  occur  un- 
less the  feeder  adopts  the  plan  of  stirring  and  testing  every  pailful 
fed.— (Mich  B.  243.) 

Water. — It  is  dangerous  to  let  hogs  have  access  to  irrigation 
ditches  or  streams,  as  these  are  great  carriers  of  disease.  A  conven- 
ient way  to  water  hogs  is  to  mount  a  barrel  on  a  small  sled  and  at- 
tach a  hog  waterer.  As  many  barrels  and  sleds  can  be  used  as  are 
needed  to  maintain  a  full  supply  of  water,  and  by  this  method  the 
water  can  be  placed  in  the  pasture  or  feed  lot  where  the  hogs  can 
reach  it  without  travel.  A  hog  should  drink  small  quantities  of 
water  often,  and  not  overload  the  digestive  tract  with  large  quanti- 
ties, as  he  will  when  he  has  to  travel  a  considerable  distance  for  it. 
—(Colo.  B.  146.) 

Stock  Foods  and  Mineral  Mixtures. — In  themselves,  there  is 
no  special  objections  to  stock  foods.  In  fact,  there  are  brands  made 
that  are  rich  in  nutriment,  and  have  a  high  value  as  a  food.  The 
principal  criticism  that  can  be  made  is  the  excessive  price  generally 
charged  for  them,  which  is  far  beyond  their  value.  No  doubt,  in 
many  cases  oil  meal  will  give  fully  as  satisfactory  results  as  the  stock 
food.— (Ind.  B.  93.) 

The  result  of  comparison  indicates  that  so  far  as  the  true  feed- 
ing value  of  any  of  the  stock  foods  examined  is  concerned,  the 
bran  is  rather  the  better  food.  Now  as  to  cost,  it  seems  that  the 
International  retails  at  12  cents  per  pound,  the  Clover  brand  at  11 
cents  and  the  others  at  10  cents.  Thus  these  foods  cost  the  farmer 
respectively  $240.00,  $220.00  and  $200.00  per  ton.  In  this  respect 
the  bran  has  even  at  its  present  inflated  price,  $20.00  per  ton,  from 
ten  to  twelve  times  the  advantage. 

By  comparing  the  analyses  given  in  the  foregoing  table  with 
those  published  by  the  Iowa  Station.  Bulletin  87,  another  grave 
fault  appears  in  these  so-called  foods.  They  are  not  of  uniform  com- 
position.   That  is,  they  are  not  scientifically  compounded  so  that  a 


496  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

feeder  who  buys  different  lots  each  time  gets  a  food  of  a  different 
composition.  It  matters  not  what  view  point  is  claimed  by  the  man- 
ufacturer, whether  food,  medicine  or  condiment,  this  is  a  grave  and 
serious  objection. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  formula  for  a  home-made  stock 
food  be:  Gentian,  two  pounds,  cost  $0.50;  ginger,  one  pound,  cost 
$0.40;  sodium  bicarbonate,  one  pound,  cost  $0.10;  fenugreek,  one- 
half  pound,  cost  $0.10.  Purchase  these  materials  at  a  drugstore 
and  have  them  mixed  into  fine  powders.  Then,  mix  with  five  pounds 
of  common  salt  and  twenty-five  pounds  of  shorts.  This  compound 
•will  cost  about  4^2  cents  per  pound.  For  the  pig,  mix  one  pound 
with  every  48  pounds  of  grain. —  (S.  D.  B.  105.) 

The  general  health  of  hogs  depends  most  largely  upon  ju- 
dicious feeding  and  good  sanitation,  ''Stock-foods"  are  never  profit- 
able to  buy.  The  cost  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  their  value.  If  hogs 
need  medicine  or  a  condition  powder,  it  can  be  made  cheaper  than 
stock  food  can  be  bought,  A  good  condition  powder  is  the  Govern- 
ment Hog  Remedy,  made  as  follows:  Wood  charcoal,  1  pound; 
sulphur,  1  pound;  common  salt,  2  pounds;  baking  soda,  2  pounds; 
sodium  hyposulphite,  2  pounds;  sodium  sulphate,  1  pound;  anti- 
mony sulphide,  1  pound.  Dose — Large  tablespoonful  once  a  day 
for  each  200  pounds  live  weight.  Mix  well  with  the  feed,  and  feed 
in  the  slop.    Good  for  dispelling  worms,  and  for  the  digestion. 

Another  good  and  cheap  condition  powder  for  general  use  is 
the  following:  Ashes,  10  pounds;  salt,  1  pound;  sulphur,  8  ounces; 
lime,  2  pounds;  copperas,  1  ounce;  charcoal,  3  pounds.  Pulverize 
and  mix  thoroughly.  Keep  in  a  box  where  the  hogs  can  have  con- 
stant access  to  it,  or  give  small  amounts  along  with  the  feed.  Hogs 
crave  ashes  and  charcoal.  Prof.  Henry  found  it  took  629  pounds 
of  corn  meal  to  make  100  pounds  gain  when  ashes  were  not  fed,  as 
compared  with  491  pounds  when  ashes  were  fed. — (Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

Soft  coal  in  unlimited  quantity  seemed  not  to  be  hamiful  to 
pigs  in  confined  pens.  Soft  coal,  wood  charcoal  and  a  tonic  mixture 
ranked  according  to  value  as  correctives  in  the  following  order:  (1) 
tonic  mixture;  (2)  wood  charcoal;  (3)  soft  coal.  The  lot  of  pigs 
having  no  corrective  made  smaller  gains  than  any  of  the  other  lots, 
but  produced  pork  more  cheaply  than  the  lot  on  soft  coal. — (Md. 
B.  150.) 

Salt. — In  the  use  of  salt  with  pigs  to  which  salt  has  not  been 
supplied  regularly  care  must  be  taken  to  offer  it  in  small  quantities 
at  first.  When  supplied  suddenly  or  in  excessive  quantities  very- 
serious,  or  even  disastrous  consequences  may  follow.  Always  keep- 
ing this  caution  in  mind,  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  use  some 
salt  with  every  mess  of  beans  cooked,  about  the  same  amount  as 
would  be  used  for  human  food  would  probably  be  sufficient.  Salt  is 
an  appetizer  and  renders  the  food  more  palatable.  It  also  possesses 
laxative  properties. —  (Mich.  B.  243.)  The  following  mixture  should 
be  kept  con.stantly  in  supply  in  a  dry  place  and  accessible  at  all 
times  to  hogs  and  pigs.  This  mixture  aids  digestion  and  tends  to 
keep  the  hogs  in  perfect  health : 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  497 

Charcoal  bushels. .      IV2 

Common  salt pounds . .     4 

Hardwood  ashes  pounds. .  10 

Slaked  lime pounds. .     4 

— (U.  S.  Cir.  30.) 

QUARTERS  AND  CARE. 

Cost  of  Housing  Pigs. — What  is  the  necessary  cost  of  housing 
a  litter?  Where  lumber  is  $25  to  $35  a  thousand,  good  single- 
walled  houses  need  not  cost  over  $10  to  $20  a  pen,  and  double-walled 
$20  to  $30  a  pen.  It  is  doubtful  economy,  under  most  conditions, 
to  make  them  cost  over  $30  a  pen,  and  very  good  sheds  are  some- 
times made  for  less  then  $10  a  pen.  The  owner  of  a  new  hog  house 
once  showed  it  to  the  writer  with  considerable  pride.  It  contained 
18  pens  besides  the  feed  bins,  and  cost,  according  to  the  contractor, 
approximately  $4,000,  or  $222  a  pen.  The  interest  on  this  invest- 
ment at  5  per  cent  amounts  to  $11.10  for  every  sow  pen,  and  the 
annual  cost  of  each  pen,  including  interest,  depreciation,  repairs, 
and  insurance,  would  be  about  $27,  which,  as  has  been  shown,  is 
amply  sufficient  to  pay  for  a  good  pen  outright;  or,  at  average 
Omaha  prices  ($5.50  per  hundredweight),  it  would  take  two  250- 
pound  hogs  every  year  to  pay  for  the  maintenance  of  a  single  sow 
pen.  It  is  hard  to  see  how  such  a  building  can  ever  pay  for  itself. 
By  careful  management  it  is  not  difficult  to  make  each  pen  ac- 
commodate three  litters  a  year.  Taking  $25  as  the  cost  per  pen 
(which  is  sufficient  to  make  a  good  double-walled  building),  we 
have  the  following: 

Interest  on  investment  ($25),  at  5  per  cent $1.25 

Insurance,  at  50  cents  per  $1,000 0125 

Repairs,  lYz  per  cent 375 

Depreciation,  5  per  cent 1.25 

Total $2.8875 

Using  each  pen  for  three  litters  a  year,  the  cost  of  housing  ono 
litter  would  be  slightly  less  than  $1.  This  is  about  what  one  pig  has 
cost  when  farrowed.  Or,  with  the  high  prices  that  have  prevailed 
for  several  years,  one  pig  at  weaning  time  would  pay  for  the  use  of 
one  good  pen  a  whole  year,  which  would  accommodate  three  litters, 
averaging  seven  pigs  or  more  each.  Of  course,  more  shed  room  is  re- 
quired for  the  older  hogs,  but  this  may  be  of  much  cheaper  construc- 
tion. If  only  one  litter  a  year  is  raised,  no  other  shed  would  be 
needed.  Many  farmers  have  provided  usable  structures  for  less  than 
half  the  above  figures.— (F.  B.  438.) 

Housing  in  Mild  Climates. — ^Tn  the  South  and  in  much  of  the 
country  west  of  the  main  chain  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  win- 
ters are  sufficiently  mild  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  constructing 
buildings  of  much  warmth.  Not  only  are  the  winters  mild,  but  they 
are  comparatively  short,  and  green  feed  is  available  much  longer 
than  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  In  such  localities  a  shed  will 
often  suffice,  but  it  should  be  well  constructed,  in  order  to  provide 
protection  from  storms  and  damp,  chilly  weather.     The  location 


498  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

should  be  high  and  well  drained,  affording  clean,  dry  sleeping 
places;  the  shed  should  open  to  the  south.  The  expense  of  such  a 
building  is  well  warranted  in  view  of  the  added  comfort  to  the  stock 
and  increased  number  of  pigs  raised.  Under  all  circumstances,  re- 
gardless of  climate,  whether  a  man  is  breeding  pure-bred  stock  or 
grades,  hogs  shpuld  have  sleeping  places  that  are  dry  and  warm  and 
feeding  places  that  are  clean. — (F.  B.  205.) 

Portable  Hog  Houses. — Swine  were  originally  native  of  warm, 
damp,  climates,  but  when  domesticated  and  given  proper  protection 
are  found  profitable  in  all  agricultural  districts.  And  yet  no  other 
farm  animal  is  subjected  to  such  uncomfortable  quarters;  he  fre- 
quently sleeps  in  filth  and  eats  from  sour  and  slimy  troughs.  For- 
tunately farmers  are  now  appreciating  better  methods  for  shelter  and 
herd  management.  With  the  practice  of  these  improved  methods  we 
iind  the  portable  house  rapidly  coming  into  favor. 

Some  advantages  of  the  portable  house  are  as  follows.  It  is 
easily  and  economically  constructed ;  it  can  be  easily  moved  and  lo- 
cated wherever  desired ;  it  is  useful  both  to  the  general  farmer  and 
to  the  breeder  of  pure-bred  stock;  and  of  all  systems  for  housing 
swine,  it  is  the  most  natural  and  sanitary.  Only  the  simplest  kind 
of  workmanship  is  necessary  to  build  the  portable  house  and  much 
odd  lumber  can  be  worked  into  it.  The  method  of  construction  can 
be  easily  understood  from  explanations  and  directions  given  with 
the  description  of  each  house.  The  portable  house  is  peculiarly  ad- 
vantageous since  it  can  be  readily  moved.  The  renter  who  finds  it 
impossible  to  provide  expensive  quarters  for  his  hogs  can  well  afford 
to  construct  portable  houses  since  they  can  be  retained  as  personal 
property. 

Many  farmers  construct  hog  houses  without  considering  the 
importance  of  sanitation,  ventilation,  and  drainage.  A  hog  house  of 
any  kind  should  be  located  on  a  high,  dry  site,  and,  if  possible,  on 
soil  containing  sufficient  sand  to  drain  well.  A  house  located  on  an 
elevation  may  be  somewhat  colder  in  winter,  but  it  is  much  cooler 
and  more  comfortable  in  summer.  Hogs  suffer  greatly  with  the 
extreme  heat  of  summer  and  it  is  equally  as  important  to  keep  them 
cool  in  summer  as  it  is  to  keep  them  warm  in  winter. 

The  portable  houses  are  useful  on  any  sized  farm,  as  the  num- 
ber can  be  regulated  to  the  size  of  the  herd.  With  separate  pad- 
docks to  accommodate  swine  of  different  ages  and  sexes  a  portable 
house  is  practically  a  necessity.  Swine  will  never  pile  up  in  a  damp, 
poorly-ventilated  quarter  and  come  out  steaming  in  the  cold  morning, 
air  unless  compelled  to  do  so.  Where  a  large  number  of  animals 
are  continually  housed  in  one  hog  house  and  fed  in  or  around  the 
house  the  surroundings  are  sure  to  become  more  or  less  filthy  and 
unsanitary.  If  feeding  is  done  on  the  inside  it  keeps  a  portion  of 
the  floor  wet,  and  gives  the  entire  building  an  offensive,  disagree- 
able appearance.  On  the  other  hand,  by  using  the  portable  house, 
moving  it  occasionally  onto  a  fresh  piece  of  ground,  and  feeding 
the  hogs  at  a  different  place  one  avoids  these  unsanitary  conditions. 
These  portable  houses  are  built  to  accommodate  from  four  to  six 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  499 

mature  animals  or  ten  to  twenty  shoats.  This  method  keeps  them 
much  cleaner  and  more  thrifty  than  when  allowed  to  congregate  in 
larger  numbers.  Individuals  of  a  herd  showing  evidences  of  a  con- 
tagious disease  can  be  readily  isolated. 

By  locating  the  portable  houses  adjacent  to  the  main  farm 
bam  yards,  it  gives  the  animals  freedom  for  exercise  and  exclusive 
shelter  from  the  other  farm  stock.  Six  to  eight  of  the  8  by  8  A- 
shaped  houses  will  easily  accommodate  a  car  load  of  shoats.  A  feed- 
ing floor  can  be  conveniently  arranged  in  some  protected  quarter  so 
that  the  work  in  caring  for  the  herd  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  It 
will  be  found  that  by  locating  the  houses  in  a  high  and  dry  place, 
that  they  will  keep  in  good  condition  if  thoroughly  bedded  once  a 
week.  But  in  damp  and  muddy  seasons  it  is  better  to  bed  them 
oftener.  The  beginner  in  planning  accommodations  for  swine 
should  thoroughly  compare  the  merits  and  the  economy  of  this  sys- 
tem with  the  conditions  and  expense  connected  in  maintaining  a 
large  hog  house. — (Wis.  B.  153.) 

For  providing  the  pigs  with  shelter  when  they  are  out  in  the 
lots,  the  portable  cot  is  a  desirable  thing  to  have.  They  also  come 
very  handy  during  the  winter  months,  lor  they  can  be  used  to  pro- 
vide shelter  for  something  around  the  barns. — (N.  D.  B.  83.) 

The  portable  house  is  coming  into  very  general  favor,  espe- 
cially in  disease-infected  districts.  It  is  of  various  forms,  and  should 
be  large  enough  for  five  or  six  grown  hogs,  with  enough  height  to 
allow  a  man  to  stand  erect;  6  by  6,  6  by  8,  or  8  by  8  feet  are  good 
sizes.  Such  houses  should  be  strongly  constructed  of  good  lumber, 
with  perfectly  tight  siding  and  roof.  They  may  be  made  with  or 
without  floors.  If  lined  inside  with  the  same  materials  as  outside, 
such  a  house  will  be  warm  enough  for  a  sow  and  pigs  in  zero 
weather;  and  on  extremely  cold  nights  a  lantern  hung  in  the  house 
will  provide  warmth  enough. 

The  plan  for  a  portable  house  used  by  two  successful  breeders — 
A.  J.  Lovejoy,  of  Illinois,  and  L.  N.  Bonham,  of  Ohio — are  de- 
scribed as  follows:  The  Ix)vejoy  pens  or  portable  houses  are  each 
situated  in  the  middle  of  an  acre  lot  and  on  either  side  of  a  drive- 
way, the  divisions  being  made  by  the  use  of  wire  fencing.  The 
houses  are  8  feet  square.  Four  16-inch  boards  make  the  floor,  and 
the  roof  and  sides  are  made  of  matched  flooring  lined  with  building 
paper,  and  that  covered  on  the  inside  with  common  lumber.  The 
houses  are  set  to  front  south.  There  is  a  door  in  both  north  and 
south  ends,  and  a  window  in  the  south  end,  the  latter  being  hinged 
at  the  top  with  a  rope  and  pulley  attached,  so  that  it  can  be  swung 
up  out  01  the  way  wnen  it  is  open.  In  cold  weather  and  early  spring 
the  north  door  is  closed,  and,  if  necessary,  the  south  openings  are 
iilso  closed,  fresh  air  being  secured  through  the  ventilator  in  the 
roof  by  carrying  the  ridge  a  trifle  higher  than  the  sides  that  com- 
prise the  roof. 

In  hot  weather  the  houses  are  converted  into  summer  resorts 
by  leaving  both  doors  and  window  open.  ^  Each  house  is  nicely 
painted  with  two  coats  and  trimmed  in  white,  and  costs,  complete, 


500  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

about  $10.  They  are  set  up  on  blocks  in  the  summer  to  keep  the 
floors  dry,  and  in  the  winter  time  they  are  dropped  to  the  ground 
and  banked  to  keep  the  mnd  out  from  under  the  floor. 

The  primary  object  of  the  Bonham  pig  house  is  to  secure  shel- 
ter, warmth,  sunshine  and  pure  air  at  reasonable  cost,  and  the  sec- 
ondary object  is  to  have  it  as  handy  for  feeding  and  handling  the 
sows  and  pigs  as  possible.  For  some  sows  the  main  roof  may  be 
shortened  18  inches.  This  will  give  a  pitch  to  the  front,  and  a  sash 
6  by  1%  feet  in  front  to  let  in  the  sunlight  and  keep  out  the  rain 
and  cold  may  be  provided.  This  adds  a  little  to  the  cost,  but  makes 
an  ideal  shelter  for  spring  litters,  when  sunshine  is  never  in  excess 
and  of  inestimable  value.  In  very  cold  weather  we  add  a  swinging 
door,  but  a  gunny  sack  hung  at  the  top  of  the  door  will  do.  If  the 
weather  is  below  zero  and  windy,  a  lighted  lantern  hung  to  the  roof 
inside  until  the  pigs  are  dry  and  have  had  their  first  meal  of  the 
sow's  milk  will  keep  them  comfortable  in  the  coldest  weather.  The 
warmth  of  the  sow  is  sufficient  in  other  weather  to  keep  the  pigs 
comfortable  in  such  a  pen.  This  house  is  5  by  6  feet.  Four  scant- 
lings 2  by  2  inches  by  12  feet  and  two  scantlings  2  by  4  inches  by 
12  feet  will  make  the  frame  and  roof  supports.  The  bottom  rail  is 
2  by  4  inches,  the  others  2  by  2  inches.  The  three  pieces  for  the  roof 
are  cut  6  feet  by  6  inches  to  give  a  3-inch  projection  of  the  roof  be- 
yond the  sides.— (F.  B.  205.) 

There  are  two  systems  now  commonly  used  for  housing  swine, 
the  central  house  system  and  the  cot  system,  where  small  separate 
houses  are  used.  Both  have  their  advantages  and  many  farmers  will 
do  well  to  use  both  to  a  certain  extent.  The  important  factor  in 
housing  swine  is  to  keep  them  dry  and  free  from  drafts.  Damp 
beds  and  sleeping  pens  cause  trouble.  Cement  floors  are  preferable 
for  a  hog  house,  but  sleeping  pens  should  be  overlaid  with  board 
floors.  As  a  rule  hogs  should  always  be  fed  outside  on  a  feeding 
floor.  Inside  feeding  is  unsanitary  and  wasteful  of  space,  even 
though  it  may  be  convenient. —  (Wis.  B.  184.) 

One  shed  roof  hog  house  is  provided  with  a  door  in  the  rear  the 
same  size  as  the  lower  front  door  and  placed  diagonally  opposite  so 
that  by  opening  all  the  doors,  it  makes  a  cool  house  in  summer.  On 
the  other  hand,  by  closing  both  lower  doors  and  opening  the  upper 
front  door,  for  ventilation,  it  makes  a  warm  house  for  cold  winter 
weather.  The  upper  front  door  is  arranged  with  a  wooden  ratchet  on 
the  back  side,  which  holds  it  in  any  desired  position.  By  having  the 
hinges  on  the  top,  the  storm  and  hot  sun  cannot  enter  and  yet  by  ad- 
justing the  opening,  air  can  circulate  freely  without  causing  a  draft 
on  the  animals.  This  door  at  the  top  is  an  important  factor.  It  is  a 
serious  mistake  to  build  these  houses  with  but  one  opening,  as  is 
sometimes  done.  There  is  then  no  ventilation  whatever,  and  the 
house  in  warm  weather  becomes  a  suffocating  quarter.  To  build 
the  shed  roof  house,  construct  the  frame  8  feet  long  by  6  feet  4 
inches  wide  on  7  joists  2  inches  by  4  inches  6  feet  long,  and  two 
pieces  2  inches  by  4  inches  nailed  across  the  ends  of  the  joist.  This 
"will  make  the  foundation  for  the  floor  6  feet  4  inches  wide  and 


Cheshire  Hog.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


Poland  China  Hog.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  503 

8  feet  long.  Beneath  the  frame  are  nailed  3  pieces  2  inches  by  4 
inches  to  serve  as  runneis  for  moving  the  building. — (Wis.  B.  153.) 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  desirability  of  hog 
cots  to  use  in  connection  with  the  piggery.  When  climatic  condi- 
tions are  not  too  rigorous,  cots  only  are  employed  for  handling  the 
entire  herd.  In  general,  the  climatic  conditions  in  Michigan  are  too 
extreme  to  permit  the  use  of  cots  for  all  classes  of  hogs  for  all  pur- 
poses during  the  entire  year.  They  are  especially  desirable,  how- 
ever, for  dry  brood  sows  and  young  males  and  females  being  reared 
for  breeding  purposes ;  it  is  in  this  way  we  are  using  them.  They  are 
desirable  because  an  abundance  of  fresh  air,  sunshine  and  exercise 
are  provided.  During  the  summer  season  cotting  and  yarding  nearly 
all  classes  of  pigs  cannot  be  excelled. 

The  form  of  cot  used  here  is  desirable  in  that  it  is  warm  in 
winter  but  objectionable  in  that  it  provides  little  protection  against 
the  extreme  heat  of  summer.  It  is  also  considered  a  good  form  of 
cot  for  the  brood  sow  to  farrow  in  in  moderate  weather  as  she  cannot 
lie  down  close  enough  to  the  sloping  roof  to  crush  her  pigs  as  against 
a  wall.  A  general  mistake  is  made  in  fastening  this  form  of  cot 
permanently  to  the  skids,  or  runners,  on  which  it  is  built.  These 
are  the  first  to  decay  and  along  with  them  the  lower  ends  of  the 
boards,  thus  making  repairs  impossible  even  though  the  balance  of 
the  structure  remains  sound.  A  separate  pair  of  skids  should  be 
constructed  for  this  or  any  other  form  of  cot  so  that  they  can  be  re- 
placed. Its  own  weight  will  hold  the  cot  in  place  on  the  skids  while 
being  moved. — (Mich.  B.  223.) 

Farrowing  Pens. — For  farrowing  there  should  be  a  separate 
house  and  yard  for  each  sow.  A  house  6  feet  by  8  feet  made  of 
boards,  covered  and  floored,  will  answer;  roof  7  feet  high  at  front 
end  and  4  feet  at  rear.  The  floor  foundation  may  be  made  of  2- 
inch  pine  or  oak,  floored  with  1-inch  boards.  Two  by  four  studding 
will  answer  for  sides.  The  roof  may  be  made  of  boards  battened. 
The  front  should  have  a  board  1  foot  wide  for  the  roof  to  rest  upon ; 
then  a  door  2  feet  wide  should  be  hung  to  this  top  board.  This  door 
should  extend  across  the  front  end  and  be  propped  open  except  in 
very  stormy  weather.  In  sheltered  places  the  door  is  generally 
omitted  and  the  door  space  left  open.  Two  2  by  6  inch  runners 
should  be  placed  under  the  pen,  upon  which  to  draw  it  when  change 
of  location  is  desired.  A  yard,  using  wire  or  board,  16  feet  by  33 
feet,  will  answer  for  exercise. — (Utah  S.  Cir.  30.) 

The  farrowing  pen  should  be  provided  with  fenders  around  at 
least  three  sid&s  about  6  or  8  inches  from  the  floor  and  6  or  8  inches 
from  the  wall.  These  should  be  strong  enough  to  support  the  weight 
of  the  sow  should  she  lie  on  them.  They  will,  to  a  great  extent,  pro^ 
tect  the  pigs  from  being  lain  upon  during  the  finst  few  days  of  their 
lives.  This  will  go  far  to  prevent  a  very  fniitful  cause  of  loss  among 
young  pigs.  The  little  fellows  will  soon  learn  to  creep  under  these 
fenders  when  the  sow  lies  down. 

Many  breeders  now  use  a  specially  arranged  farrowing  pen  for 
sows,  the  object  being  to  allow  the  sow  room  enough  to  farrow 


504  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

with  reasonable  comfort,  but  not  enough  to  turn  around.  The  safety 
of  the  pigs  under  such  circumstances  is  said  to  be  much  greater 
than  when  the  sow  is  given  all  the  space  she  cares  to  take.  Provision 
is  made  for  the  safety  of  the  pigs  by  raising  the  walls  of  the  pen 
6  or  8  inches  from  the  floor.  Such  a  pen  may  be  readily  arranged 
by  placing  the  sow  at  one  end  of  her  pen  and  nailing  boards  across 
so  that  she  can  not  turn,  leaving  space  for  the  pigs  to  slip  under 
the  barrier.  A  number  of  patented  farrowing  pens  are  on  the 
market.— (F.  B.  205.) 

The  farrowing  quarters  should  be  a  pen  with  a  hard  smooth 
clay  floor,  covered  with  a  bushel  or  two  of  fine  chaff.  The  next  best 
is  a  pine  floor.  Cement  absorbs  too  much  heat,  and  will  chill  the 
young  pigs.  The  projecting  roil  around  the  pen  6  inches  from  the 
wall  and  6  inches  from  the  floor  should  prevent  the  mother  from 
smothering  the  pigs. — (Mo.  Cir.  28.) 

When  hogs  are  not  supplied  with  plenty  of  comfortable  bed- 
ding in  cold  weather,  they  pile  on  top  of  each  other  to  keep  warai. 
In  this  way  the  under  ones  become  heated,  and  when  they  get  out 
into  the  cold  air  are  easily  attacked  by  pneumonia  and  rheumatism. 
If  the  attack  is  not  sufficient  to  kill  them,  it  makes  them  unthrifty. 
It  is  best  to  allow  only  a  limited  number  of  hogs  to  sleep  together, 
and  they  should  have  such  shelter  and  bedding  that  they  can  keep 
warm  without  becoming  heated.  Bathing  in  cold  water  in  irrigat- 
ing ditches  is  likely  to  result  in  rheumatism.  Hogs  are  more  dis- 
turbed by  wind  than  any  other  farm  animals.  Their  shelter  should 
thoroughly  protect  them  from  wind  and  from  draughts. — (Colo.  B. 
146.) 

Many  farmers  in  this  state  use  a  straw  covered  shed  in  which 
to  shelter  their  brood  sows.  This  proves  very  successful.  We  have 
used  one  with  good  results  at  this  experiment  station.  Where  straw 
is  so  abundant  such  a  shed  is  very  easily  made.  It  is  well,  however, 
to  use  considerable  care  in  order  to  construct  a  frame  work  which 
■will  support  the  straw  placed  over  it.  Cases  have  been  known  where 
they  have  "caved  in"  from  the  weight  of  the  straw  over  them  and 
the  pigs  have  been  smothered.  The  shed  was  made  so  that  it  is  very 
convenient.  The  frame  was  made  high  enough  to  enable  one  to 
walk  erect  with  ease  in  it.  The  openings  in  front  were  provided 
with  doors  and  an  old  window  was  inserted  on  the  front  side  to  fur- 
nish light.  The  expense  of  equipping  a  shed  in  this  manner  that 
will  do  to  raise  a  pig  crop  successfully  requires  very  little  expenditure 
of  money.— (N.  D.  Bui.  83.) 

In  the  South,  the  far  South  especially,  very  little  shelter  is 
needed  except  at  farrowing  time.  There  is  no  occasion  for  expen- 
sively constructed  buildings.  Of  course,  at  farrowing  time  the 
mother  should  always  be  supplied  with  a  building  that  will  afford 
shelter  from  the  rain  and  the  wind  for  both  the  mother  and  the 
pigs  until  the  pigs  become  dry.  If  the  wind  strikes  the  young  pigs 
when  they  are  first  born  they  will  often  chill  to  death.  Each  farmer 
can  make  his  own  shelter,  to  be  in  keeping  with  his  surroundings, 
but  probably  the  best  and  most  economical  building  that  can  be  made 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  505 

is  the  portable  hog  house.  These  houses  may  vary  in  size;  those 
with  floor  dimensions  of  6  by  8  feet,  6  by  9  feet,  or  8  by  8  feet  will 
be  found  most  satisfactory.  The  roof  need  not  be  over  7  feet  high 
at  the  highest  point.  The  house  may  be  made  on  runners  to  facili- 
tate moving  it  about.  To  prevent  the  sow  from  crushing  the  pigs 
at  farrowing  time,  a  scantling  should  be  fastened  to  the  inside  of 
the  house,  about  8  inches  from  the  ground,  projecting  about  10 
inches  toward  the  center  of  the  pen.  The  small  pigs  can  run  under 
this  protection  and  keep  the  mother  from  lying  upon  them.  There 
is  no  necessity  for  a  floor  for  these  houses.  Some  straw  at  farrow- 
ing time  is  all  that  is  required. — (F.  B.  411.) 

Floors. — The  hog  house  floor  is  an  unsettled  question.  A  good 
floor  is  the  ground  with  woven  wire  stretched  on  top  to  prevent  the 
hogs  from  rooting.  Electrically  welded  corncrib  wire  is  very  satis- 
factory. This  makes  a  floor  which  is  easy  on  the  hogs,  almost  free 
from  rats,  and,  if  properly  bedded,  warm  and  dry.  It  is,  however, 
more  difficult  to  keep  free  from  dust  than  some  other  floors.  Many 
concrete  floors  are  used,  but  they  are  cold,  liable  to  be  wet,  and  are 
hard  on  the  hogs'  feet.  Often  almost  an  entire  pig  crop  and  many 
sows  are  lost  by  taking  cold  on  concrete  floors.  Concrete  floors  are, 
however,  very  satisfactory  when  covered  with  plank  overlays,  or 
false  floors,  which  should  be  raised  from  the  concrete  about  an  inch 
by  nailing  cleats  on  the  under  side.  The  wood  portion  of  this  floor 
consists  of  2  by  4  inch  timbers  laid  about  one-fourth  inch  apart  to 
allow  drainage. 

Board  floors  are  expensive,  short  lived,  cold  if  up  off  the  ground, 
and  make  the  worst  kind  of  rat  harbors.  The  writer  once  visited  an 
old  hog  house  ^dth  wood  floor  in  which  the  owner  said  the  rats  had 
gotten  over  half  the  pigs.  Several  men  report  that  rats  may  be 
kept  out  by  packing  sand  or  cinders  to  the  top  of  the  joists  before 
laying  the  floor,  but  these  materials  are  often  too  expensive  to  be 
used  for  this  purpose. — (F.  B.  438.) 

Alfalfa  Racks. — In  order  to  prevent  undue  waste  when  feeding 
alfalfa  to  pigs,  the  hay  should  be  fed  in  a  slatted  rack  placed  in  a 
flat  bottomed  trough.  The  spaces  between  the  slats  should  not  ex- 
ceed 2y2  inches  and  the  trough  should  extend  at  least  18  inches  be- 
yond the  rack  in  every  direction.  The  coarse  stems  left  by  the  pigs 
may  be  fed  to  stock  cattle.— (N.  M.  B.  62.) 

Troughs. — Well  made  troughs  are  a  necessity  in  pig  feeding. 
The  time-honored  V-shaped  trough  is  very  common  and  is  doubt- 
less familiar  to  all  who  handle  hogs.  Others  advise  the  use  of  a 
low,  wide,  shallow  trough.  Troughs  should  not  be  so  long  that  they 
can  not  be  handled  by  one  man,  and  they  should  be  so  strong  that 
they  will  not  readily  be  broken  to  pieces  by  the  pigs.  A  very  con- 
venient arrangement  of  the  feeding  troughs  is  shown  in  the  draw- 
ings of  the  Maryland  Agricultural  College  hog  house.  The  troughs 
extend  across  the  front  of  the  pen  and  are  built  solidly,  so  that  they 
will  not  be  displaced.  The  front  of  the  pen  is  hung  on  hinges,  and 
attached  to  it  is  a  strong  iron  rod  which  fits  into  holes  in  the  edges  of 
the  trough  and  holds  the  pen  front  finnly.    When  filling  the  troughs 


506  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

the  pen  front  is  swung  back  and  the  rod  inserted  in  the  inside  edge 
of  the  trough.  The  pigs  can  not  then  get  to  the  feed  until  the  front 
is  lowered.  The  plan  permits  feeding  without  being  disturbed  by 
the  eagerness  of  the  animals,  and  the  feed  is  evenly  distributed. — 
(F.  B.  205.) 

For  feeding  pigs,  there  should  be  a  slatted  trough  to  prevent 
the  more  greedy  getting  into  the  food.  It  is  constructed  as  follows: 
A  bottom  board  1  by  12  inches  and  8  feet  long,  edges  beveled,  end 
piece  2  by  6  inches,  a  center  board  8  inches  wide  nailed  to  the  ends, 
the  lower  edge  standing  2  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  trough — 
the  top  edge  would  be  10  inches  above  the  trough.  On  the  two  edges 
of  the  bottom  nail  1  by  4  inch  strips  8  feet  long,  and  nail  slats  2 
inches  wide  from  the  top  of  the  4-inch  sides  to  the  top  of  the  center 
board,  far  enough  apart  to  allow  the  pigs  to  eat — 6  inches  will  an- 
swer for  small  pigs ;  8,  10,  and  even  12  inches  may  be  required  for 
larger.— (U.  S.  Cir.  30.) 

The  troughs  are  made  of  two-inch  hemlock  constructed  in  a  V 
shape,  one  side  being  two-by-ten  inch  material  and  the  other  side 
and  ends  two-by-eight.  These  troughs  are  simply  toe-nailed  in  be- 
tween the  division  posts  so  that  they  can  be  removed  easily  and  re- 
placed when  necessary.  We  like  the  V  shaped  troughs  in  prefer- 
ence to  any  flat  bottomed  sort,  in  the  piggery,  because  the  pigs  can 
clean  them  more  readily  and  thoroughly  and  there  is  practically  no 
contact  at  the  floor  except  for  the  short  end  pieces ;  as  a  result  filth 
and  moisture  do  not  accumulate  beneath  them.  On  the  under  side 
of  the  V  shaped  trough,  next  the  alley,  the  floor  is  always  dry  and 
on  the  pen  side  it  can  be  cleaned  thoroughly  and  is  always  exposed 
to  the  air.  Hemlock  troughs  last  from  two  to  five  years,  or  even 
longer,  particularly  if  protected  by  a  strip  of  band  iron  on  the  inner 
edge.  Sloppy  feed  does  not  chill  or  freeze  in  wood  troughs  as  readily 
as  in  cement  or  metal.  We  like  flat  bottomed  troughs  for  out  door 
feeding  where  they  are  moved  about  frequently,  they  are  not  upset 
so  readily  as  the  V-shaped  ones.  We  also  like  low  sided,  flat  bot- 
tomed troughs  for  weanling  pigs. —  (Mich  B.  223.) 

Dipping  Vat. — One  vat  which  has  proven  very  successful 
is  constructed  entirely  of  concrete.  It  is  three  feet  deep,  seven 
feet  six  inches  long  on  top  and  three  feet  six  inches  long  on  bottom. 
It  is  eighteen  inches  wide  on  the  bottom  and  thirty  at  the  top.  The 
end  next  the  passageway  is  perpendicular,  requiring  the  animals  to 
plunge  in ;  the  other  end  is  sloping  with  creases  in  the  cement  form- 
ing little  steps  to  enable  sheep  and  hogs  to  walk  out.  Adjacent  to 
the  vat  and  separated  from  it  by  an  eight-inch  cement  partition, 
is  a  dry  chamber  five  and  one-half  feet  long,  two  and  one-half  feet 
deep,  and  eighteen  inches  wide,  for  an  attendant  to  stand  in  and  hold 
or  handle  sheep,  as  the  vat  is  used  for  both  sheep  and  hog  dipping. 
One  end  of  this  chamber  is  raised  nearly  a  foot  to  enable  the  attend- 
ant to  assist  sheep  up  the  incline.  The  cement  floor  around  the 
vat  is  so  graded  that  the  drippings  are  returned  to  it.  This  illustra- 
tion shows,  also,  the  drain  pipe  leading  to  an  underdrain  with  the 
valve  in  the  dry  chamber  below  the  floor  level  of  this  part.     This 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  507 

vat  was  easily  constructed,  inexpensive,  durable,  and  is  entirely  sat- 
isfactory.—(Mich.  B.  223.) 

Yard  Fences. — The  question  of  cheap,  durable,  and  serviceable 
fencing  for  the  small  yards  adjacent  to  the  piggery  is  an  important 
problem.  During  the  past,  lumber  in  various  forms  has  been  con- 
verted into  fences  of  different  styles  for  this  purpose,  but  now  its 
scarcity  and  high  price  renders  its  use  almost  prohibitive.  A  tight 
board  fence  probably  makes  the  most  perfect  one  for  turning  hogs. 
We  have  attempted  to  miake  a  suitable  substitute,  in  large  part,  for 
the  lumber  except  in  the  case  of  the  divisions  between  the  boar  pens. 
The  fences  forming  our  small  pens  are  constructed  of  woven  wire 
with  two-by-six  inch  material  at  bottom  and  top.  Cedar  posts  are 
placed,  in  this  case,  a  little  less  than  eight  feet  apart.  (They  should  not 
be  more  than  this  distance  for  pen  fences.)  The  posts  were  notched 
out  at  the  bottom  and  top  one-inch  deep  and  the  width  of  the  two- 
by-six.  Thus,  the  two-by-sixes  when  firmly  spiked  in  place,  instead 
of  being  flush,  projected  an  inch  out  from  the  surface  of  the  post 
The  26-inch  woven  wire  was  placed  on  the  posts  with  top  and  bottom 
wires  just  touching  the  two-by-sixes.  The  woven  wire  was  not 
stapled  to  the  end  posts  but  each  strand  brought  around  the  post 
and  wrapped  on  itself.  The  wire  fencing  was  also  stapled  to  the 
intermediate  cedar  posts  and  the  top  and  bottom  wires  to  the  two-by- 
sixes  against  which  they  rested. 

The  woven  wire  used  was  special  hog  fence  with  seven  lateral 
wires,  top  and  bottom  wires  No.  9  and  intermediate  No.  12.  There 
are  twenty-eighth  No.  11  cross  wdres  to  the  rod.  The  woven  wire 
and  two-by-sixes  make  the  fence  thirty-eight  inches  high.  This  has 
furnished  a  cheap  fence  and  after  three  seasons'  use  we  are  perfectly 
satisfied  with  it.  But  one  repair  has  been  made  and  that  at  a  point 
w^here  a  flaw  occurred  in  the  wire.  The  openings  of  these  pens  con- 
sist of  doors  which  slide  up  and  down  in  grooves  at  the  sides,  drop- 
ping into  slots  at  the  bottom  to  prevent  pigs  from  opening  them. 

Lot  Fences. — The  term  lot  is  here  used  to  designate  larger  en- 
closures, such  as  those  furnishing  pasture  and  forage  crops.  In  pur- 
suing economic  methods  of  swine  husbandry,  pasture  and  forage 
crops  are  essential  throughout  the  greatest  possible  portion  of  the 
year.  Few  crops  provide  continuous  pasturage  throughout  the  grow- 
ing season  and  even  those  which  do  may  require  resting  spells  for 
recuperation.  Continuous  pasturing  and  foraging  by  hogs  is  largely 
dependent  on  a  succession  of  these  two  classes  of  crops.  As  a  small 
area  can  be  made  to  produce  sufficient  green  crop  for  large  numbers 
of  hogs,  this  fact,  in  addition  to  the  two  already  stated,  would  seem 
to  require  either  a  number  of  small  lots  or  one  large  one  subdivided 
by  portable  fences  or  hurdles.  Portable  fences  constructed  of  light 
lumber  have  been  commonly  used  in  the  past  but  this  material  is 
no  longer  practicable  under  general  conditions.  If  the  number  of 
hogs  on  a  farm  will  justify  the  growing  of  say  six  acres  of  forage 
crops,  this  should  be  enclosed  and  divided  through  the  center  by 
permanent  fences.  Division  of  the  two  halves  can  then  be  made  by 
means  of  a  portable  woven  wire  fence  as  follows :    Set  a  row  of  post^ 


608  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

two  rods  apart  across  each  half  for  the  support  of  the  portable  fence ; 
owing  to  the  distance  between  the  posts  they  will  not  interfere  seri- 
ously with  cultivation. —  (Mich.  B.  223.) 

A  good  permanent  fence  for  a  pig  lot  can  be  made  as  follows: 
Place  posts  4  inches  by  7  feet  one  rod  apart.  Staple  a  string  of 
barb  wire  two  inches  from  the  bottom.  Two  inches  above  it  place 
a  ribbon  of  26-inch  woven  wire  and  six  inches  above  it  another  string 
of  barb  wire.  The  post  will  project  one  and  one-half  feet  above 
the  height  of  the  fence.  Short  posts  can  be  used,  but  the  long  posts 
may  be  used  some  time  later  in  case  it  is  desired  to  place  more  wires 
on  the  fence  to  keep  in  cattle  or  horses.  A  good  movable  fence  can 
be  made  in  practically  the  same  way.  Use  smaller  posts,  sharpen 
them  and  drive  them  into  the  ground  two  rods  apart.  On  the  bot^ 
tom  string  a  barb  wire.  Stretch  the  woven  wire  on  the  post  and 
staple  it  tightly  to  the  post  so  that  it  can  be  readily  removed  and 
rolled  up  when  you  wish  to  move  it.  A  fence  of  this  kind  can  be 
readily  moved  from  place  to  place,  and  set  up  without  a  great  deal 
of  labor.  The  panel  portable  fence  is  a  very  convenient  type  of 
fence.  The  cost  of  it  makes  it  almost  prohibitive,  however,  on  the 
average  farm.  In  Bulletin  104  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, the  cost  of  the  material  for  a  temporary  fence  and  placing  it, 
is  given  as  37.7  cents  per  rod.  The  temporary  fence  here,  judging 
from  the  comparative  cost  of  similar  fences,  would  be  about  45  to 
50  cents  a  rod.— (N.  D.  Bui.  83.) 

No  man  should  attempt  to  raise  hogs  without  adequate  fencing 
of  yards  and  pastures.  An  animal  of  any  kind,  but  especially  a  hog, 
can  make  himself  an  intolerable  nuisance  if  not  confined  within 
proper  bounds.  For  pastures  woven  wire  is  the  best  fencing  mate- 
rial, all  things  considered.  Such  a  fence  may  be  purchased  ready- 
made  or  may  be  made  on  the  farm  by  machines,  of  which  there  are 
several  good  kinds  on  the  market.  From  motives  of  economy  it 
may  be  desirable  to  run  a  fence  of  woven  wire  around  a  field  to  a 
height  of  30  to  36  inches,  and  above  this  to  stretch  two  or  three 
strands  of  ordinary  barb  wire.  This  will  make  a  hog-tight  fence, 
and  if  horses  are  necessarily  placed  in  the  field  the  fence  will  be 
much  safer  than  the  ordinary  one  made  entirely  of  barb  wire.  Mid- 
way between  the  posts  the  lower  strand  in  the  fence  should  be  se- 
curely stapled  to  a  small  post  or  stake ;  this  will  prevent  hogs  from 
working  their  way  under  the  fence.  A  further  precaution  against 
this  may  be  secured  by  plowing  a  furrow  against  the  lower  strand, 
or,  better  still,  by  digging  a  trench  5  or  6  inches  deep  along  the 
fence  line  and  nailing  2  by  12  inch  planks  or  cedar  or  locust  poles  to 
the  posts  and  fastening  the  lower  strand  to  these.  In  building  any 
kind  of  wire  fence,  ground  wires  may  be  put  down  to  moisture  at 
frequent  intervals  to  give  stock  protection  from  lightning. 

A  board  fence  makes,  perhaps,  the  most  secure  inclosure  for 
hogs,  but  its  expense  precludes  its  use  generally  except  for  yards 
and  pens. 

Barb  wire  is  a  very  poor  material  for  a  hog  fence.  It  can 
hardlv  be  made  close  enough  or  strong  enough  to  prevent  a  shoat 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  509 

from  crawling  through.  In  this  respect  it  is  only  a  little  better  than 
a  hedge,  which  is  expensive  and  unsatisfactory  when  used  to  con- 
fine stock.  Gates  must,  of  course,  be  carefully  made,  hung,  and 
fcist^ned.— (F.  B.  205.) 

The  best  adjunct  of  the  fencing  proposition  is  a  good  pasture 
on  the  inside.  We  do  not  ring  the  hogs.  It  has  been  our  experience 
that  hogs  kept  on  pasture  all  the  time  will  do  very  little  damage  bv 
rooting.— (Miss.  B.  107.) 

If  from  150  to  200  hogs  were  raised,  the  20-acre  com  field  could 
be  easily  fed  off  by  them.  And  here  again  would  be  realized  the  ad- 
vantage of  large  fields.  The  cost  per  acre  of  the  outside  fence  would 
be  about  $1.20.  Forty  rods  of  movable  fence  would  be  necessary 
so  as  to  fence  off  a  portion  of  the  field  which  could  be  used  by  the 
hogs.  This  would  cost  about  $10.  Since  this  strip  of  fencing  could 
be  used  for  many  years,  the  annual  cost  per  acre  would  not  exceed 
10c,  making  the  total  cost  per  acre  for  fencing  this  cornfield  hog 
tight  and  in  plots  about  $1.30.  It  would  cost  from  $3  to  $5  per  acre 
to  pick  and  feed  this  corn.  Hence,  there  is  a  saving  of  from  $1.70 
to  $3.70  per  acre  by  feeding  off  the  com  as  it  grew  in  the  field. 

Since  fencing  is  quite  an  item  in  the  cost  of  pastures  and  in 
hogging  off  corn,  the  arrangement  of  fields  in  such  a  way  as  to  use 
the  least  possible  amount  of  fencing  and  still  have  the  hogs  near  the 
farm  buildings  so  they  may  be  sheltered,  watered  and  fed  €<3onom- 
ically  is  essential.  A  piece  of  land  one  rod  wide  and  160  rods  long 
contains  one  acre  and  requires  322  rods  of  fence  to  enclose  it.  A 
piece  of  land  12%  rods  square  contains  one  acre  and  requires  51 
rods  of  fence  to  enclose  it.  A  10-acre  field  (40  rds.x40  rds.)  requires 
100  rods  of  fencing  to  enclose  it  or  an  average  of  16  rods  per  acre. 
It  is  quite  evident  from  the  above  facts  that  the  larger  and  more 
nearly  square  a  field  is  the  less  fence  is  required  per  acre  to  fence  it. 
Likewise,  two  adjoining  fields  may  be  fenced  more  cheaply  than  two 
separate  fields  of  the  same  size  as  a  portion  of  the  fence  answers  for 
both  fields.— (Minn.  B.  104.) 

The  pen  and  yard  for  the  boar  should  be  separate  from  the  rest 
of  the  herd  and  out  of  sight  of  it.  The  pen  should  be  so  strong  that 
the  boar  can  not  tear  it  down  or  go  through  it,  and  a  tightly  fenced 
pasture  of  one-half  to  1  acre  in  area  should  adjoin.  A  sow  about  to 
farrow,  if  she  is  to  farrow  in  the  piggery,  can  have  the  run  of  the 
alley  for  exercise.  It  she  has  a  house  to  herself,  a  small  yard  should 
adjoin.  It  will  generally  be  a  satisfactory  practice  to  keep  hogs  away 
from  other  stock  except  when  following  fattening  steers.  Pregnant 
brood  sows  should  never  be  allowed  to  run  in  the  same  yards  or  pas- 
tures with  cattle,  horses,  or  mules.  Manv  good  sows  have  been 
ruined  by  the  playfulness  or  viciousness  of  the  larger  farm  animals. 

Watering. — A  better  plan  than  to  put  water  for  the  pigs  into 
troughs  is  to  set  one-h^f  of  a  kerosene  barrel  on  brick  or  stone  so 
as  to  raise  it  3  inches  from  the  ground.  Place  the  barrel  between  two 
posts  planted  opposite  to  each  other;  then  wire  it  in  position.  Insert 
a  pipe  near  the  bottom,  with  an  automatic  valve  which  will  let  the 
water  flow  into  a  small  trough  without  overflow,    There  are  special 


510  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

devices  on  the  market  which  accomplish  this  purpose.  Fill  the  half 
barrel  with  water  and  fasten  on  a  board  cover.  In  this  way  the 
drinking  water  is  always  kept  clean  and  accessible. 

An  open  shed,  floored,  is  advantageous  for  feeding.  The  hogs 
are  thus  protected  from  the  sun  in  hot  weather,  and  the  soaked  corn 
can  be  scattered  on  a  clean  floor.  Never  throw  corn  for  hogs  on  the 
ground.    It  forces  them  to  eat  too  much  dirt. 

It  is  emphatically  necessary  to  avoid  all  wallowing  holes  if  the 
herd  is  to  be  kept  healthy.— (U.  S.  Cir.  30.) 

Exercise. — A  fact  that  has  recently  been  determined  indicates 
that  the  influence  of  exercise  upon  the  functional  activities  of  a  pig 
is  an  important  factor.  Hence  the  lack  of  exercise  is  a  handicap  to 
the  fall  pig  because  during  the  w^intcr  on  account  of  cold  weather 
not  so  much  exercise  is  usually  taken  as  in  the  summer,  except  dur- 
ing very  hot  periods.  For  maximum  and  most  economical  produc- 
tion it  seems  absolutely  necessary  for  the  young  and  growing  pig  to 
have  an  abundance  of  exercise.  Its  chief  value  seems  to  be  in  the 
influence  it  exerts  upon  the  respiratory  and  digestive  functions. — 
(111.  Cir.  133.) 

The  foundation  on  which  to  build  a  successful  breeding  ani- 
mal is  ample  range,  affording  an  abundance  of  exercise,  and  a  rather 
narrow  ration.  Growth  should  be  continuous  and  feed  plentiful. 
The  pigs  should  not  be  given  so  large  a  range  and  so  little  feed  that 
they  will  develop  nothing  but  bone;  neither  should  they  have  so 
much  to  eat  that  they  will  become  indolent  and  refuse  to  take  the 
exercise  required  to  develop  necessary  bone  and  muscle.  Exercise 
will  strengthen  the  sinews  and  develop  strong  muscles,  as  well  as 
firm  joints  and  strong  legs,  while  a  well-filled  stomach  will  nourish 
these ;  and  from  this  management  we  may  expect  a  sow  that  will  be 
strong,  thrifty,  and  a  good  breeder,  and  a  boar  that  will  do  good  work 
in  the  herd  without  breaking  down  in  any  respect  before  he  should. 

No  time  should  be  lost  after  farrowing  in  getting  the  sow  into 
the  open  air.  Of  course,  if  the  pigs  were  farrowed  during  the  winter 
months  care  will  be  needed,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  let  the  pigs 
reach  the  age  of  two  weeks  before  turning  them  out.  They  can,  how- 
ever, get  considerable  exercise  in  the  piggery  or  in  the  lot  with  the 
sow,  and  there  is  often  a  lot  adjoining  a  barn  that  is  sunny  and  shel- 
tered from  cold  winds  where  the  new  family  may  be  turned  out  for 
exercise.  Avoid  particularly  allowing  the  pigs  to  run  out  during  a 
cold  rain.  They  are  especially  tender  during  the  first  weeks. — (F. 
B.  205.) 

Comparing  sets  II  and  III  with  the  same  feed  but  one  fed  in  the 
pen  and  the  other  in  the  yard,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  yard  set  gained 
18  pounds  more  or  .035  of  a  pound  more  per  pig  daily.  The  set 
getting  exercise  consumed  221  pounds  more  food  during  the  period 
(125)  days  and  required  ten  per  cent  more  food  for  100  pounds 
gain.  The  most  economical  gains  were  made  by  the  set  confined  in 
the  pen.— (Utah  B.  70.) 

Ventilation. — The  Boar's  permanent  quarters  should  be  a  clean, 
dry,  w^rm,  well-lighted,  and  well-ventilated  pen,  10  or  12  feet  square, 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  511 

with  a  yard  adjoining  where  sows  may  be  brought  for  service.  This 
yard  should  be  large  enough  to  give  him  some  exercise  during  the 
breeding  season,  when  it  may  be  inconvenient  to  allow  him  the  run 
of  the  pasture.  Adjoining  the  yard  should  be  the  boar's  pasture, 
from  one-half  acre  to  an  acre  in  extent,  consisting  of  clover,  alfalfa, 
or  good  pasture  grasses  that  thrive  in  the  locality. —  (F.  B.  205.) 

It  is  very  important  to  provide  means  for  ventilation  in  the  pig- 
gery to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  dampness  on  the  walls  which 
cause  rheumatism,  bronchitis,  and  often  pneumonia.  Provision  for 
ventilation  is  more  necessary  in  a  cold  climate  than  in  warmer  cU- 
mates,  because  the  moisture  collects  readily  on  the  walls,  due  to  the 
cold  weather.— (N.  D.  B.  83.) 

A  little  pig  loves  sunshine  and  needs  it  almost  as  much  as  he 
needs  food.  No  piggerj'^  is  fit  for  the  purpose  unless  it  admits  direct 
sunshine  onto  the  floor  of  every  pen  at  the  time  the  pigs  are  farrowed, 
furnishes  plenty  of  fresh  air,  and  provides  for  exercise  in  the  open 
air.  Dryness,  sunshine,  warmth,  fresh  air,  freedom  from  drafts,  and 
exercise  are  of  primary  importance  in  raising  pigs.  These  secured, 
the  'battle  is  half  won.  In  putting  up  buildings  the  six  requirements 
just  mentioned  must  be  kept  constantly  in  mind;  not  one  can  be 
neglected.— (F.  B.  438.) 

One  of  the  first  requisites  for  success  with  hogs  is  a  shelter  where 
young  pigs  can  be  kept  warm  and  well  supplied  with  sunshine  and 
fresh  air.  A  little  pig  takes  cold  very  easily  and  recovers  slowly  if 
at  all.  To  prevent  taking  cold  he  must  be  kept  dry,  warm,  away 
from  drafts,  and  provided  with  fresh  air. — (F.  B.  438.) 

It  is  not  easy  to  secure  a  good  supply  of  fresh  air  and  prevent 
all  drafts  from  striking  the  pigs.  There  are,  however,  several  quite 
satisfactory  methods  of  ventilation  in  use.  The  commonest  one  is 
to  make  some  of  the  windows  so  they  will  either  slide  or  swing  on 
hinges.  The  box  ventilators  are  very  satisfactory.  The  cloth  curtain 
window  also  does  good  work. 

Whitewashing. — Whitewashing  the  inside  of  the  house  is  an 
excellent  practice.  Besides  going  a  long  way  toward  disinfecting,  it 
increases  the  light  material^.  When  the  sunshine  strikes  a  white- 
washed wall,  much  of  it  is  reflected  to  the  floor  and  does  a  great  deal 
of  good.  Dark  houses  which  must  be  used  will  be  much  improved 
by  whitewashing.— (F.  B.  438.) 

Importance  of  Sanitation. — The  greatest  drawbacks  to  the  hog 
industry  in  this  country  are  the  losses  through  hog  cholera  and  swine 
plague,  and  through  tuberculosis,  as  well  as  by  parasites,  especially  of 
young  pigs. 

Hog  Cholera  and  Swine  Plague  arc  so  similar  as  to  be  identical 
for  practical  purposes.  They  are  caiLsed  only  by  disease  germs  or 
bacteria,  carried  from  one  animal  to  another,  and  can  best  be  pre- 
vented by  thorough  disinfection  and  cleanliness.  Tuberculosis  is 
more  difficult  to  detect,  and  is  .slow  in  developing.  It  is  frequently 
present  when  hogs  are  fed  on  dairy  products,  or  run  after  cattle. — 
(F.  B.  205.)  Dipping  and  quarantine  should  be  applied  to  every 
hog  or  pig  that  is  brought  to  the  farm,  as  it  will  often  prevent  serious 


612  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

losses  from  lice  and  disease  that  would  otherwise  be  carried  by  the 
new  purchase  to  the  swine  already  on  the  farm. — (Colo.  B.  146.) 

MARKET  PORK. 

Bacon  or  Lard  Hogs. — All  of  the  breeds  are  included  in  two 
types,  the  lard  type  and  the  bacon  type.  Those  breeds  that  are  low, 
deep,  broad  and  heavy  fleshed,  such  as  the  Poland  China,  are  known 
as  lard  hogs.  They  are  chiefly  of  American  origin,  having  been  de- 
veloped by  generations  of  feeding  on  a  fat  producing  ration,  prin- 
cipally corn. 

The  bacon  type,  on  the  contrary  is  of  long,  narrow,  deep, 
smooth  and  thin  fleshed  conformation,  illustrated  by  the  Tamworth. 
These  breeds  are  of  foreign  origin  and  have  been  developed  largely 
on  nitrogenous  rations  of  grains  and  skim  milk. 

A  majority  of  experiments  show  that  all  breeds  of  the  same  type 
do  equally  well  under  similar  conditions.  The  bacon  hog  compared 
with  the  lard  hog,  dresses  but  70  to  75  per  cent  net  to  gross  weight, 
whereas  the  lard  hog  dresses  from  84  to  87  per  cent. 

Owing  to  the  difference  in  dressed  weight  compared  to  live 
weight,  and  the  fact  that  packers  can  buy  a  supply  of  immature  lard 
hogs  in  place  of  true  bacon  hogs,  the  breeding  of  the  bacon  type 
should  not  be  undertaken  in  competition  with  the  lard  hog,  unless 
there  is  sufficient  demand  to  insure  a  profitable  price. — (Wis.  B.  184.) 

The  hog  adapted  for  the  production  of  high  grade  bacon  gives 
promise  of  being  produced  extensively  in  the  Northwest  before  many 
years  pass.  A  great  many  farmers  are  using  the  blood  of  the  bacon 
breeds  of  swine  in  their  herds  at  the  present  time.  The  Large  Im- 
proved Yorkshire  breed  is  being  raised  by  many. 

The  farmers  of  the  Province  of  Ontario,  Canada,  raise  the  bacon 
type  of  swine  for  market  by  the  use  of  the  hacon  breeds  almost  uni- 
versally to  the  exclusion  of  the  lard  type.  They  feed  practically  the 
same  feeds  that  the  farmers  of  this  state  can  grow  successfully.  The 
farmers  of  Ontario,  however,  feed  considerable  dairy  by-products, 
because  they  are  extensively  engaged  in  dairying.  As  a  result  of  the 
farmers  of  Ontario  growing  the  bacon  type  of  hog  so  generally,  they 
have  succeeded  in  capturing  the  English  trade  for  fancy  bacon,  and 
they  are  in  direct  competition  with  Denmark  and  Holland — the  coun- 
tries that  have  the  reputation  for  producing  the  best  grade  of  bacon 
put  on  the  market.  High  class  bacon  sells  for  better  prices  than  the 
poorer  grades  of  pork,  and  this  has  enabled  the  Canadian  packers  to 
pay  more  for  hogs  than  they  do  on  our  markets  in  this  country.  A 
comparison  of  market  prices  of  hogs  at  Toronto,  Canada,  and  Chi- 
cago, shows  that  the  prices  paid  at  Toronto  ranged  on  the  average  52 
cents  to  $1.23  per  cwt.  higher  than  those  paid  at  Chicago. 

There  is  not  a  great  deal  of  difference  in  the  merit  of  the  Poland 
China,  Berkshire,  Chester  White  and  Duroc  Jersey  breeds,  for  they 
are  quite  uniform  in  type.  The  success  that  the  farmer  has  with 
any  breed  will  depend  more  upon  the  skill  he  exercises  in  handling 
them  than  upon  the  difference  that  exists  in  the  characteristics  of  the 
breeds.  All  the  best  individuals  of  the  lard  breeds  are  compact  and 
thick  fleshed,  and  mature  at  an  early  age.    If  one  desires  to  produce 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  513 

bacon  hogs,  the  f olio  win  gbreeds  are  best  adapted  for  that  purpose: 
the  Large  Yorkshire,  the  Tarn  worth  and  Hampshire.  The  objection 
to  producing  the  bacon  hog  is  that  the  cost  of  growing  them  is  greater 
than  to  grow  the  lard  breeds.  Experiments  made  at  several  experi- 
ment stations  in  the  United  States  and  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College,  do  not  support  this  objection,  since  the  bacon  breeds  in  some 
of  these  trials  made  cheaper  gains  than  the  lard  breeds.  The  bacon 
breeds  also  have  in  their  favor  greater  prolificacy. — (N.  D.  B.  83.) 

Pork  Classified. — Hog  products  may  be  described  under  three 
heads:  (1)  Dressed  Hogs,  (2)  Pork  Cuts  and  (3)  Lard.  As  a  rule, 
not  more  than  one  or  two  per  cent  of  the  number  of  hogs  slaughterea 
in  large  packing  houses  are  sold  as  whole  carcasses.  Approximately 
three-fourths  of  the  trade  in  hog  products  consists  of  various  cured 
meats  and  fresh  cuts,  the  remainder  consisting  principally  of  lard 
and  a  small  percentage  of  sausage  and  canned  meats.  Further,  fresh 
pork  is  of  much  less  importance,  relatively,  than  fresh  beef  or 
mutton,  only  about  one-fifth  of  the  domestic  trade  and  five  per  cent  of 
the  export  trade  in  pork  products  (other  than  lard)  consisting  of 
fresh  meat.  Thus  the  classification  of  pork  consists  largely  of  cured 
and  manufactured  products,  the  number  and  variety  of  which  ren- 
ders the  outline  of  this  subject  quite  complex. 

Dressed  Hogs. — The  classification  of  the  hog  carcasses  is  based 
on  the  uses  to  which  they  are  adapted,  or  the  products  into  which 
they  can  be  converted.  The  classes  generally  recognized  and  average 
weights  included  in  each  are  as  follows : 

CLASSES.  CARCASS  WEIGHTS. 

Smooth  Heavy  or  Heavy  Loin  Hogs 240  to  400  lb. 

Butcher  or  Light  Loin  Hogs  160  to  240  lb. 

Packing  Hogs 100  to  400  lb. 

Bacon  or  Marked  Ho^ 90  to  170  lb. 

Shippers   100  to  200  lb. 

Pigs    20  to  100  lb. 

Different  styles  of  dressing  are  characteristic  of  the  different 
classes  of  carcasses  except  heavy  and  light  loin  hogs,  and  shippers 
and  pi^.  Dressed  hogs  of  all  classes  are  cut  open  along  the  under- 
line and  through  the  aitch-bone  and  brisket,  but  the  method  of 
splitting  and  trimming  varies  with  the  class. 

Grading  Dressed  Hogs. — The  grades  of  hog  carcasses  are  much 
less  numerous  and  complex  than  those  of  carcass  beef  or  mutton, 
owing  to  the  greater  variation  in  the  latter  with  respect  to  a^  and 
general  development.  Standard  grades  are  recognized  only  m  the 
bacon  and  packing  hog  classes.  In  a  broad  sense,  however,  the  six 
general  classes  may  be  regarded  also  as  grades,  since  they  are  differ- 
entiated largely  by  shape,  finish,  quality  and  weight  as  well  as  by 
styles  of  dressing. 

The  shape  desired  in  loin  and  packing  hogs  is  great  width  of 
side  and  back  in  proportion  to  length  of  body,  straight,  even  linea 
and  well-filled  hams  and  shoulders.  In  bacon  hogs,  length  of  side 
is  more  important,  with  less  width  and  thickness  of  back  in  propor- 
tion to  that  of  the  side  than  in  the  grades  of  fat  hogs.    Finish  is  indi- 


514  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

cated  by  the  depth  and  evenness  of  fat  covering  the  carcass,  espe- 
cially along  thie  back  and  over  the  sides;  also  by  the  amount  and 
quality  of  leaf  fat.  (The  leaf  is  the  eternal  fat  of  the  carcass.  It 
includes  the  kidney  fat  and  extends  down  to  the  flanks  and  skirt 
(diaphragm.)  It  is  essential  that  the  fat  be  white  and  firm.  The 
depth  of  covering  and  proportion  of  leaf  fat  desired  are  described  and 
illustrated  in  connection  with  the  various  classes. 

Quality  implies  firm,  bright,  smooth-grained  flesh  and  solid, 
•white  fat  evenly  distributed  over  the  carcass;  smooth,  thin,  mel- 
low skin  free  from  wrinkles,  blotches  or  bruises ;  moderately  small, 
fine  shanks  and  head;  soft,  red  chine-bones,  back-bone  and  brisket; 
and  an  absence  of  coarseness  in  general.  Points  of  special  import- 
ance in  selecting  dressed  hogs  are  the  development  and  quality  of 
loins  and  sides,  and  the  size,  shape,  firmness  and  covering  of  the 
hams.  Coarse  or  extremely  large  shoulders,  neck  and  jowls,  are 
indications  of  stagginess,  and  seedy  sows  are  classified  as  packing  hogs 
because  of  their  coarse  quality.  The  importance  of  weight  in  grad- 
ing dressed  hogs  varies  according  to  the  class.  In  general,  weight  is 
a  very  important  factor,  and  in  the  case  of  loin  hogs  it  determines 
not  only  the  grade  but  also  the  class  to  which  a  carcass  belongs. 

Pork  Cuts. — The  various  cuts  made  from  dressed  hogs  may  be 
divided  into  the  following  general  classes:  Hams,  sides,  bellies, 
backs,  loins,  shoulders,  butts  and  plates  and  miscellaneous. 

These  products  are  quoted  and  handled  according  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  are  prepared  or  packed  viz.,  Fresh  pork  cuts,  dry- 
salt  and  bacon  meats,  barreled  or  plain-pickled  pork,  sweet-pickled 
meats,  smoked  meats,  English  meats  and  boiled  meats.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  define  these  terms  before  attempting  to  describe  the 
grades  and  uses  of  the  different  classes  of  cuts. 

Fresh  pork  cuts  are  sold  either  chilled  or  frozen.  The  bulk  of 
the  uncured  product  is  disposed  of  within  a  few  days  after  slaughter, 
during  which  time  it  is  chilled  at  temperature  slightly  above  the 
freezing  point.  Freezing  is  employed  for  the  storage  of  pork  loins 
and  other  fresh  cuts  and  edible  offal  when  supply  exceeds  demand, 
and  in  some  cases  for  keeping  bellies,  hams,  shoulders  and  other 
cuts  intended  for  future  curing.  Frozen  pork,  however,  is  not  quoted 
nor  handled  to  the  same  relative  extent  as  frozen  beef  and  mutton. 
Cut  meats  may  also  be  kept  without  curing  by  packing  in  brine  and 
storing  at  about  15°F.,  until  it  is  desired  to  cure  them  in  the  regular 
manner.  Cuts  packed  in  a  light  brine  and  kept  slightly  above  the 
freezing  point  for  a  short  time  are  sometimes  sold  as  "partly  cured" 
meats. 

Fresh  pork  cuts  are  taken  more  or  less  from  all  classes  of  hogs. 
Since  the  pork  loin  is  by  far  the  leading  fresh  cut,  light  loin  hogs 
are  more  extensively  used  for  fresh  pork  than  any  other  class.  The 
varying  demand  for  loins  determines  to  a  considerable  extent  the 
method  of  cutting  other  classes  of  hogs  from  time  to  time.  Tender- 
loins and  spareribs  are  also  primarily  fresh  cuts.  Skinned  shoulders, 
shoulder  butts,  hams,  bellies,  fat  backs,  and  raw  leaf  fat  are  sold  fresh 
to  a  small  extent.    Some  packers  purchase  their  raw  material  in  the 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  515 

form  of  fresh  cuts,  such  as  bellies,  hams,  picnics,  leaf  and  back  fat, 
and  convert  the  minto  smoked  meats,  lard  and  other  products  bear- 
ing the  trade-mark  of  the  packer. 

Dry-salt  meats  are  domestic  cuts  made  from  heavy  fat  pack- 
ing and  loin  hogs,  cured  and  shipped  in  coarse  salt,  and  with  a  few 
exceptions,  pumped  before  salting.  These  are  distinct  from  English 
meats  both  as  to  selection  and  packing.  The  cuts  that  are  sold  in 
this  form  are  heavy  sides,  bellies,  shoulders,  fat  backs,  plates  and 
jowls.  The  same  cuts,  and  particularly  bellies  and  short  clear  sides, 
are  also  quoted  as  bacon  meats,  which,  after  being  cured  in  dry  salt 
are  smoked  before  shipping.  The  term  bacon,  wnen  used  as  a  pre- 
fix, refers  to  dry-salt  meats,  while  smoked  meats,  as  described  below 
are  cured  in  sweet  pickle.  Dry-salt  and  bacon  meats  are  generally 
shipped  loose,  but  are  sometimes  put  up  in  boxes  containing  25  to 
600  pounds. 

Barreled  or  plain-pickled  pork  is  packed  in  plain  salt  brine  in 
tight  barrels  (18x29  inches)  at  200  pounds  net  weight  of  cured  pork 
per  barrel  (355  pounds  gross) .  The  strength  of  brine  is  varied  some- 
what according  to  the  cuts  of  pork  and  their  destination.  Barreled 
pork  is  made  largely  from  sides  of  packing  and  heavy  loin  hogs,  and 
consists  principally  of  mess,  fat  back  and  belly  pork  of  various 
grades.  A  much  smaller  proportion  of  the  pork  supply  is  barreled 
than  formerly.  Sweet-pickled  (S.  P.)  meats  are  cured  in  sweet 
brine.  Standard  cuts  of  this  class  are  packed  as  follows  for  delivery 
on  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade:  300  lbs.  block  weight  shall  be 
packed  in  each  tierce  with  either  22  lbs.  of  salt,  3  quarts  of  good 
syrup,  12  ounces  of  saltpetre  and  tierce  filled  with  water,  or  tierce 
filled  with  sweet  pickle  according  to  above  standard.  After  curing, 
sweet-pickled  meats  are  commonly  packed  in  slack  barrels  or  boxes, 
or  sold  loose,  but  are  also  sold  in  tierces  (21x32  inches),  either  pickle 
on  or  drained.  The  bulk  of  sweet-pickled  and  other  sugar-cured 
meats  are  smoked  before  they  reach  the  consumer,  as  explained  in 
the  following  paragraph.  A  percentage  of  heavy  sweet-pickled  hams, 
picnics  and  loins  are  also  boned  out  and  sold  as  boiled  meats  which 
are  described  below.  The  cuts  that  are  quoted  as  sweet-pickled  meats 
are  hams,  picnics.  New  York  cut  and  skinned  shoulders,  boneless 
butts,  light  bellies,  and  spareribs.  This  class  of  meats  is  cut  princi- 
pally from  butcher  hogs  and  from  medium  and  light  packing  hogs; 
hams  and  picnics  from  all  classes  of  hogs  are  generally  sweet-pickled. 

Smoked  meats  are  sweet-pickled  as  described  above  and  smoked 
after  curing.  They  also  include  light  breakfast-bacon  bellies  that  have 
been  dry-cured  in  salt  and  sugar.  In  packing  smoked  meats,  fancy 
hams  and  breakfast-bacon  bellies  are  wrapped  in  parchment  paper 
or  canvas  and  packed  in  50  and  100  pound  boxes  and  crates.  Other 
grades  are  sold  either  unwrapped,  canvassed,  or  wrapped  in  burlap, 
and  either  loose,  boxed  or  crated  (100  to  500-pound  packages)  or 
packed  in  slack  barrels  or  burlap  sacks. 

Engli.sh  meats  is  a  term  applied  to  certain  cuts  that  are  dry- 
cured  in  English  salt  and  saltpetre  and  primarily  adapted  to  English 
trade,  being  given  a  milder  cure  than  domestic  meats.     They  are 


616  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

made  principally  from  bacon  hogs.  The  leading  cuts  of  this  class 
are  English  bacon  sides,  long;-cut  hams,  clear  backs  and  bellies,  and 
square  shoulders.  After  curing,  these  cuts  are  packed  in  borax  or 
sadt  in  500  to  550-pound  boxes  for  export.  Borax  is  principally  used, 
but  a  small  proportion  of  English  cuts  such  as  long  clears  are  shipped 
in  salt,  which  continues  the  curing  process  during  shipment.  Eng- 
lish meats  are  generally  dried  or  smoked  lightly  after  their  arrival 
at  British  ports  before  being  sold.  Meats  cured  by  this  process  are 
used  to  some  extent  in  this  country,  being  quoted  as  English-cured 
sweet-pickled  meats  are  also  shipped  in  borax  to  England  in  con- 
siderable quantities. 

Boiled  meats  consist  of  hams,  picnic  shoulders  and  loins  cured 
in  sweet  pickle,  cooked  in  water  and  lightly  smoked.  The  cuts 
are  usually  boned  and  the  fat  trimmed  off  within  one-half  to  one 
inch  of  the  lean  before  cooking.  Boiled  hams  and  shoulders  are 
generally  quoted  as  rolled  boneless  cuts,  which  are  pressed  in  a  cylin- 
drical form,  or  rolled  and  tied  with  cord.  Three  loins  are  tied  to- 
gether for  boiling,  making  a  loin  roll.  Boiled  meats  are  made  prin- 
cipally from  the  heavier  cuts  but  various  averages  are  used,  including 
12  to  30  pound  hams,  10  to  14-pound  picnics  and  14  to  24-pound 
loins.  The  boning  and  fatting  reduces  the  weight  of  hams  about 
25  per  cent  and  of  loins,  about  60  per  cent. 

Grading  Pork  Cuts. — The  grading  of  pork  cuts  is  more  complex 
than  that  of  other  meats  since  it  involves  not  only  their  quality, 
shape,  proportions  of  fat  and  lean,  and  weight,  but  also  the  styles 
of  cutting  and  methods  of  packing  by  which  they  are  prepared  for 
different  classes  of  trade.  Many  of  the  grade  names  refer  merely  to 
different  methods  of  cutting  and  curing ;  but  since  they  are  applied 
only  to  cuts  of  specified  quality,  thickness  or  weight,  the  grades  are 
in  reality  based  on  the  latter  factors  to  a  large  extent.  The  various 
cuts  differ  considerably  as  to  methods  of  grading. 

Lard. — From  one-tenth  to  one-third  of  the  hog  carcass  is  made 
into  lard  in  large  packing-houses,  the  proportion  varying  with  the 
relative  price  of  lard  and  grade  of  hogs.  The  standard  grades  are 
kettle-rendered  leaf,  kettle-rendered,  neutral,  prime  steam,  refined 
and  compound  lard.  They  differ  as  to  the  kinds  of  fat  they  contain, 
methods  of  rendering,  color,  flavor  and  grain. —  (111.  B.  147.) 

There  is  a  growing  demand  for  clean,  wholesome  pork  which 
should  be  catered  to  by  intelligent  farmers.  Thousands  of  people 
are  willing  to  pay  increased  prices  for  pork  made  from  healthy,  well- 
fed  animals,  kept  in  a  cleanly  manner.  There  is  no  reason  why  farm- 
ers cannot  co-operate  and  establish  small  packing  houses  which  shall 
send  out  smoked  ham,  breakfast  bacon,  sausage  and  lard,  which  will 
be  eagerly  bought  up  at  good  prices  by  a  discriminating  public.  A 
market  for  choice  pork  must  be  created  and  enlarged  and  the  public 
properly  informed  of  the  situation  before  this  matter  will  take  proper 
shape.  The  plan  is  feasible,  and  certain  sooner  or  later  to  be  brought 
about.  Hogs  fed  to  produce  a  large  percentage  of  lean  meat  must, 
to  be  profitable,  sell  for  at  least  20  per  cent  more  than  current  prices; 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE  517 

a  discriminating  market  will  soon  pay  this  difference.  Every  animal 
requires  a  certain  amount  of  food. — (Wis.  10th  A.  R.) 

Curing  Pork  on  the  Farm. — The  State  Commissioner  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Immigration  (Louisiana),  has,  for  years,  employed  the 
following  methods  of  curing  pork  on  his  farm  with  such  success  that 
we  take  the  liberi;y  of  reproducing  them  here : 

When  hogs  are  fat,  select  any  time  during  the  month  of  De- 
cember, January  or  first  half  of  February,  when  -weather  is  clear, 
wind  from  the  north  to  northwest,  with  the  thermometer  registering 
below  35  at  sunrise.  Have  your  water  hot  and  scald  as  soon  as  hog 
is  dead.  Hang  up  and  disembowel  the  animal  just  as  soon  as  it  is 
cleaned.  No  butchering  animal  should  ever  be  permitted  to  cool  off 
until  after  it  is  disemboweled.  Cut  up  the  carcass  as  soon  as  it  is 
through  dripping.  Saiw  or  split  the  backbone.  Let  it  and  the  spare 
rib  remain  on  the  side,  and  make  them  as  long  as  you  can.  Hams 
and  shoulders  smalL  Hams  to  sell  readily  should  weigh  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  pounds.  Jowl  will  mix  very  nicely  with  trimmings  and 
shoulder  in  making  sausage,  either  for  bouse  use  or  the  market.  Feet, 
when  cleaned  property,  and  put,  raw,  in  strong  brine,  will  keep  all 
right  for  several  months.  Spread  the  joints  and  sides  in  your  smoke 
house,  applying  a  small  quantity  of  salt  to  each  piece.  Let  it  lay  until 
next  morning  to  cool,  then  pack  away,  using  plenty  of  clean  salt. 

To  Sugar  Cure  Hams. — ^To  half  bushel  fine  salt  add  half  pound 
pulverized  saltpeter,  one  pound  finely  ground  black  pepper,  four 
pounds  brown  sugar,  mix  thoroughly.  Rub  hams  with  mixture. 
Pack  in  box,  skin  side  down.  Apply  double  handful  of  mixture  to 
fl&'^h  part  of  each  ham.  Then  apply  plenty  of  clean  salt,  never  per- 
mitting the  meat  to  touch,  without  salt  being  between.  Covering  all 
parts  and  filling  every  crevice,  and  let  them  remain  in  the  salt  six 
weeks. 

How  to  Smoke  Ham,. — After  being  in  salt  six  weeks,  select  a 
clear  day,  string  each  ham,  and  dip  in  a  boUing  solution  of  one  pound 
borax  dissolved  in  fifteen  gallons  of  water  and  hang  up  high  in  a 
dark  smoke  house  (the  higher  the  better)  and  smoke,  using  green 
hickory  wood.  Smoke  daily  for  two  weeks  or  more,  as  preferred. 
By  April  1  at  latest,  hams  should  again  be  dipped  in  boiling  water, 
to  cleanse  them  from  all  impurities,  wrapped  in  paper,  then  cloth, 
and  this  painted  with  some  cheap  mineral  paint.  Hang  up  again  and 
leave  until  used  or  sold. 

To  Make  Good  Sausage. — Grind  your  meat  as  fine  as  possible; 
don't  have  it  too  lean.  Season  with  salt,  ground  black  pepper,  a 
good  supply  of  pulverized  soda  crackers,  not  too  much  sage,  and  some 
red  pepper  tea.  Well  mix  and  stuff  in  sausage  cases.  Cases  can  be 
secured  from  packing  houses. — (La.  B.  124.) 


PART  V 

POULTRY  KEEPING. 

BREEDS. 

THERE  is  probably  no  other  domestic  animal  which  has  a 
more  general  distribution  than  the  hen,  and  the  part  which 
she  plays  in  the  agricultural  wealth  of  this  country  is  almost 
incredible.  According  to  the  most  recent  statistics  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  products  of  the  American  hen  aggre- 
gate a  total  value  of  more  than  $620,000,000  annually.  This  sum  is 
stated  to  be  equal  to  the  value  of  the  hay  crop  for  1908  and  greater 
than  the  combined  value  of  oats  and  potatoes  for  the  same  year.  It 
is  nearly  nine  times  the  value  of  the  tobacco  crop  and  equal  to  that 
of  wheat. 

Poultry  and  eggs  are  produced  in  all  sections  of  the  country,  but 
the  business  finds  its  greatest  scope  in  areas  presenting  the  most  favor- 
able conditions.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  the  bulk  of  these  impor- 
tant products  is  produced  on  the  farms  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
In  this  section  there  are  practically  no  large  intensive  poultry  farms 
such  as  are  commonly  found  in  the  Eastern  States  and  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  Poultry  keeping,  therefore,  is  largely  incidental,  the  hens  being 
considered  and  treated  largely  as  an  agency  for  converting  material 
which  would  otherwise  go  to  waste  into  a  salable  product.  Conse- 
quently the  poultry  and  eggs  produced  constitute  merely  a  by-product 
of  the  general  farm.  Because  prices  for  poultry  products  are  com- 
paratively low  the  farmers  make  no  effort  to  keep  larger  flocks  than 
can  be  supported  by  this  waste  w'ithout  much  attention  or  extra  feed, 
and  because  individual  flocks  are  small  little  attention  or  thought  has 
been  given  to  improving  the  product  or  the  method  of  disposing  of 
it.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind,  however,  that  while  individual  sales 
of  poultry  products  are  small,  the  aggregate  for  the  year  is  large, 
reaching  for  each  State  in  the  Middle  West  a  total  of  many  millions 
of  dollars. — (Dep.  Agr.  Bureau  Animal  Ind.  B.  141.) 

Making  a  Start  With  Poultry. — The  safest  way  for  those  who 
are  about  to  make  their  first  attempt  at  poultry  raising  is  to  start  in 
a  small  way  with  a  few  fowls,  and  learn  the  business  thoroughly  be- 
fore making  large  investments.  Mistakes  will  be  made  and  many  dif- 
ficult problems  will  be  presented  for  solution  before  success  in  any 
large  measure  will  be  attained.  As  soon  as  it  is  found  to  be  a  paying 
investment,  more  capital  may  be  put  into  the  plant. 

Another  good  plan  for  the  beginner  who  wishes  to  learn  the  art 
of  poultry  keeping  is  to  secure  a  position  with  some  successful  poultry- 
man.    One  or  two  years  of  work  on  a  large,  practical  plant  will  be 

518 


POULTRY  KEEPING  521 

found  a  great  help,  as  the  methods  of  caring  for  the  birds  and  of 
marketing  the  products  can  thus  be  learned  better  than  in  almost 
any  other  way. 

The  question  is  often  asked  as  to  what  is  the  best  time  of  the 
year  for  one  to  begin.  When  to  begin  is  not  very  important,  but  the 
fall  of  the  year  is  a  good  time,  for  then  stock  can  be  purchased  for 
less  money  than  at  any  other  season.  It  is  also  advisable  that  the 
fowls  be  moved  to  their  new  quarters  before  they  begin  to  lay.  If 
the  beginner  has  had  experience  in  poultry  keeping,  it  will  be  all 
right  to  purchase  eggs,  otherwise  he  should  begin  with  the  fowls  and 
thus  gain  some  knowledge  of  caring  for  poultry  before  attempting  to 
raise  chickens. — (F.  B.  287.) 

The  American  Poultry  Association  has  recognized  certain 
breeds  of  fowls  as  "standard  bred"  and  for  these  breeds  it  has 
adopted  a  description  and  scale  of  points  to  be  used  in  judging.  It 
has  also  noted  the  most  common  serious  defects  in  these  standard 
breeds  for  exhibition  purposes.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
scale  of  points  for  the  various  recognized  breeds  as  determined  upon 
and  published  by  the  American  Poultry  Association  in  a  little  vol- 
ume known  as  The  Standard  of  Perfection,  has  to  do  almost  wholly 
with  exhibition  birds  and  does  not  especially  pertain  to  the  produc- 
tion of  either  meat  or  eggs.  The  standard,  however,  serves  a  most 
useful  purpose  in  maintaining  the  purity  of  breeding  and  in  secur- 
ing uniformity  among  breeders. 

Classification. — There  are  over  100  standard  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  non-standard  varieties  of  chickens  raised  in  this  country.  The 
standard  varieties  are  divided  as  follows: 

1.  American  class:  Barred,  White  and  Buff  Plymouth  Rocks; 
Silver,  Golden,  White,  Buff,  Black,  Partridge,  Silver-penciled,  and 
Columbian  Wyandottes ;  Black  and  Mottled  Javas ;  Rose-comb  I>om- 
iniques;  Single-comb  and  Rose-comb  Rhode  Island  Reds,  and  Pea- 
comb  Buckeyes. 

2.  Asiatic  class:  Light  and  Dark  Brahmas;  Buff,  Partridge, 
White,  and  Black  Cochins ;  Black  and  WTiite  Langshans. 

3.  Mediterranean  class:  Single-comb  Brown,  Rose-comb  Brown, 
Single-comb  White,  Rose-comb  White,  Single-comb  Buff,  Rose-comb 
Buff,  Single-comb  Black,  and  Silver  Duckwing  Leghorns;  Single- 
comb  Black,  Rose-comb  Black,  and  Single-comb  White  Minorcas; 
White-faced  Black  Spanish;  Blue  Andalusians,  and  Mottled  An- 
conas. 

4.  English  class:  White,  Silver  Gray,  and  Colored  Dorkings; 
Rose-comb  Redcaps;  Single-comb  Buff,  Single-comb  Black,  and 
Single-comb  White  Orpingtons. 

5.  Polish  class:  White-crested  Black,  Bearded  Golden,  Bearded 
Silver,  Bearded  White,  Buff-laced,  Nonbearded  Golden,  Nonbearded 
Silver,  and  Nonbearded  White  Polii^h. 

6.  Dutch  class:  Golden-spangled,  Silver-spangled,  Golden- 
penciled,  Silver-penciled,  White,  and  Black  Hamburgs. 

7.  French  class:  Mottled  Houdans,  Black  Crevecoeurs,  and 
Black  La  Fleche. 


522  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

8.  Game  .and  Game  Bantam  class :  Black-breasted  Red,  Brown 
Red,  Golden  Duckwing,  Silver  Duckwing,  Red  Pyle,  White,  Black, 
and  Birchen  Games ;  the  same  varieties  for  Game  Bantams. 

9.  Oriental  Game  and  Bantam  class:  Oornish  and  White  In- 
dians, Black  Sumatras,  Black-breasted  Red  Malays,  and  Black- 
breasted  Red  Malay  Bantams. 

10.  Ornamental  Bantam  class:  Golden  and  Silver  Sebrights; 
Rose-comb  White  and  Rose-comb  Black;  Booted  White;  Light  and 
Dark  Brahmas;  Buff,  Partridge,  White,  and  Black  Cochins;  Black- 
tailed,  White,  and  Black  Japanese;  Bearded  White,  Buff-laced,  and 
Nonbearded  Polish. 

11.  Miscellaneous  class:  White  Silkies,  White  Sultans,  and 
Frizzles. 

For  'practical  purposes  the  above  eleven  classes  may  be  grouped 
into  four  general  classes,  as  follows:  1.  The  general  purpose  breeds: 
The  American  class,  the  Orpingtons,  and  the  Houdans.  2.  The 
Tneat  or  table  breeds:  The  Asiatic  class,  the  Dorkings,  and  the  In- 
dian Games.  3.  The  egg  breeds:  The  Mediterranean  class,  the 
Dutch  class,  and  the  "Redcaps.  4.  The  ornamental  breeds:  The 
Polish,  the  Crevecoeurs  and  La  Fleche,  the  Game  and  Game  Ban- 
tam class,  the  Oriental  Game  and  Bantam  class  (except  the  In- 
dians), the  Ornamental  Bantam  class,  and  the  miscellaneous  class. 

GENERAL  PURPOSE  BREEDS. 

Plymouth  Rocks. — This  is  the  most  popular  of  all  breeds  of 
poultry  as  a  general-purpose  fowl.  The  Barred  variety  is  the  best 
known,  and  its  history  dates  back  over  a  quarter  of  a  century.  Va- 
rious breeds  were  used  in  its  making,  the  belief  being  general  that  it 
originally  came  from  a  cross  between  the  American  Dominique  and 
the  Black  Java.  It  has  also  been  shown  that  the  Light  Brahma, 
Dark  Brahma,  and  Pit  Game  have  been  used  in  its  making. 

The  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  is  of  a  grayish-white  color,  each 
feather  regularly  crossed  by  narrow,  parallel  bars  of  dark  blue^black 
running  in  distinct  lines  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  feather 
and  showing  on  the  down,  or  undercolor,  of  the  feathei*s.  The  barr- 
ing is  somewhat  smaller  on  the  hackle  and  saddle  feathers  than  on 
other  portions  of  the  body.  A  medium-sized  bird  with  a  broad,  full 
breast,  a  rather  long  and  broad  body,  medium-sized  wings  that  fold 
gracefully,  the  wing  fronts  being  well  covered  by  the  breast  feathers 
and  the  wing  points  by  the  saddle  feathers;  a  moderately  large 
head;  ornamented  with  an  upright  bright-red  comb  and  wattles;  a 
large  bright-red  or  bay  eye,  and  yellow  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  places 
the  picture  before  us. 

For  the  farmer  or  market  poultry  man  these  fowls  are  favorites, 
being  of  medium  size,  well  proportioned,  with  a  deep  full  breast, 
making  a  most  admirable  bird  for  market  purposes.  They  are 
hardy,  mature  early,  and  make  excellent  broilers  when  from  8  to  12 
weeks  old.  They  are  good  layers  the  year  round,  and  in  winter  lay 
exceptionally  well.  Their  eggs  are  brown  in  color  and  average  8  to 
a  pound.    They  are  good  sitters  and  excellent  mothers. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  523 

The  characteristics  of  this  breed  are  noticeable  in  the  other  va- 
rieties of  Plymouth  Rocks,  excepting  that  of  color.  The  sizes,  shape, 
general  outlines,  and  qualities  are  the  same  in  the  other  varieties  as 
in  the  Barred.  The  White  Plymouth  Rock  is  pure  white  in  plumage 
throughout,  and  the  Buff  variety  is  a  clear  golden  buff,  uniform  in 
shade.  The  buff  should  extend  to  the  undercolor  as  much  as  pos- 
sible— the  deeper  the  better.  The  standard  weight  of  cocks  is  9^^ 
pounds;  hens  7^  pounds;  cockerels,  8  pounds;  pullets,  6^/2  pounds. 

Wyandottes. — This  is  another  of  the  general-purpose  fowls 
and  is  rated  next  to  the  Plymouth  Rock.  From  the  first  it  sprang 
into  popular  favor  and  has  continued  so  to  the  present  time.  It  came 
originally  from  the  Dark  Brahma,  Silver-spangled  Hamburg,  and 
the  Breda  (a  French  fowl).  Not  a  few  authorities  say  that  Wyan- 
dottes have  Cochin  blood  in  them,  from  the  fact  that  their  ancestors 
produced  single  combs  and  feathered  shanks. 

For  general  purposes  the  Wyandottes  have  proved  a  success,  be- 
ing of  medium  size,  weighing  on  an  average  a  pound  less  than  the 
Plymouth  Rocks,  being  hardy  of  constitution,  and  prolific  layers. 
They  are  easily  cared  for  and  bear  confinement  well.  For  table 
purposes  they  are  of  superior  worth ;  their  flesh  is  sweet,  juicy,  and 
tender,  and  they  make  excellent  broilers  and  roasters.  As  layers 
they  are  among  the  best,  averaging  about  fourteen  dozen  eggs  a 
year,  and  as  winter  layers  they  do  well  under  ordinary  circumstances. 

There  are  eight  varieties  of  the  Wyandotte  breed,  and  it  is  only  a 
matter  of  opinion  as  to  which  is  the  best.  The  general  cliaracteristics 
are  the  same  in  all,  the  difference  in  color  of  plumage  being  the  only 
distinguishing  mark. 

The  Silver  Wyandotte  is  of  a  silvery-white  plumage,  with  re^- 
larly  marked  black  lacing  on  the  breast  and  a  generous  distribution 
of  white  and  black  throughout  the  entire  body.  The  cock  has  a 
silver-white  head,  rose  comb,  silver  hackle,  with  a  black  stripe  down 
the  center  of  each  feather ;  silvery-white  back ;  saddle  same  as  hackle ; 
breast  feathers  black,  with  large  white  centers ;  tail  black ;  wings  half 
black  and  half  white,  or,  rather,  black  edged  with  white;  when  the 
wing  is  folded  there  should  be  a  well-defined  bar  across  it;  shanks 
and  toes  rich  yellow,  free  from  "feathering.  The  hen  of  the  silver 
variety  is  marked  similarly  to  the  male^  excepting  the  back  and 
wing,  which  are  whiter  in  the  male  than  m  the  female.  The  breast 
of  the  female  is  of  much  importance  in  breeding  good  birds;  the 
lacing  should  be  distinct,  and  the  white  centers  01  each  feather  free 
from  black  or  brown  penciling.  The  standard  weight  of  cocks  is 
8%  pounds;  hens,  6^^  pounds;  cockerels,  7^  pounds;  pullets,  5^^ 
pounds. 

Javas. — This  breed  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  American  class, 
and  at  one  time  was  considered  the  most  profitable  of  all  breeds.  At 
present  Javas  are  not  raised  extensively ;  the  more  modern  or  newer 
breeds  have  seemingly  supplanted  them  in  popularity.  There  is  no 
reason  why  this  should  be  so,  as  they  are  useful  and  good  general- 
purpose  fowls.  In  size  they  are  about  like  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  but 
differ  in  general  symmetry  and  appearance.    They  are  good  layers 


524  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

and  do  well  in  winter,  and  for  table  purposes  they  are  quite  satis- 
factory. They  mature  early,  are  good  sitters  and  mothers,  and  are 
easily  kept  in  confinement. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  Javas,  the  Black  and  the  Mottled. 
The  Black  is  more  generally  seen  than  the  Mottled.  The  plumage  of 
the  Blacks  is  glossy  black  throughout ;  the  Mottled  is  of  broken  black 
and  white  throughout,  with  black  predominating.  The  Java  has  a 
small  single  comb,  standing  upright  on  the  head  in  both  male  and 
female.  The  shanks  and  toes  are  free  from  feathers,  black  in  color, 
with  the  bottom  of  the  feet  yellow  in  the  Black  Java,  while  the  color 
of  the  shanks  and  toes  of  the  Mottled  variety  should  be  broken  leaden 
blue  and  yellow.  The  standard  weight  of  cocks  is  9^/2  pounds;  hens, 
7^  pounds;  cockerels,  8  pounds;  pullets,  6%  pounds. 

Dominiques. — Similarity  in  plumage  of  the  American  Domin- 
ique and  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  has  been  the  cause  of  the  former's 
popularity.  The  color  is  grayish  white,  each  feather  regularly 
crossed  with  parallel  bars  of  dark  blue-black,  producing  the  effect  of 
a  bluish-tinged  plumage,  the  color  being  the  same  throughout.  They 
have  rose  combs,  in  both  male  and  female,  and  bright-yellow  legs. 
Those  who  are  partial  to  their  color  of  plumage  will  find  the  Dom- 
iniques good  birds  to  keep.  They  are  good  layers,  are  hardy,  mature 
early,  and  dress  well  for  the  table.  The  standard  weight  of  cocks  is 
8  pounds ;  hens,  6  pounds ;  cockerels,  7  pounds ;  pullets,  5  pounds. 

Rhode  Island  Reds. — This  is  one  of  the  new  standard  breeds 
which  has  gained  prominence  as  a  general-purpose  fowl.  They  are 
of  medium  size,  hardy,  mature  early,  lay  brown-shelled  eggs,  and  are 
good  sitters  and  mothers.  There  are  two  varieties  of  this  breed,  the 
Single-comb  and  the  Rose-comb,  the  only  difference  being  in  the 
shape  of  the  comb. 

The  color  of  the  plumage  of  the  male  should  be  a  rich,  brilliant 
red,  except  in  the  wings  and  tail,  portions  of  which  should  be  black. 
A  harmonious  blending  of  red  is  desirable,  but  in  most  specimens  the 
color  is  accentuated  on  the  wing  bows  and  back.  The  plumage  of 
the  female  should  be  somewhat  lighter  in  color  than  that  of  the  male. 
Portions  of  the  hackle,  wings,  and  tail  are  black  in  color.  The  beak 
of  both  male  and  female  should  be  reddish  horn,  the  shanks  yellow 
or  reddish  horn,  and  the  toes  reddish  horn  in  color.  The  standard 
weight  of  cocks  is  81/^  pounds;  hens,  G^/^  pounds;  cockerels,  TVz 
pounds;  pullets,  5  pounds. 

Buckeyes. — This  breed  was  originated  by  Mrs.  Metcalf,  of  Ohio, 
and  was  produced  by  crosses  of  Plymouth  Rocks,  Buff  Cochins, 
Black-breasted  Red  and  Indian  Games.  In  shape  the  Buckeyes  re- 
semble somewhat  the  Indian  Games,  but  have  a  more  fluffy  plumage. 
In  color  they  should  be  a  dark,  lustrous  red,  never  buff  or  brick  color. 
The  unexposed  flight  feathers  and  the  main  tail  feathers  may  be 
partially  hlack.  The  color  of  the  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  of  the  male 
is  yellow,  shaded  with  red  horn,  and  of  the  female  yellow.  Both  the 
male  and  the  female  should  have  a  small  pea  comb.  The  standard 
weight  of  cocks  is  9  pounds;  hens,  6  pounds;  cockerels,  8  pounds; 
pullets,  5  pounds. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  525 

Orpingtons. — These  fowls  constitute  our  most  recent  importa- 
tion of  a  breed  from  England.  They  were  originated  by  William 
Cook,  of  Orpington,  county  of  Kent,  England.  They  are  a  good 
general-purpose  fowl,  being  of  good  size  and  good  layers  of  brown- 
shelled  eggs.  There  are  ten  ^tinct  varieties  of  this  breed — ^the 
Single-comb  Buff,  Single-comb  Black,  Single-comb  White,  Single- 
comb  Spangled,  Single-comb  Diamond  Jubilee,  and  the  Rose-comb 
varieties  of  the  same  colors.  Of  these  ten  varieties  the  first  three  have 
gained  admission  to  the  American  Standard  of  Perfection. 

The  standard  Orpington  should  have  a  medium-size  single 
comb,  perfectly  straight  and  upright ;  the  neck  should  be  well  arched 
and  have  an  abundance  of  hackle  feathers ;  the  body  should  be  long 
and  broad,  wath  a  broad,  deep  breast  and  a  long,  broad  back;  the 
wings  should  be  of  medium  size  and  nicely  folded ;  the  tail  should  be 
of  medium  length,  fairly  well  spread,  and  carried  at  an  angle  of  45° 
from  the  horizontal  in  the  male  and  at  an  angle  of  40°  from  the 
horizontal  in  the  female;  the  thighs  and  shanks  should  be  rather 
short  and  stout,  and  the  toes  should  be  of  medium  length  and 
straight.  Shanks  and  toes  should  be  perfectly  free  from  any  feathers 
or  down.  The  skin  should  be  white  or  pinkish  white  in  color,  and 
the  face,  comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  bright  red. 

The  color  of  the  surface  plumage  of  the  Buff  variety  should  be  a 
rich  golden  buff  throughout,  the  head,  neck,  hackle,  back,  wing 
bows,  and  saddle  being  richly  glossed  with  a  metallic  luster.  The 
beak,  shanks,  and  toes  should  be  white  or  pinkish  white  in  color.  The 
color  of  the  surface  plumage  of  the  Black  variety  should  be  black  or 
greenish  black  throughout.  The  beak  should  be  dark  horn,  shading 
to  a  pinkish  tint  near  the  lower  edge.  The  shanks  and  toes  should 
be  bluish  black  in  color;  web  and  bottoms  of  feet,  pinkish  white. 
The  plumage  of  the  White  variety  should  be  pure  white  throughout; 
the  beak,  shanks,  and  toes,  white  or  pinkish  white  in  color.  The 
standard  weight  of  cocks  is  10  pounds;  hens,  8  pounds;  cockerels, 
8^/2  pounds;  pullets,  7  pounds. 

Houdans. — The  three  varieties  of  poultry  in  the  French  class 
are  the  Houdans,  Crevecoeurs,  and  La  Fleche.  Of  these  the  Houdans 
are  conceded  to  be  the  most  popular  and  profitable,  being  bred  to  a 
great  extent  throughout  the  entire  country.  They  are  hardy  and 
prolific  layers  of  large,  white  eggs.  For  table  purposes  they  are 
among  the  best  fowls.  They  have  small  bones  and  the  flesh  is  tender 
and  delicious.  The  chicks  are  sprightly  and  active  and  feather 
rapidly.  They  are  nonsitters  and  light  feeders.  Like  the  Leghorns, 
they  may  be  fed  at  a  small  cost  a^  compared  with  some  of  the  larger 
breeds.  They  are  of  medium  size  and  of  a  mottled  plumage,  black 
and  white  intermixed,  the  black  predominating.  Houdans  are  a 
crested  variety.  The  crest  of  the  cock  is  large,  well  fitted  upon  the 
crown  of  the  head,  falling  backward  upon  the  neck,  and  composed 
of  feathers  similar  in  shape  and  texture  to  those  of  the  hackle.  The 
crest  of  the  female  is  large,  compact,  and  regular,  inclining  backward 
in  an  unbroken  mass.  The  Houdan  has  a  small  V-shaped  comb, 
which  rests  against  the  front  of  the  crest,    A  peculiarity  of  the  breed 


526  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

is  their  having  five  toes,  like  the  Dorkings ;  shanks  and  toes  are  of  a 
pinkish-white  color,  mottled  or  shaded  with  lead  color  or  black.  The 
standard  weight  of  cocks  is  7  pounds ;  hens,  6  pounds ;  cockerels,  6 
pounds;  pullets,  5  pounds. 

THE  MEAT  BREEDS. 

Brahmas. — The  leading  variety  of  the  Asiatic  class  is  the  Light 
Brahma.  This  fowl  has  a  history  that  would  fill  many  pages  were  it 
recorded.  These  are  the  fowls  which  caused  the  *'hen  fever"  of  the 
fifties,  about  which  so  much  has  been  written  in  later  years.  Their 
early  history  is  a  matter  of  controversy,  the  best  authorities  differing 
as  to  their  origin. 

They  were  first  known  as  "Brahma  Pootras,"  "Gray  Shanghais," 
"Chittagongs,"  "Cochin  Chinas,"  and  what  not.  The  early  breeder 
named  them  according  to  his  fancy  for  high-sounding  and  sensa- 
tional names  in  order  to  sell  his  stock.  Fabulous  prices  were  paid  for 
them  when  the  craze  for  fine  poultry  was  at  its  height  in  the  early 
days  of  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  They  have  stood 
high  in  popular  favor  since  then  without  abatement.  The  vast  num- 
ber of  breeders  who  are  raising  them  fully  attest  their  worth  to  the 
industry  as  a  practical  bird.  The  Brahma  is  unlike  other  breeds, 
and  it  should  not  be  confounded  in  shape  with  the  Cochin.  In  shape 
the  body  of  the  Brahma  is  rather  long  and  deep,  with  full,  broad, 
and  round  breast,  carried  well  forward.  The  fulness  is  typical  of 
the  Brahma  and  is  characteristic  of  prolific  birds. 

In  plumage  the  Light  Brahma  male  is  white  and  black,  white 
largely  predominating.  Any  color  but  white  and  black  is  a  fault  in 
the  standard-bred  bird.  The  hackle  is  white  with  a  black  stripe  ex- 
tending down  the  center  of  each  feather  and  tapering  to  a  point  near 
the  extremity.  The  tail  feathers  are  black,  and  the  sickle  feathers 
are  glossy  greenish  black.  The  shanks  are  well  feathered,  with  the 
feathering  extending  down  the  middle  toe.  The  toe  feathering  may 
be  white,  or  white  sprinkled  with  black.  A  small  pea  comb,  a  broad 
crown  projecting  over  the  eyes,  bright-red  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes 
are  essential  to  a  good  head.    The  shanks  and  toes  are  bright  yellow. 

The  Brahma  female  is  much  like  the  male  in  head  qualities, 
having  a  broad  crown,  projecting  well  over  the  eyes,  and  a  small  pea 
comb.  The  head  is  white ;  hackle,  white  striped  with  black,  as  in  the 
male ;  tail,  black,  excepting  the  two  highest  main  tail  feathers,  which 
may  be  edged  with  white ;  tail  coverts — one  or  more  rows,  distinctly 
covering  a  part  of  both  sides  of  the  main  tail,  two  rows  being  prefer- 
able— are  black,  edged  with  white. 

The  Light  Brahmas  are  valuable  birds  for  the  farm.  They 
have  always  been  made  to  pay  for  their  keep  and  have  seldom  been 
set  aside  by  any  who  have  bred  them.  They  are  the  largest  of  do- 
mestic poultry  and  do  as  well  in  confinement  in  small  runs  as  on  free 
range.  As  layers  they  will  average  from  12  to  13  dozen  eggs  a  year, 
and  they  lay  exceptionally  well  in  winter.  Their  eggs  are  large, 
about  7  to  a  pound,  of  a  rich  brown  color  and  excellent  flavor.  For 
table  purposes  the  birds  are  good ;  they  do  not  mature  as  early  as  do 
the  varieties  of  the  American  class,  yet  they  are  hardy,  and  can  be 


POULTRY  KEEPING  527 

raised  with  as  much  ease  as  any  of  the  earlier  maturing  varieties.  As 
sitters  and  mothers  they  are  fair. 

For  practical  purposes  the  Dark  Brahmas  are  not  to  be  com- 
mended as  highly  as  the  Light  Brahmas.  The  close  breeding  for 
points  in  feathers  is  likely  to  interfere  with  their  productiveness,  yet 
with  proper  attention  and  care  they  can  be  bred  profitably  as  well  as 
for  beauty.  The  standard  weight  of  Light  Brahma  cocks  is  12 
pounds;  hens,  9^2  pounds;  cockerels,  10  pounds;  pullets,  8  pounds. 
The  standard  weight  of  Dark  Brahma  cocks  is  11  pounds;  hens,  8^ 
pounds ;  cockerels,  9  pounds ;  pullets,  7  pounds. 

Cochins. — The  four  varieties  of  Cochins  are  popular  with  breed- 
ers. They  are  second  to  the  Brahmas  in  the  meat  breeds,  weighing 
but  a  pound  lighter  than  the  Light  Brahma.  Old  and  experienced 
breeders  of  Cochins  are  pronounced  in  praise  of  their  qualities  as 
profitable  fowls.  They  are  hardy,  fair  winter  layers  of  rich,  brown, 
medium-sized  eggs,  and  fairly  good  table  fowls.  The  chicks  grow 
well  and  develop  rapidly  under  proper  care. 

The  Buff  variety  is  the  most  generally  bred;  their  color  tone 
offers  an  attraction  to  fanciers  that  is  hard  to  resist.  Both  male  and 
female  are  of  a  rich  golden  buff,  uniform  in  shade  throughout,  un- 
dercolor same  as  surKice  color,  but  of  lighter  shade  and  should  ex- 
tend to  the  skin.  In  breeding,  select  females  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  desired  shade  of  buff,  as  free  from  dark  or  white  in  wing  and  tail, 
and  of  as  even  a  color  as  can  be.  To  such  females  mate  a  cock  of 
deeper  shade.  This  mating  will  produce  good  results  in  cockerels 
and  pullets.  The  heavy  leg  and  toe  feathering  so  characteristic  of  the 
breed  should  have  constant  care  and  attention.  While  the  feathering 
should  be  abundant,  all  semblance  to  vulture  hock,  or  stiff  feather- 
ing, should  be  avoided. 

Black  Cochins  are  much  more  easily  raised  than  either  the  Buff 
or  the  Partridge.  Being  of  one  color,  the  care  bestowed  in  breeding 
particolored  or  penciled  birds  is  not  necessary,  and  the  time  may  be 
epent  in  furthering  their  general  utility  in  egg  production.  A  solid- 
color  bird  is  the  more  practical  bird  for  the  farmer  and  market 
poulterer.  The  Black  Cochin  is  of  a  rich  glossy  black  plumage 
throughout.  The  White  Cochin  is  pure  white  in  plumage.  The 
standard  weight  of  Cochin  cocks  is  11  pounds;  hens,  8^^  pounds; 
cockerels,  9  pounds ;  pullets,  7  pounds. 

Langshans. — These  are  the  smallest  and  most  active  of  the 
Asiatic  class.  They  are  practical  in  more  senses  than  one,  and  their 
fair  laying  and  other  excellent  qualities  make  them  profitable  for 
the  farmer  and  market  poultryman.  They  constitute  one  of  the  old- 
est breeds  of  poultry  and  have  always  been  held  in  popular  esteem. 
The  shape  of  the  Langshan  is  distinct  from  that  of  the  Brahma  or 
Cochin  and  should  not  be  confused  with  either  of  the  last-named 
breeds.  Figure  8  shows  the  accepted  contour  of  the  Langshans,  and 
a  comparison  with  the  birds  in  figures  6  and  7  shows  at  a  glance  the 
characteristics  of  the  Langshan  as  compared  with  the  other  Asiatics. 
Langshans  have  white  flesh  and  dark  shanks,  while  the  others  have 
yellow  skin  and  yellow  ^anks.    The  quality  of  the  flesh  of  the  Lang- 


528  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

shans  is  excellent,  'being  fine-grained,  tender,  and  nicely  flavored. 
As  layers  they  rank  with  the  Brahma,  averaging  from  12  to  13  dozen 
eggs  a  year  and  as  winter  layers  they  are  to  be  recommended.  The 
chicks  are  hardy  and  mature  early.  Langshans  are  good  sitters  and 
mothers,  being  of  gentle  disposition ;  they  are  easily  kept,  either  in 
confinement  or  on  free  range.  Being  excellent  foragers,  they  are 
ideal  fowls  for  the  farm  and  will  gather  during  the  year  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  their  food. 

The  Langshan  is  a  stylish,  medium-sized  bird,  not  overgrown  or 
gawky  in  appearance,  of  active  nature,  and  lively  disposition.  Many 
confound  the  Black  Langshan  with  the  Black  Cochin.  This  need 
not  be,  as  the  following  comparison  between  the  two  varieties  shows : 
The  Black  Cochin  is  square  in  shape,  with  heavy-looking  neck  and 
legs,  plenty  of  fluff  and  leg  feathering,  cushion  rising  from  middle 
of  back  to  tail;  tail  short  and  almost  concealed  by  cushion;  neck, 
breast,  cushion,  and  tail  all  represented  by  convex  lines.  The  Lang- 
shan head  is  small  for  the  size  of  the  body  and  the  comb  is  rather 
large,  well  up  in  front,  and  arch  shaped ;  the  Cochin  head  is  larger 
than  that  of  the  Langshan  and  not  so  arched  over  the  eye ;  the  comb 
is  smaller,  low  in  front,  and  almost  straight  on  top  of  serrations.  The 
back  of  the  Langshan  is  concave,  that  of  the  Cochin  is  slightly  con- 
vex, and  the  Cochin  has  a  large  convex  cushion.  The  Langshan  fluff 
is  moderate  and  close;  that  of  the  Cochin  is  extremely  full  and  loose. 
The  wings  of  the  Langshan  are  of  medium  size,  quite  prominent  at 
the  shoulders;  the  Cochin's  wings  are  smaller  and  almost  hidden  by 
the  fluffy  plumage  of  the  cushion  and  the  fluff.  The  Langshan 's  legs 
are  medium  in  length,  the  toes  are  long  and  tapering,  and  the  color 
of  the  shank  is  bluish  black  showing  pink  between  scales ;  the  Co- 
chin's legs  are  shorter  and  stouter,  with  larger  bone;  the  toes  are 
shorter  and  stouter,  and  the  color  of  the  shanks  is  black  or  yellowish 
black. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  Lan^hans,  the  Black  and  the  White. 
In  the  black  the  plumage  of  neck,  back,  saddle,  and  sickles  is  a 
glossy  metallic  black  with  greenish  sheen;  the  breast,  primaries, 
secondaries,  tail,  fluff,  shank,  and  toe  feathers  are  black.  The  under- 
color is  black  or  dark  slate.  The  White  Langshan  is  pure  white 
throughout.  The  standard  weight  of  cocks  for  both  varieties  is  10 
pounds ;  hens,  7  pounds ;  cockerels,  8  pounds ;  pullets,  6  pounds. 

Dorkings. — This  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  domestic  fowls.  There 
are  no  definite  records  to  show  when  it  fii*st  lived  in  England,  or 
whence  it  came,  but  the  supposition  is  that  it  was  carried  to  England 
by  the  Romans,  who  evidently  possessed  chickens  of  similar  charac- 
teristics. 

The  chief  distinctive  mark  of  the  breed  is  the  presence  of  a  fifth 
or  supernumerary  toe,  springing  behind,  a  little  above  the  foot  and 
below  the  spur.  The  feature  in  which  this  bird  is  most  popular  is  its 
table  qualities.  The  flesh  is  white  and  very  delicate  in  texture.  It  is 
claimed  by  many  to  equal  if  not  to  excel  the  French  varieties.  The 
broad,  deep,  and  projecting  breast  of  the  Dorking  admirably  fits  it 
for  table  purposes,  and  jn  this  respect  it  is  conceded  by  some  to  rival 


POULTRY  KEEPING  529 

the  Indian  Games.  As  layers  the  Dorkings  are  considered  rather  in- 
different, but  they  are  careful  sitters  and  attentive  mothers. 

There  are  three  varieties  of  Dorkings — the  White,  Silver  Gray, 
and  Colored.  The  White  Dorking  is  really  the  purest  blooded  of 
the  three,  as  for  years  this  was  the  only  variety  which  produced  in- 
variably the  fifth  toe,  although  the  Colored  and  Silver  Gray  varieties 
seldom  fail  to  breed  this  peculiarity.  In  color  the  White  Dorking 
is  of  clear,  unblemished  white.  The  comb  and  wattles  are  a  bright 
red;  the  shanks  and  toes  are  white. 

Silver  Gray  Dorkings  are  beautiful  in  plumage.  The  head  of 
the  cock  is  silvery  white;  hackle,  silvery  white  and  as  free  from 
stripes  as  possible;  comb,  face,  ear  lobes,  and  wattles,  bright  red; 
beak,  white,  streaked  with  horn ;  eye,  bright  red. 

Colored  Dorkings  differ  from  the  others  only  in  color,  the  gen- 
eral color  of  the  male  being  black  and  straw  color,  while  the  female  is 
marked  with  black  and  mixed  gray,  with  breast  of  dark  salmon 
edged  with  black.  The  combs  of  Dorkings  differ  in  the  three  varie- 
ties ;  the  White  has  a  rose  comb.  Silver  Grays  and  Colored  have  single 
combs. 

The  standard  weights  for  Dorkings  differ.  The  weights  for 
Whites  are:  Cocks,  7^/1  pounds;  hens,  6  pounds;  cockerels,  6l^ 

Eounds ;  and  pullets,  5  pounds.  For  Silver  Grays :  Cocks,  8  pounds ; 
ens,  61/2  pounds;  cockerels,  7  pounds;  pullets,  5^/^  pounds.  For  the 
Colored:  Cocks,  9  pounds;  hens,  7  pounds;  cockerels,  8  pounds; 
pullets,  6  pounds. 

Cornish  and  White  Indian  Games. — The  Indian  Game  has 
many  fine  qualities  to  recommend  it  to  the  breeder,  and  for  many 
years  past  has  been  a  popular  fowl.  In  plumage  the  Cornish  Indian 
male  is  green-black  intermixed  with  red  and  bay.  The  plumage  of 
the  hen  should  be  a  combination  of  bay  and  black  throughout. 

The  breast  is  very  wide,  round,  and  prominent,  the  thighs  are 
well  rounded,  and  thick  and  meaty  next  to  the  body ;  the  shanks  are 
very  stout,  smoothly  scaled,  and  yellow  in  color ;  the  back  toe  should 
be  almost  flat  on  the  ground ;  the  tail  close  and  hard,  carried  at  slight 
elevation,  and  sickles  narrow ;  wings  tightly  folded,  the  ends  of  the 
secondaries  rounding  off  abruptly  and  resting  close  against  the  tail 
or  just  below  it ;  eyes  yellow,  beak  yellow,  or  yellow  striped  with  horn 
color.  The  Indian  Game  is  a  beautiful  bird,  and  its  every  movement 
bespeaks  its  high  breeding.  The  White  variety  is  identical  with  the 
Cornish  except  that  the  plumage  should  be  pure  white.  The  stand- 
ard weight  of  cocks  is  9  pounds;  hens,  6^  pounds;  cockerels,  TYz 
pounds;  pullets,  5V^  pounds. 

EGG  BREEDS. 

Leghorns. — These  are  the  best  known  of  the  egg-producing 
varieties,  or  Mediterranean  class.  They  are  the  premiers  in  laying 
and  the  standard  by  which  the  prolificness  of  other  breeds  is  judged. 
As  to  the  origin  of  the  Leghorns  there  are  differences  of  opinion,  and 
there  is  but  little  information  to  be  found  anywhere  concerning  their 
early  history.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  a  race  of  fowls  bearing  a 
close  resemblance  in  many  respects  to  the  Leghorn  has  existed  in 


530  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Italy  and  other  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe  for  a  long  period. 
That  this  race  has  been  widely  disseminated  admits  also  of  littlo 
doubt,  inasmuch  as  at  the  present  day  it  is  known  in  Denmark  and 
other  countries  as  the  Italian.  There  seems  to  be  good  ground  for  the 
statement  that  Leghorns  were  first  introduced  into  America  from 
Italy.  The  story  goes  that  as  early  as  1834  a  vessel  from  Leghorn 
brought  to  this  country  as  a  part  of  its  cargo  a  small  shipment  of 
fowls,  which  were  at  once  named  "Leghorns."  They  immediately 
became  popular,  their  prolific  laying  and  nonsitting  qualities  being 
recognized  at  this  early  date. 

White  and  Brown  Leghorns  were  the  first  varieties  known. 
Modem  breeders  are  responsible  for  some  of  the  subvarieties  of  the 
breed ;  and,  in  point  of  color  at  least,  exhibition  birds  of  to-day,  even 
of  the  older  varieties,  vary  considerably  from  those  seen  at  the 
present  time  in  Italy. 

The  question  of  profit  in  poultry  has  been  decided  in  favor  of 
the  egg-producing  breeds.  Leghorns  are  lively,  active,  and  of  a  rest- 
less disposition,  the  best  of  foragers,  and  will  pick  up  a  good  part  of 
their  living  during  the  year.  They  are  light  eaters,  and  the  cost  of 
raising  them  to  maturity  is  about  one-half  that  of  the  Asiatic  varie- 
ties. They  mature  early  and  feather  quickly ;  the  pullets  often  begin 
laying  when  4^/2  months  old,  and  cockerels  crow  at  a  much  younger 
age.  They  are  the  best  of  layers,  averaging  between  150  and  200 
eggs  a  year.  Their  eggs  are  pure  white  in  color  and  weigh  about  10 
to  the  pound.  As  table  fowls  they  are  fairly  good ;  by  many  they  are 
considered  excellent ;  the  only  thing  that  can  be  said  against  them  is 
that  they  are  small  in  size.  Altogether,  they  are  one  of  the  most 
profitable  breeds  of  poultry  that  can  be  kept  on  the  farm,  and  the 
cheapness  of  their  keeping  will  allow  the  raising  of  two  Leghorns  for 
the  cost  of  one  Asiatic.  They  must  be  dryly  housed  in  winter  to  lay 
well  and  to  protect  their  pendulous  wattles  from  frostbite. 

In  shape  a  Leghorn  cock  should  be  graceful,  with  body  of 
medium  length,  broad  at  the  shoulders,  and  tapering  toward  the 
tail.  The  body  should  be  well  balanced  on  a  fair  length  of  shank  and 
thigh,  the  length  of  leg  giving  the  bird  its  sprightly  and  proud  car- 
riage. Closeness  of  feathering  adds  to  the  general  shape.  The  breast 
should  be  full,  beautifully  curved,  rather  prominent,  and  carried  well 
forward;  neck,  long  and  well  arched;  back,  of  medium  length,  with 
saddle  rising  in  a  sharp,  concave  sweep  to  the  tail ;  tail,  large,  full, 
carried  at  an  angle  of  45°  from  the  horizontal;  the  full,  flowing  tail, 
and  long,  well-curved  sickles  are  characteristics  of  the  bird  that  are 
much  desired.    Ear  lobes  should  be  white  or  creamy  white. 

The  Leghorn  hen  in  many  respects  resembles  the  cock,  except- 
ing carriage  of  comb  and  sexual  differences.  In  shape  and  carriage 
the  hen  is  even  more  graceful  and  sprightly  than  the  cock,  very  close 
in  feather,  and  rather  small  in  body.  Her  breast  is  full,  very  round, 
and  carried  high;  legs  fairly  long,  and  shanks  thin;  tail  carried  at 
an  angle  of  40°  from  the  horizontal.  Her  comb  is  the  marvel  of  her 
beauty;  in  the  single-comb  varieties  it  falls  gracefully  to  one  side, 
but  not  in  a  limp  manner  nor  so  as  to  obscure  the  sight.    Legs,  comb, 


POULTRY  KEEPING  531 

and  face  are  the  same  color  as  in  the  male,  but  the  ear  lobe  is  muchi 
smaller.  There  are  eight  standard  varieties  of  Leghorns:  The 
Single-comb  and  Rose-comb  Brown,  Single-comb  and  Rose-comb 
White,  Single-comb  and  Rose-comb  Buff,  Single-comb  Black,  and 
Silver  Duckwing. 

The  Brown  Leghorns  are  one  of  the  prettiest  of  the  Leghorn 
varieties,  but  they  are  the  most  difficult  of  all  to  breed  to  feather. 
They  have  merited  the  confidence  of  poultry  lovers  for  a  long  time; 
their  hardy  constitutions  have  withstood  rough  usage,  and  promis- 
cuous interbreeding  has  not  effaced  their  characteristics.  They  are 
a  fixed  variety,  and  their  merits  are  noticeable  from  the  newly 
hatched  chick  to  the  oldest  specimen. 

The  White  Leghorn  is  the  most  generally  bred  of  the  Leghorn 
varieties.  It  is,  no  doubt,  the  most  advantageous  to  breed  for  profit, 
and  the  easiest  to  raise  on  the  farm.  Being  of  one  color  in  plumage, 
these  birds  are  more  successfully  raised  and  cared  for  than  the  parti- 
colored varieties.  Their  plumage  is  pure  white  throughout,  and 
feathers  other  than  white  will  disqualify  them.  It  has  been  a  matter 
of  much  speculation  as  to  which  variety  of  Leghorns  is  most  prolific 
in  egg  production.  This  is  a  difficult  question  to  adjust  property  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  specialty  breeders,  but  from  a  conservative 
standpoint  it  is  generally  considered  that  the  Whites  have  slightly 
the  advantage  over  the  others.  Phenomenal  individual  egg  records 
have  been  made  by  almost  all  varieties,  but  the  foregoing  opinion  is 
based  upon  the  general  results  obtained  from  various  sources. 

The  Buff  Leghorn  is  a  beautiful  bird  and  one  that  will  win  its 
way  wherever  bred.  Buff-colored  birds  have  many  admirers,  and 
those  who  have  bred  them  are  pronounced  in  praise  of  their  qualities. 
Besides  having  the  general  characteristics  of  the  Leghorn  type,  the 
Buff  Leghorn  cock  has  a  plumage  of  an  even  shade  of  rich  golden 
buff  throughout.  The  undercolor  is  of  a  slightly  lighter  shade,  but 
even  in  color  throughout.  White  and  black  feathers  in  plumage  are 
objectionable.    The  hen  is  of  the  same  color  as  the  cock. 

The  Black  Leghorn  is  a  popular  bird  and  a  favorite  with  those 
who  are  partial  to  its  color  of  plumage.  The  Black  Leghorn  is  mis- 
taken by  many  for  the  Black  Minorca,  but  is  quite  different  in  type. 
The  Minorca  is  larger  in  size,  has  a  longer  body,  larger  comb,  and 
dark  slate  or  nearly  black  shanks  and  toes.  The  plumage  of  the 
Black  Leghorn  is  a  rich  glossy  black  throughout.  The  comb,  face 
and  wattles  are  bright  red,  the  ear  lobes  white,  and  the  shanks  yellow 
or  yellowish  black. 

Silver  Duckwing  Leghorns  are  not  generally  bred  in  this  coun- 
try, though  they  are  frequently  seen  in  the  showrooms.  They  are 
considered  as  profitable  as  any  of  the  other  Leghorn  varieties,  and  in 
point  of  beauty  they  are  very  interesting  and  fascinating.  The 
hackle  feathers  of  a  Silver  Duckwdng  Leghorn  cock  are  pure  silvery 
white,  without  the  slightest  straw  or  creamy  tinge,  with  a  narrow 
black  stripe  along  the  center  of  the  lower  hackle  feathers;  back, 
saddle,  and  wing  dow,  silvery  white;  breast,  under  parts,  wing  bar, 
and  tail,  lustrous  black.    The  Silver  Duckwing  Leghorn  hen  nas  a 


532  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

silvery  gray  hackle,  with  a  narrow  blcick  stripe  through  the  center  of 
each  feather.  The  breast  is  light  salmon,  shading  off  to  gray  toward 
the  sides ;  the  body  color,  when  viewed  at  a  short  distance,  should  ap- 
pear gray,  with  a  faint  bluish  tint  all  over,  A  tendency  to  ruddy 
gray,  either  in  ground  color  or  penciling,  is  objectionable.  The  tail 
IS  black,  except  the  two  upper  feathers,  which  are  light  gray.  The 
penciling  or  markings  are  irregular  or  wavy. 

The  only  distinguishing  difference  between  the  single-comb  and 
rose-comb  varieties  is  in  the  comb.  The  Rose-comb  Leghorns  have 
a  small  rose  comb,  square  in  front,  firm  and  even  upon  the  head, 
tapering  evenly  from  front  to  rear,  without  inclining  to  one  side,  the 
top  comparatively  fiat  and  covered  with  small  points,  terminating  in 
a  well-developed  spike  in  the  rear.  There  is  no  standard  weight  given 
for  Leghorns. 

Minorcas. — This  breed  belongs  to  the  Mediterranean  class,  and 
they  are  placed  next  to  the  Leghorns  in  laying  qualities.  They  are 
in  appearance  very  similar  to  the  Leghorns.  Their  general  outline 
is,  in  fact,  that  of  the  latter,  but  with  more  length  of  body  and 
heavier  in  mold.  The  origin  of  the  Minorcas,  like  that  of  so  many 
others  of  our  profitable  poultry,  is  much  in  doubt.  Some  persons  are 
of  the  opinion  that  they  originally  came  from  Minorca,  one  of  the 
Balearic  Isles,  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  while  others  contend  that 
they  are  a  variety  of  the  Black  Spanish.  Be  that  as  it  may,  they  are 
one  of  the  most  profitable  breeds  of  poultry  for  the  farm. 

The  Minorcas  are  good  for  table  purposes,  the  flesh  being  white 
or  light  colored  and  fine  grained.  Their  chief  advantage  is  their  egg 
production.  They  are  nonsitters  and  year-round  layers.  As  winter 
layers  they  are  exceptionally  good  when  kept  under  fairly  favorable 
circumstances.  While  the  Leghorn  surpasses  them  in  the  number  of 
cggslaid,  the  Minorca's  eggs  are  larger  and  equal  the  output  in  bulk. 
Their  eggs  are  white  and  average  8  to  the  pound.  They  lay  from  14 
to  15  dozen  a  year.  Being  of  an  active,  restless  disposition  they  keep 
in  splendid  condition  and  make  good  foragers.  For  suburban  poultry 
keeping  they  are  very  useful  birds,  and  net  good  results  to  the  keeper. 
They  are  hardy,  easily  raised,  and  mature  quickly. 

The  Minorca  fowl  is  large  in  outline,  well  bodied,  stands  well  up 
on  its  legs,  has  a  broad  chest,  and  a  long,  broad  back,  with  tail  carried 
at  an  angle  of  40°  from  the  horizontal.  The  body  of  the  Minorca 
male  is  long,  broad,  deep,  tapering  from  front  to  rear.  Thighs  are 
stout;  shanks,  long,  stout  in  bone,  and  in  color  dark  slate  or  nearly 
black  in  the  black  varieties,  and  white  or  pinkish  white  in  the  white 
variety.  The  comb  of  the  Minorca  is  larger  and  more  bulky  than 
that  of  the  Leghorn.  The  wattles  are  thin  and  pendulous,  corres- 
ponding with  the  size  of  the  comb ;  the  ear  lobes  are  pure  white.  The 
female  is  in  body  of  the  same  general  appearance  as  the  male,  rather 
long,  broad,  and  deep.  Her  comb  is  perceptibly  larger  than  that  of 
the  Leghorn  female.  Black  Minorcas  are  in  plumage  a  rich,  glos.sy, 
greenish  black  throughout,  and  gray  tips  are  considered  serious  de- 
fects. The  White  Minorca  is  not  quite  as  popular  as  the  Black.  The 
standard  qualifications  as  to  shape  are  the  same  for  the  two;  in  color 


POULTRY  KEEPING  533 

the  white  variety  must  be  pure  -white  throughout,  feathers  other  than 
white  dLsqualifying.  The  comb,  face  and  wattles  are  bright  red,  the 
face  being  free  from  white ;  the  eyes  are  dark  hazel  in  the  Black  va- 
riety and  red  in  the  White  variety. 

Before  concluding  in  regard  to  Minorcas  it  is  worthy  of  note 
that  the  latest  acquisition  to  the  breed  is  the  Rose-comb  Black  Min- 
orca, which  is  now  a  standard  variety.  The  only  objection  that  has 
ever  been  raised  against  the  varieties  of  the  Mediterranean  class  is 
their  susceptibility  to  frostbite  of  the  comb.  Their  combs  are  so  large 
that  continued  cold  or  exposure  is  sure  to  result  in  this  injury.  To 
obviate  this  one  defect,  if  it  may  be  so  termed,  in  this  valuable  class 
of  birds  has  been  the  purpose  of  breeders  in  producing  a  bird  that 
possesses  the  other  qualifications,  but  with  a  low  rose  comb.  The 
comb  of  the  Rose-comb  Black  Minorca  male  should  be  rose,  square  in 
front,  and  set  close  and  even  on  the  head.  The  head  of  the  female  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  male.  The  standard  weight  of  Single-comb 
Black  Minorca  cocks  is  9  pounds;  hens,  7l^  pounds;  cockerels,  7^ 
])ounds,  and  pullets  6V^  pounds.  The  standard  weight  of  Rose-comb 
Black  and  Single-comb  White  Minorca  cocks  is  8  pounds;  hens,  6V^ 
pounds;  cockerels,  6l^  pounds;  pullets,  5^  pounds. 

Black  Spanish. — The  Black  Spanish  fowls  constitute  one  of  the 
oldest  varieties  of  domestic  poultry.  Their  name  has  been  identified 
with  the  industry  for  hundreds  of  years,  and  their  practical  worth 
on  the  farm  has  long  been  recognized.  Their  haughty  bearing,  large 
red  comb  and  wattles,  and  the  white  face  and  lobes  peculiar  to  the 
breed,  contrasting  with  their  glossy  black  plumage,  render  them  most 
striking  birds. 

White-faced  Black  Spanish  have  longbeen  favorably  known  for 
their  exceptionally  fine  laying  qualities.  The  pullets  are  early  layers, 
averaging  150  to  180  eggs  a  year;  the  hens  begin  somewhat  later, 
after  molting,  but  compensate  for  any  loss  in  number  by  the  in- 
creased size  of  the  eggs.  Hens  and  pullets  alike  are  well  above  the 
average  for  winter  laying.  Their  eggs  are  large  and  white  and  of 
good  flavor.  The  white  face  is  a  distinguishing  feature  and  should  be 
long,  smooth,  free  from  wrinkles,  rising  well  over  the  eyes  in  an 
arched  form,  extending  toward  the  back  of  the  head  and  to  the  base 
of  the  beak,  covering  the  cheeks  and  joining  the  wattles  and  ear 
lobes ;  the  greater  the  extent  of  surface  the  better.  It  should  be  pure 
white  in  color.  The  color  of  plumage  throughout  is  rich  greenish 
black,  and  any  gray  is  considered  a  serious  defect.  The  shanks  and 
toes  are  blue  or  dark  leaden  blue.  The  comb  is  single  and  bright  red 
in  color.  The  wattles  of  males  are  bright  red,  except  the  inside  of 
the  upper  part,  which  is  white;  and  of  females  bright  red;  the  ear 
lobes  are  pure  white. 

The  standard  weight  of  Black  Spanish  cocks  is  8  pounds ;  hens, 
6y2  pounds;  cockerels,  6V2  pounds;  pullets,  51/2  pounds. 

Andalusians. — This  is  one  of  the  prettiest  of  the  feathered  race, 
being  of  a  beautiful  light  and  dark  blue  plumage.  It  is  called  the 
Blue  AndaliLsiiUi,  and  is  the  only  variety  of  its  breed.  It  is  not  as 
popular  in  this  country  as  it  should  be,  owing  to  the  sentiment 


534  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

against  white  skin  and  blue  shanks.  English  and  French  poultry- 
men  prefer  these  qualities  in  a  bird,  and  with  them  it  is  very  popular. 
The  hens  are  nonsitters  and  splendid  layers  of  large  white  eggs,  near- 
ly equaling  in  size  those  of  the  Minorcas.  The  chicks  are  hardy  and 
mature  early,  and  the  pullets  begin  laying  when  five  or  six  months 
old. 

For  farm  purposes  the  Andalusians  rank  with  the  Leghorns  and 
the  Minorcas,  the  preference  being  only  in  the  color  of  their  plum- 
age. For  fancy  purposes  they  are  an  ideal  bird  on  account  of  their 
beauty.  The  hackle  and  saddle  feathers  are  dark  blue,  approaching 
black;  breast  a  lighter  shade  of  blue,  each  feather  having  a  well- 
defined  lacing  of  a  darker  shade ;  body  and  fluff  similar  in  color  to 
breast;  primaries,  slaty  blue ;  secondaries  and  win^  coverts,  similar  in 
color  to  breast ;  wing  bo\\'S,  darker  blue,  approachmg  black ;  tail  and 
sickle  feathers,  dark  blue,  approaching  black ;  shanks  and  toes,  blue 
or  leaden  blue.  The  standard  weight  of  cocks  is  6  pounds;  hens,  5 
pounds ;  cockerels,  5  pounds ;  pullets,  4  pounds. 

Anconas. — The  Mottled  Anconas  are  one  of  the  least  common 
varieties  of  the  Mediterranean  class.  They  are  hardy,  quick  to  ma- 
ture, and  prolific  layers  of  white-shelled  eggs. 

In  shape  Anconas  should  be  the  same  as  Leghorns.  The  color  of 
the  plumage  should  be  a  beetle-green  ground,  each  feather  tipped 
with  white ;  the  mottling  should  be  even  throughout,  with  no  tenden- 
cy to  lacing.  The  eyes,  face,  comb,  and  wattles  should  be  red,  and 
the  ear  lobes  white.  The  color  of  the  beak  should  be  yellow,  with  the 
upper  mandible  shaded  with  black,  and  that  of  the  shanks  and  toes 
should  be  yellow,  or  yellow  shaded  or  mottled  with  black.  There  are 
no  standard  weights  for  Anconas. 

Redcaps. — Redcaps  are  an  old  breed,  mention  of  them  being 
made  by  some  of  the  old  authors.  The  large  comb  stands  in  their 
way  as  popular  birds,  and  unless  it  is  square  and  even  it  makes  a 
miserable  sight  They  mature  early  and  are  good  layers.  For 
market  purposes  they  are  good,  the  size  and  quality  of  flesh  being 
recommendations  for  popular  favor.  They  are  reputed  to  be  non- 
sitters,  though  occasionally  they  are  known  to  sit  and  hatch  broods. 

The  comb  is  rose,  large,  not  overhanging  the  eyes,  square  in 
front,  and  uniform  on  each  side.  It  must  be  firm  and  even  upon  the 
head,  without  inclining  to  one  side,  the  top  covered  with  small  points, 
terminating  at  the  rear  in  a  well-developed,  straight  spike,  and  bright 
red  in  color.  Wattles  and  ear  lobes  are  also  bright  red.  In  plumage 
the  male  and  "the  female  are  red,  brown,  and  black;  the  head  of  the 
male  is  red,  with  blue-black  hackle,  each  feather  edged  with  red ;  the 
back  is  red  and  black,  and  the  breast  purplish  black. 

The  head  plumage  of  the  female  is  brown  in  color;  the  neck 
black,  each  feather  laced  with  golden  red;  the  back  brown  and  black, 
and  the  breast  the  same  color.  The  shanks  and  toes  are  slate-colored 
or  leaden-blue.  The  standard  weight  of  cocks  is  7^  pounds;  hens, 
6  pounds;  cockerels,  6  pounds;  pullets,  5  pounds. 

Hamburgs. — ^These  are  in  the  front  rank  of  egg  producers. 
There  are  six  varieties  of  this  breed:  The  Golden-spangled,  Silver- 


POULTRY  KEEPING  535 

spangled,  Golden-penciled,  Silver-penciled,  Black,  and  White.  They 
are  all  very  pretty  birds,  and  seldom  fail  to  prove  attractive  and 
profitable  to  the  average  breeder  and  fancier.  Hamburgs  are  eco- 
nomical fowls  to  keep ;  besides  being  light  eaters  and  great  foragers, 
they  are  prolific  layers  and  nonsitters.  The  only  thin^  against  tSem 
is  tne  smaJlness  of  their  eggs.  They  lay  a  pretty,  white-shelled  egg, 
but  smaller  in  size  than  those  of  the  Leghorn.  There  are  some  which 
lay  larger  eggs  than  others,  and  by  careful  selection  from  year  to  ye^ 
of  the  birds  which  lay  the  largest  eggs  this  defect  may  be  remedied 
and  the  size  of  the  eggs  improved. 

The  Silver-spangled  Hamburg  is  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  as 
well  as  the  most  popular  variety  of  the  Hamburgs.  Its  proud  car- 
riage and  graceful  and  symmetrical  form  command  attention  when- 
ever seen.  Breeders  of  Hamburgs  universally  adopt  the  following  aa 
a  standard  for  the  breed :  Comb,  rose,  square  at  front,  tapering  nicely 
into  a  spike,  which  inclines  upward  slightly;  top  of  comb  covered 
with  small  points,  firmly  and  evenly  set  on  the  head;  face,  red;  ear 
lobes,  moderate  size,  round  as  possible,  and  clear  white;  shanks  and 
toes,  leaden  blue;  carriage,  graceful;  plumage,  prefuse.  Golden- 
spangled — color,  bay  and  black;  back,  glossy  reddish  bay,  spangled 
with  greenish  black ;  neck  and  saddle  nicely  striped. 

The  feather  markings  of  the  penciled  varieties  differ  greatly 
from  those  of  the  spangled,  the  latter  being  commonly  called  "moon- 
eyed,"  from  the  round  or  oval  appearance  of  the  spangles,  while  the 
markings  of  the  penciled  varieties  are  in  parallel  bars  of  reddish  bay 
or  black,  or  clear  silvery  white  and  black,  as  the  case  may  be.  White 
and  Black  Hamburgjs  are  solid  white  or  solid  black  in  plumage.  No 
standard  weight  is  given  for  Hamburg. 

ORNAMENTAL  BREEDS. 

Polish. — One  of  the  oldest  breeds  of  poultry  is  the  Polish,  its 
ancestry  being  traced  as  far  back  as  the  sixteenth  century.  Among 
the  varieties  mentioned  in  those  early  days  was  the  "Woolly"  fowl, 
similar  to  the  silky  fowl  of  to-day.  Mention  in  history  is  also  made 
of  the  "Frizzled"  fowl,  the  "Persian"  fowl,  the  "Turkish"  fowl,  and 
tho  "Crested"  fowl.  The  latter  is  described  as  being  a  fowl  with  a 
lark's  crest.  Another  variety  is  known  as  the  "Patavinian"  fowl, 
which  is  believed  to  bo  the  progenitor  of  the  Polish  breed.  The  cock 
is  described  as  exceedingly  beautiful,  being  richly  decorated  with 
five  colors,  black,  white,  green,  red,  and  ocher.  Tne  body  is  black, 
the  neck  covered  w4th  white  feathers,  and  the  wings  and  back  partly 
black  and  partly  green ;  the  tail  is  the  same,  but  the  roots  of  the 
feathers  are  whitish,  and  some  of  the  flight  feathers  are  also  white. 
Tho  eyes  are  surrounded  with  red  circles,  the  comb  is  very  small, 
the  bill  and  feet  are  yellow,  and  the  head  is  adorned  with  a  beautiful 
crest.  In  the  hen  there  is  no  white  except  the  white  pellicle  at  the 
opening  of  the  ears.  She  is  altogether  of  a  greenish-black  c^lor, 
with  yellow  feet  and  a  very  small  comb  slightly  tinged  with  red. 

The  general  characteristics  of  the  Polish  are  those  of  small  to 
medium  sized  fowls,  larger  than  the  Hamburgs;  a  full,  round  breast, 
carried  well  fonv^ard;  the  neck  of  the  cock  beautifully  arched;  a 


536  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

straight  back,  broad  at  the  shoulders,  and  narrowing  rapidly  to  the 
tail;  large  and  closely  folded  wings;  a  large,  well-expanded  tail, 
which  in  the  cock  is  furnished  with  an  abundance  of  tail  coverts 
and  sickle  feathers ;  shanks  of  a  blue  or  slaty-blue  color  in  all  vari- 
eties but  the  White-crested  Black,  in  which  they  are  of  blue  or  dark 
leaden  blue ;  and,  above  all,  a  large  crest  and  a  small  V-shaped  comb. 

Polish  chickens  are  bred  extensively  in  this  country  and  by 
some  are  considered  practical  for  general  purposes;  but,  while  some 
breeders  may  secure  good  results,  the  Polish  is  not  to  be  fully  recom- 
mended as  a  general-purpose  fowl.  They  are  considered  more  as 
fancy  birds  and  are  generally  bred  for  pleasure  and  the  showroom. 
Their  large  crests  are  against  them,  hindering  their  vision  and 
causing  them  to  become  listless,  inactive,  and  suspicious.  Extra 
care  must  be  given  to  be  fairly  successful  in  raising  them,  and  their 
houses  and  coops  must  be  kept  absolutely  dry;  the  least  water  in 
their  crests  is  likely  to  result  fatally  to  them.  They  are  fairly  good 
layers  of  medium-sized  eggs  and  are  nonsitters.  For  table  purposes 
they  are  considered  good,  their  flesh  being  fine-grained,  tender,  and 
sweet.    . 

Of  the  varieties  of  the  Polish,  the  White-crested  Black  is  the 
most  popular.  The  color  of  the  plumage  of  this  variety  is  a  rich, 
glossy  black  throughout,  with  the  exception  of  the  crest,  which  is 
pure  white;  a  narrow  band  of  black  feathers  at  the  base  of  the  crest 
in  front  is  allowable,  but  the  fewer  the  better.  The  shanks  and  toes 
are  blue  or  dark  leaden  blue ;  comb  and  wattles  are  bright  red,  and 
ear  lobes  are  white. 

The  Golden  and  Silver  varieties  are  beautifully  marked  in 
plumage.  In  the  Golden  the  feathers  are  marked  with  rich  golden 
bay  and  laced  with  black.  The  feathers  of  the  Silver  are  silvery 
white,  instead  of  the  golden  bay,  and  are  laced  with  black.  The 
White  Polish  is  pure  white  throughout  the  plumage.  The  feathers 
of  the  Buff  Laced  should  be  of  a  rich  buff  color  with  a  narrow  white 
lacing. 

There  are  two  distinct  subbreeds  of  Polish,  the  plain  (non- 
bearded)  and  the  bearded.  The  latter  has  a  thick,  full  beard,  run- 
ning back  of  the  eye  in  a  handsome  curve,  and  in  color  correspond- 
ing with  the  balance  of  the  plumage.  The  eight  varieties  of  Polish 
are:  White-crested  Black,  Bearded  Golden,  Bearded  Silver,  Bearded 
White,  Buff  Laced,  Nonbearded  Golden,  Nonbearded  Silver,  and 
Nonbearded  White.  No  standard  weight  is  given  for  Polish;  they 
are  of  medium  size,  about  that  of  Leghorns. 

Crevecoeurs. — This  variety  is  not  so  generally  known  in  this 
country  as  the  Houdans,  but  in  France,  their  native  country,  they 
are  bred  extensively  for  market  purposes.  They  are  considered  of 
superior  quality  for  the  taible,  their  flesh  being  white  and  delicately 
flavored.  They  are  of  gentle  disposition  and  do  well  in  confine- 
ment. They  have  weak  constitutions  and  require  extra  care  and 
attention.  As  layers  they  are  only  fair,  and  are  nonsitters.  They 
are  a  crested  variety,  have  a  leaf  comb  like  the  letter  V  in  shape, 
and  in  plumage  are  a  rich,  glossy  black  throughout.    The  standard 


Maine  Station  Poultry  Houses  and  Yards.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


Beehives  in  Hawau  on  Stands  to  Avoid  Ant  Attacks.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  539 

weight  of  cocks  is  8  pounds;  hens,  7  pounds;  cockerels,  7  pounds; 
pullets,  6  pounds. 

La  Fleche. — These  fowls  differ  in  character  from  the  other  two 
varieties  of  French  poultry  mentioned.  Houdans  and  Crevecoeurs 
are  more  compactly  built  than  La  Fleche,  the  latter  being  tall  and 
rather  gaunt  looking,  and  in  stylo  and  character  denote  the  prepon- 
derance of  Spanish  blood.  Their  plumage  is  a  rich,  glossy  black 
throughout.  The  comb  is  peculiar,  being  V-shaped,  of  moderate 
size,  branching  and  antler-like,  somewhat  like  two  horns  pointing 
upward.  The  birds  are  of  extremely  delicate  constitution  and  diffi- 
cult to  raise.  The  flesh  is  more  delicate  and  juicy  than  that  of  any 
variety  except  the  Game.  They  are  moderate  layers  of  very  large, 
white  eggs,  but  are  by  no  means  so  good  as  the  Spanish  in  tliis 
respect;  as  table  fowl  they  are  superior,  but  do  not  mattire  early — 
not  nearly  so  early  as  the  Houdans  or  the  Crevecoeurs.  The  stand- 
ard weight  of  cocks  is  8V^  pounds;  hens,  7^/^  pounds;  cockerels, 
7y2  pounds;  pullets,  6i/^  pounds. 

GAMES  AND  GAME  BANTAMS. 

The  Game  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  breeds  of  domestic  poul- 
try. Its  origin  and  history  are  seemingly  linked  with  all  topics 
concerning  poultry  and  its  origin.  For  a  long  time  Games  have 
been  favorites  in  this  country.  They  are  noted  for  their  vigor  and 
courage,  having  formerly  been  bred  for  fighting.  By  careful  selec- 
tion in  breeding  for  many  generations  they  have  been  brought  to  a 
high  state  of  perfection.  The  beauty  of  an  exhibition  Game  is 
much  praised  in  this  and  other  countries  and  the  pens  are  generally 
filled  at  the  shows.  They  are  sought  after  and  courted  by  fanciers, 
and  as  ornamental  fowls  they  have  few  equals  in  the  number  of 
their  admirers.  Tho  practical  qualities  of  the  Game  have  never 
been  demonstrated  with  accuracy,  their  tall  figures  standing  in  the 
way  of  popularity  and  general  usefulness.  It  should  not  be  under- 
stood that  they  are  unprofitable  to  keep,  but  rather  not  a  fowl  for 
farm  purposes.  They  are  usually  good  layeis  and  excellent  table 
fowl,  their  meat  being  fine-grained,  tender,  and  juicy.  They  are 
splendid  sitters  and  mothers.  Their  tall,  commanding,  and  stnking 
figures  are  decided  contrasts  to  those  of  other  poultry,  and  afford  a 
diversion  to  admirers  of  fine  poultry.  The  varieties  are  Black- 
breasted  Red,  Brown  Red,  Golden  and  Silver  Duckwing,  Red  Pyle, 
White,  Black,  and  Birchen. 

Bantams. — These  are  purely  ornamental  poultry  and  are  kept 
for  pleasure  exclusively,  though  some  maintain  that  they  are  profit- 
able  egg  producers.  They  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "The  chil- 
dren's fowl."  The  Sebright,  Rose-comb  and  Cochin  are  among  the 
most  popular. 

Rose-Comb  BantaTus. — These  are  miniature  Ilamburgs.  There 
are  two  varieties,  the  Black  and  the  White.  The  cock  has  a  small, 
round  head;  a  short  and  slightly  curved  beak;  large  prominent 
bright  eyes;  rose  comb,  square  in  front,  fitting  firmly  on -the  head 
and  ending  in  a  spike  with  a  slight  upward  curve ;  flat,  closely  fit- 
ting ear  lobes;  broad,  thin,  and  well-rounded  wattles;  neck  small 


540  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

at  the  head,  increasing  in  size  as  it  approaches  the  shoulders,  nicely 
arched,  and  carried  well  back;  abundant  hackle  of  good  length, 
sweeping  over  the  shoulders,  with  long  and  plentiful  saddle 
feathers;  full  round  breast,  carried  prominently  forward;  plump, 
compact,  and  symmetrical  body;  wings  large,  the  points  carried 
low,  the  secondaries  slightly  expanded;  full  expanded  tail  carried 
at  an  angle  of  40°  from  the  horizontal,  and  furnished  with  long 
curving  sickldS  and  coverts ;  short  thighs,  and  short,  clean,  tapering 
shanks. 

The  head  of  the  hen  should  be  small  and  neatly  rounded ;  eyes 
bright  and  full;  comb  of  the  same  character  as  the  cock's,  but 
smaller;  flat,  smooth  ear  lobes;  small  wattles;  the  neck  should  be 
short,  tapering,  and  carried  well  back;  the  back  short;  the  breast 
full  and  prominent;  the  body  compact;  wings  large;  tail  full  and 
expanded;  thighs  short,  and  shanks  short  and  tapering. 

The  plumage  of  the  Rose-comb  Black  Bantam  is  lustrous 
black,  and  of  the  White,  pure  white.  The  beak  of  the  Black  is 
black,  or  dark  horn  color;  of  the  White,  white.  The  ear  lobes  of 
both  varieties  are  pure  white.  The  shanks  of  the  Black  are  dark, 
leaden  blue,  or -black;  of  the  White,  white. —  (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  51.) 

(Publications  quoted  and  consulted:  F.  B.  51;  Pa.  B.  87; 
Minn.  B.  91 ;  Ark.  B.  99;  Colo.  B.  164;  Minn.  B.  119;  Kan.  B.  150; 
N.  Dak.  B.  78.) 

INCUBATION. 

Selection  of  Laying  Hens. — The  first  thing  to  notice  concern- 
ing the  shape  is,  as  to  whether  or  not  the  hen  is  rangy  or  blocky.  A 
blocky  hen  indicates  a  meat  producer,  while  the  more  rangy  one 
indicates  the  production  of  eggs.  Since  the  development  of  the 
egg,  to  a  large  extent,  takes  place  in  the  region  of  the  body  below 
the  broad  part  of  the  back,  that  part  of  the  body  should  be  broader 
than  the  fore  part.  This  gives  to  the  body  a  V-shaped  appearance 
as  viewed  from  the  top,  the  small  part  of  the  V  lying  toward  the 
front.  When  a  hen  is  in  heavy  laying  condition,  her  abdomen  is 
lower  than  the  breast  line.  This  gives  the  body  the  appearance  of 
being  V-shaped  as  viewed  from  the  side  along  the  top  and  bottom 
lines,  with  the  small  part  of  the  V  toward  the  front.  This  enlarge- 
ment of  the  body  in  the  abdominal  region  makes  the  back  appear 
somewhat  narrower,  giving  the  body  a  V-shaped  appearance  from 
the  back  downward  on  the  sides  as  viewed  from  the  rear.  Thus,  a 
body  V-shaped  in  three  directions  indicates  large  productive  powers. 

A  large  hen  usually  lays  the  larger  eggs.  This  rule  may  not 
hold  true  if  she  happen  to  be  a  heavy  producer,  for  then  the  ten- 
dency is  to  produce  smaller  eggs.  With  such  fowls  as  the  Leghorns, 
whose  tendency  is  to  lay  smaller  eggs,  the  selection  should  be  for 
large  size  of  body  rather  than  small.  A  good  layer  is  longer  in 
body,  neck  and  legs  than  a  meat-producing  hen.  She  stands  up 
well  and  has  a  well  spread  tail.  Observation  has  shown  that  a  pinch- 
tailed  Leghorn  is  not  generally  as  good  a  layer  as  is  a  fan-tailed  one. 

The  character  of  the  head  furnishings  is  an  indication  of  the 
hen's  laying  condition.    When  a  hen  is  in  full  laying  her  comb  i» 


POULTRY  KEEPING  541 

full  and  bright  red.  Some  Plymouth  Rocks  when  laying  heavily 
mil  have  lopped  combs,  and  therefore  become  disqualified  as  show 
birds.  When  hens  are  molting  they  lose  all  their  color  in  face  and 
comb  and  the  size  of  their  combs  become  very  small,  but  as  soon  as 
laying  commences,  the  combs  enlarge  and  the  color  returns.  Many 
instances  have  been  noted  with  Leghorns  and  Minorcas  which  indi- 
cate that  the  birds  with  the  largest  and  reddest  combs  are  in  heavy- 
laying  condition.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  sometimes  occur,  but  they 
are  rare. 

A  laying  hen  is  nearly  always  a  singing  hen.  She  works  and 
hunts  for  food  all  day,  is  tne  first  off  of  the  roost  and  the  last  to  go 
to  roost.  She  is  nervous  and  very  active,  keeping  herself  up  to  the 
greatest  possible  pitch. 

The  pelvic  bone  test  is  one  which  some  have  claimed  as  final 
and  conclusive.  Immediately  below  the  tail  at  the  end  of  side 
pieces  of  the  back  are  two  somewhat  bony  protuberances.  These 
are  called  the  pelvic  or  "lay"  bones,  and  are  just  above  the  vent 
through  which  the  eggs  must  pass.  When  an  egg  is  laid,  these 
bones  must  be  forced  apart  to  allow  its  free  passage.  When  these 
bones  are  soft  and  pliable,  and  spread  sufficient  to  allow  three 
fingers  to  be  placed  between  them,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  hen 
is  laying.  If  they  are  hard  and  bony,  and  close  together,  the  hen 
would  not  be  considered  as  laying  at  that  time.  Experience  has 
shown  that  this  method  will  usually  tell  whether  or  not  a  hen  is 
laying  at  the  time  the  examination  was  made. 

To  sum  up,  an  ideal  laying  hen  should  conform  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  the  following:  (1)  She  must  be  healthy;  (2)  comb, 
wattles  and  face,  red  in  color;  (3)  eye  bright  and  lustrous;  (4) 
neck  not  short,  but  rather  medium  to  long;  (5)  breast  broad  and 
long,  sloping  upward;  (6)  back,  long  and  broad;  (7)  abdomen, 
wide  and  deeper  than  breast;  (8)  shanks,  well  spread  and  rather 
long;  (9)  V-shaped  in  three  ways,  viz.,  (a)  on  sides,  front  to  rear, 
(b)  top  and  bottom,  front  to  rear,  (c)  base  of  tail,  downwards; 
(10)  well  spread  tail.— (Kansas  B.  164.) 

Eggs  for  Hatching. — One  should  be  as  careful  in  selecting 
eggs  for  hatching  as  in  selecting  parent  stock.  Select  eggs  of  a 
medium  size  and  an  average  as  to  color  and  shape.  Let  the  selec- 
tion be  influenced  by  the  average  product  of  the  hen  or  breed.  An 
unusually  large  egg  for  the  breed  or  hen  may  be  a  monstrosity  and 
can  not  be  expected  to  hatch.  An  unusually  small  egg  may  be 
defective  and  should  not  be  incubated.  An  egg  of  unusual  length 
or  one  of  unusual  rotundity  should  not  be  placed  under  a  hen  nor 
in  an  incubator.  An  even,  uniform  lot,  assorted  as  to  size,  color, 
and  shape,  will  be  apt  to  give  the  best  results.  Freshness  is  a  prime 
necessity.  While  an  egg  six  weeks  old  may  hatch,  the  chick  will 
be  weak  and  hard  to  raise.  Fresh  eggs  hatch  earlier,  and  the  chicks 
from  them  are  stronger  than  those  from  older  eggs.  As  a  rule, 
eggs  more  than  twelve  days  old  should  not  be  placed  in  an  incu- 
bator. This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  eggs  from  a  flock  numbering 
from  ten  to  twelve  hens  are  more  apt  to  hatch  than  are  eg£g  from  a 


642  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

flock  of  only  three  or  four  hens.  They  do  not  have  to  be  stored  so 
long  before  getting  a  sufficient  number  for  a  setting.  Eggs  for 
hatching  should  be  clean;  if  not  clean  they  should  be  washed  in. 
tepid  water  and  carefully  dried  with  a  clean,  soft  cloth.  This  wash- 
ing does  not  injure  the  egg,  but  it  must  be  done  quickly  and  care- 
fully, or  the  jarring  of  the  contents  may  ruin  it  for  hatching.  As 
fast  as  the  eggs  are  washed  and  dried  they  should  be  covered  with 
a  layer  of  clean  cloth  or  absorbent  cotton  to  prevent  their  becoming 
chilled.  It  is  good  practice  to  stand  the  eggs  in  a  cool  quiet  place, 
each  with  the  large  end  uppermost,  for  a  period  of  twelve  hours 
before  placing  for  incubation.  This  balances  the  yolk  in  the  center 
and  locates  the  air  cell. 

In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  eggs  laid  the 
day  they  are  set  will  hatch  several  hours  earlier  than  those  that  are 
a  week  older.  Eggs  w^aiting  for  incubation  should  be  kept  at  a 
temperature  of  about  60°  F.,  although  they  will  stand  a  variation 
of  temperature  from  40°  to  100°  F.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to 
dry  out,  nor  should  they  be  exposed  to  a  current  of  cold  air,  steam, 
or  vapor.  During  storage,  eggs  for  incubator  use  should  be  partly 
turned  every  day.  A  little  attention  to  these  simple  directions  will 
make  quite  a  difference  in  the  possibilities  of  fertile  eggs  and  will 
greatly  augment  the  percentage  of  chicks. — (Mich.  B.  266,  Agr. 
Dep.  F.  B.  236.) 

Color  of  Eggs. — It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that 
hens'  eggs  vary  rather  widely  in  color,  ranging  from  a  clear  white 
to  a  decided  light  brown.  Domestic  poultry  have  descended  from 
several  wild  strains,  the  various  breeds  being  formed  by  numerous 
crossing.  The  color  of  the  eggshell,  it  is  generally  believed,  is  a 
characteristic  which  has  been  transmitted  from  the  early  ancestors 
of  our  modem  breeds. 

There  is  no  constant  relation  between  the  color  of  the  shell 
and  the  composition  of  the  egg,  although  there  is  a  popular  belief 
in  some  localities  that  the  dark-shelled  eggs  are  "richer."  That 
there  are  no  differences  in  the  physical  properties  and  chemical 
composition  between  brown-shelled  and  white-shelled  eggs  was 
shown  by  investigations  carried  on  at  the  California  and  the  Mich- 
igan experiment  stations,  this  work  having  been  summarized  in 
earlier  publications  of  this  Department. 

The  color  of  the  shell  has,  however,  an  effect  upon  market 
value,  the  brown-shelled  eggs  bringing  the  higher  price,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  Boston  market,  and  white-shelled  eggs  in  the  New 
York  market.  In  England  the  preference  is  decidedly  in  favor  of 
the  tinted  eggs.  Of  common  breeds,  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes, 
Cochins,  Brahmas,  and  Langshans,  among  others,  lay  brown-shelled 
eggs,  and  Leghorns  and  Minorcas  white-shelled  eggs. 

At  the  Maine  Experiment  Station  breeding  experiments  with 
Wyandottes  and  Plymouth  Rocks  have  been  carried  on  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  strains  wnth  highly  de- 
veloped laying  qualities.  The  recorded  data  show  that  though  both 
breeds  lay  tinted  eggs  the  depth  of  color  varies  dei'idedly  with  indi- 


POULTRY  KEEPING 


543 


vidual  birds  in  the  case  of  each  breed.  Bv  careful  selection  of 
breeding  stock,  therefore,  it  should  be  possible  to  control  the  color 
of  the  eggshell  to  a  great  extent,  so  that  it  may  be  made  to  meet 
any  market  demand. — (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  262.) 

Incubation. — The  history  of  incubation  is  rather  obscure.  Nat- 
ural incubation,  which  is  dependent  upon  the  instinct  of  the  mother 
hen,  seems  to  be  conducted  by  the  modern  hen  in  just  about  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  the  barnyard  fowl  of  fifty  or  more  years 
ago.  Artificial  incubation,  or  hatching  by  machinery,  is  known  to 
be  an  old  idea,  and  yet  very  little  information  upon  original  proc- 
esses is  to  be  found  in  our  libraries.  Eggs  were  hatched  by  arti- 
ficial means  centuries  ago.  Machines  were  invented  and  used  suc- 
cessfully for  this  purpose  by  the  Egyptians  long  before  the  Christian 
era.  Very  recently  some  of  these  hatching  ovens  have  been  found 
by  explorers.  Some  of  them  depended  upon  the  customary  fuel  for 
their  supply  of  heat,  while  others  relied  upon  stones  heated  in  the 
sun,  and  some,  even,  were  found  that  obtained  the  necessary  heat 
from  lamps.  Besides  the  above  sources  of  incubation  heat,  mention 
can  be  made  of  decomposing  animal  and  vegetable  matter  used 
long  ago  with  unknown  success.  Not  many  winters  ago  the  writer 
had  the  pleasure  of  forking  out  a  live  and  healthy  chicken  from  a 
heap  of  compost  near  the  door  of  his  stable.  Numerous  other  in- 
stances of  accidental  incubation  have  been  related,  and  man's  in- 
genuity has  been  exercised  to  devise  machines  and  methods  that 
will  insure  the  transition  of  the  dormant  egg  into  the  living  chick. 

The  whole  theory  of  incubation  is  based  upon  the  fact  that,  if 
a  fertile  egg  is  kept  for  a  sufficient  period  of  time  under  certain 
conditions  of  heat,  moisture,  and  position,  it  will  be  transformed 
into  a  healthy  fowl. 

The  period  of  incubation  varies  with  different  species  of  fowls. 
The  average  period  of  natural  incubation  is  a  little  over  twenty,  or 
about  twenty-one  days,  for  the  egg  of  the  common  hen.  This  period 
may  be  somewhat  shortened  or  prolonged  by  variations  in  the  con- 
duct of  the  mother  hen,  and  possibly  by  changes  in  the  weather. 
Should  the  weather  be  moderate  and  the  nen  quiet  and  faithful,  we 
need  not  be  surprised  if  the  eggs  are  all  hatched  by  the  close  of  the 
twentieth  or  even  the  nineteenth  day.  Again,  if  the  weather  be 
extreme  or  the  hen  restless  and  neglectful,  we  need  not  look  for  all 
the  eggs  to  hatch  until  the  close  of  the  twenty-first  or  the  beginning 
of  the  twenty^econd  day.  The  same  applies  to  eggs  from  other 
fowls,  except,  of  course,  that  each  has  its  own  period  of  incubation. 

Period  of  Incubation. 


Name  of  fowl. 


Common  hen  .. 

Pheasant 

Duck,  common' 

Peafowl , 

Guinea.'  • , 


Days. 


21 
25 
28 
28 
25 


Name  of  fowl. 


Goose 

Partridce 

Duck,  Barbary 
Turkey 


Days. 


30 
24 
80 

28 


644  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

In  spite  of  all  notions  to  the  contrary,  the  process  of  hatching 
can  be  suspended  and  held  in  check  for  several  days  without  total 
destruction  of  the  germ.  This  fact  is  of  practical  importance,  and, 
if  remembered,  may  save  the  breeder  a  good  hatch  when,  because  of 
some  accident  or  oversight,  a  lot  of  eggs  has  been  left  without  out- 
side heat  and  allowed  to  cool.  Such  eggs,  if  placed  at  a  proper 
temperature,  may  hatch  fairly  well,  provided  this  temperature  is 
maintained  a  few  days  longer  than  the  usual  period  of  incubation. 
The  writer  has  known  hatching  to  be  delayed  to  the  twenty-second, 
in  one  instance,  until  the  twenty-fourth  day  by  accidents  to  his 
incubators.  Hence,  where  accidents  of  this  kind  occur  it  is  wdse  to 
keep  the  eggs  warm  a  day  or  two  overtime,  with  the  expectation 
that,  while  incubation  may  be  delayed,  the  germ  is  still  alive  and 
will  develop.  This  brings  to  mind  one  of  the  greatest  advantages 
of  the  incubator  to  the  farmer  or  the  farmer's  wife — to  people  who 
are  accustomed  to  rely  upon  the  mother  hen  and  prefer  to  raise 
chickens  by  natural  incubation.  Many  times  the  hen  will  get  sick, 
will  die,  or  without  any  apparent  excuse  will  leave  the  nest,  and 
unless  another  hen  is  ready  to  take  her  place  the  eggs  will  spoil. 
A  small  incubator  in  the  house  will  be  found  useful  upon  such 
occasions.  The  eggs  can  be  removed  from  the  nest  and  placed  in 
the  warm  incubator  and  hatched  or  kept  there  until  another  hen 
is  ready  to  take  up  the  work.  For  this  purpose  alone  an  incubator 
is  worth  its  price  to  any  farmer  who  raises  poultry.  Many  times 
has  the  writer  saved  valuable  clutches  of  eggs  by  the  use  of  one  of 
these  machines  when  it  was  found  some  perverse  hen  had  deliber- 
ately abandoned  her  nest. 

Natural  Incubation. — ^After  selecting  the  eggs  they  must  either 
be  entrusted  to  hens  or  an  incubator ;  this  must  be  decided  according 
to  circumstances.  If  it  is  not  the  intention  to  keep  many  hens  or 
raise  early  chicks,  by  using  one  of  the  heavier  breeds  of  fowls,  one 
can  get  along  very  well  without  an  incubator.  Some  poultry  raisers 
claim  they  can  care  for  a  machine  with  less  trouble  and  expense 
than  the  necessary  hens,  no  matter  what  breed  they  may  keep.  One 
thing  is  certain,  however,  the  machine  will  bring  off  chicks  at  any 
season  of  the  year  that  may  be  desired,  while  one  must  wait  until 
the  hens  get  ready  to  sit.  If  Leghorns  or  other  nonsitting  breeds 
are  kept,  an  incubator  is  an  almost  indispensable  part  of  the  equip- 
ment. Some  individuals  of  nonsitting  breeds  may  make  good 
mothers,  but  so  many  of  them  cease  sitting  after  the  first  few  days 
that  they  are  very  unsatisfactory,  as  a  rule.  If  individuals  of  other 
breeds  as  Cochins,  Wyandottes,  etc.,  seem  inclined  to  sit  and  would 
make  good  mothers,  they  may  be  used,  providing  chickens  are 
wanted  at  that  time.  It  is  claimed  that  the  hen's  time  is  too  valu- 
able to  wasto  in  sitting,  but  if  she  is  properly  cared  for  while 
broody,  it  will  serve  as  a  resting  period,  and  she  will  probably  lay 
about  as  many  eggs  in  the  year  as  she  would  if  confined  to  the  coop 
for  a  few  days  to  break  up  the  desire  to  incubate.  After  a  hen  has 
hatched  and  reared  a  brood  of  chicks  she  will  usually  begin  laying 
again  and  apparently  seem  to  try  to  make  up  for  lost  time.    It  is  Si 


POULTRY  KEEPING  545 

mistake  to  kill  a  hen  just  because  she  raised  a  brood  of  nice  chicks. 
She  probably  will  be  one  of  the  best  layers  the  next  winter.  Some 
hens,  however,  seem  to  be  chronic  sitters;  these  are  of  little  value 
for  anything  but  hatching  chicks  and  might  as  well  be  killed  if 
they  ai'e  not  wanted  for  that  purpose.  Such  hens  develop  but  few 
eggs  at  a  time  and  can  never  make  a  good  year's  record. 

Breeds  Adapted  to  Incubation. — The  question  of  the  relative 
merits  of  the  different  breeds  as  sitters  often  arises.  There  is  much 
difference  of  opinion  on  this  subject  and  also  a  great  difference  in 
the  individual  hens  themselves.  In  general,  however,  the  Cochins 
and  Wyandottes  make  very  good  sitters.  Some  may  prefer  Plym- 
outh Rocks,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  etc.,  but  we  believe  that  no  other 
breeds  are  as  nicely  feathered  for  incubation  purposes  as  the  Wyan- 
dottes and  Cochins.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  Leghorns,  Minor- 
cas  and  others  of  the  special  egg  producing  breeds  do  not  make 
good  mother  hens.  Some  of  these  make  good  sitters,  but  fax  too 
many  will  prove  worthless  for  the  purpose. 

TJhe  Nest. — In  the  first  place  one  should  select  a  good  location 
for  the  sitting  hen.  When  they  are  located  where  others  can  lay 
in  with  them,  trouble  is  sure  to  occur,  as  they  generally  quarrel 
over  the  nest,  thus  breaking  and  soiling  the  eggs.  Therefore,  it  is 
essential  to  secure  a  place  where  there  cannot  be  any  possibility  of 
disturbance.  The  nest  may  be  made  of  soft  hay  sprinkled  with 
sulphur  and  powdered  tobacco  stems,  or  some  other  good  insect 
powder  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  lice.  After  niglitfall  select  those 
hens  that  have  been  sitting  steadily  for  a  few  days  and  remove 
them  to  the  prepared  nests.  If  they  do  not  settle  down  contentedly 
at  first  do  not  entrust  them  with  eggs,  until  safe  to  do  so.  Some 
hens  prove  too  cranky  to  be  profitable  even  though  they  do  not 
cease  incubation  entirely,  or  spoil  the  nest  of  eggs;  they  should  be 
taken  off  the  nest  and  fed  once  or  twice  to  test  their  dispositions. 
If  they  go  back  on  the  nest  of  their  own  accord  it  is  safe  to  entrust 
them  with  eggs.  If  they  do  not  go  back  at  the  end  of  half  an  hour, 
catch  and  place  them  gently  on  the  nest.  Some  hens  learn  to  go 
back  quickly  and  take  their  own  nest,  while  others  are  very  slow. 

A  very  serviceable  nest  is  made  by  cutting  a  door  in  the  side 
of  a  barrel  and  hinging  it  fast  with  light  hinges  or  straps.  Place 
old  newspapers  on  the  bottom  and  then  make  a  nice  firm  nest  of 
Boft  hay.  Be  sure  and  make  the  nest  so  large  that  the  eggs  will  not 
pile  up  on  each  other  imder  the  hen,  but  not  large  enough  to  allow 
them  to  roll  away  from  her  body.  The  top  of  the  barrel  can  then 
be  covered  with  boards,  old  sacks  or  anything  of  the  kind  con- 
venient. The  top  hoop  may  be  removed  and  a  sack  fastened  down 
the  same  as  in  shipping  potatoes  to  market  in  barrels.  Small  hol&s 
can  be  bored  in  the  side  to  admit  plenty  of  air.  Good  nests  may  be 
made  from  boxes  about  15"xl5"xl5".  Remove  one  side  with  the 
exception  of  a  6"  piece  at  one  edge  which  serves  as  the  bottom  of 
the  nest  on  the  front  side  and  holds  the  nest  material  in  place. 
Hinge  the  part  removed  to  one  edge,  thus  making  a  door  that  can 
be  quickly  opened  or  closed.     Nests  of  this  style  may  be  made  in 


546  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

sections  of  five  or  six  and  placed  one  above  the  other,  when  one 
has  to  be  economical  of  space.  A  small  room  may  be  lined  around 
next  to  the  wall  with  such  nests  and  the  blank  space  in  the  center 
left  for  feed  and  water  dishes. 

Food  and  Management  of  Sitting  Hens. — If  the  hen  is  well 
disposed  and  can  be  left  to  come  off  the  nest  at  will,  little  or  no 
trouble  is  involved.  If  for  any  reason  the  hen  has  to  be  confined 
to  the  nest  she  should  be  taken  off  regularly  once  a  day  and  allowed 
to  eat  and  drink.  Good  sound  corn  is  about  the  best  food  for  sitting 
hens,  although  they  may  be  fed  such  grains  as  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
or  buckwheat.  Rye  is  not  recommended,  as  the  hens  do  not  like  it 
and  it  does  not  prove  to  be  a  very  healthful  food  for  them.  Grit,  in 
the  form  of  coarse  sand  or  broken  stone,  should  be  kept  convenient. 
Water  must  also  be  supplied.  If  the  weather  is  hot,  keep  water 
Inside  the  nest  so  that  the  hen  can  drink  whenever  she  desires. 
Otherwise  she  becomes  very  thirsty  and  drinks  to  much  at  once, 
often  resulting  in  bowel  trouble  and  diarrhcea.  Some  take  the 
hens  off  the  nest  in  the  morning  and  allow  them  a  little  run  in  the 
wet  grass.  In  that  way  the  hen's  feathers  become  moistened  slightly, 
thus  adding  a  little  moisture  to  the  eggs  each  day.  If  the  nest  is 
in  an  extremely  dry  place  moisture  should  be  added  in  some  way. 
There  are  several  ways  of  keeping  the  eggs  sufficiently  moist.  The 
practice  of  allowing  the  hens  to  run  in  the  wet  grass  each  morning 
is  one  of  the  best.  Another  is  to  place  damp  earth  and  sods  under 
the  eggs.  A  third  method,  and  one  probably  most  largely  used,  is 
to  sprinkle  or  dip  the  eggs  in  water  heated  to  103°  F.  This  is  done 
at  least  twice,  once  about  the  14tli  and  again  the  18th  day  of  the 
hatch.  If  the  eggs  are  on  the  ground  or  in  a  damp  place  no  mois- 
ture should  be  added.  When  removing  the  hens  from  the  nest, 
handle  them  carefully.  Many  good  hens  are  spoiled  by  careless 
or  rough  handling.  If  the  hen  has  to  be  caught  in  order  to  put  her 
back  on  the  nest  do  not  place  her  directly  on  the  eggs  but  on  the 
edge  of  the  nest,  thus  allowing  her  to  cover  them  in  her  own  cau- 
tious way. 

Precautions  Against  Lice  and  Mites. — Sitting  hens  must  be 
kept  free  from  lice  and  mites.  In  order  to  rid  them  of  these  pests 
take  each  one  gently  by  the  legs  and  with  the  head  hanging  down- 
ward, dust  the  feathers  well  with  some  good  insect  powder 
and  replace  on  the  nest.  It  would  be  best  to  repeat  this  about  the 
10th  and  18th  days  of  the  hatch.  Attention  to  lice  at  this  period 
may  save  many  chicks  later  in  the  season.  A  hen  cannot  be  a  satis- 
factory sitter  if  she  is  infested  with  lice.  Very  often  those  that  are 
well  fitted  by  nature  for  good  mothers  are  driven  from  the  nest  by 
insect  pests.  The  lice  running  around  over  the  body  and  gnawing 
at  the  skin  and  feathers  cause  intense  itching  and  in  trying  to  get 
away  from  these  pests  the  hen  forgets  all  about  her  desire  to  sit  and 
deserts  the  nest.  If  strongly  inclined  to  sit  she  may  desert  one  nest 
and  rnove  to  another,  trying  to  escape  her  enemies.  If  a  hen  shows 
any  sign  of  uneasiness  be  careful  to  inspect  her  body  for  lice  and 
also  tbQ  cracks  and  crevices  about  the  nest  for  mites,    If  either  i^ 


POULTRY  KEEPING  547 

found,  thoroughly  dust  her  once  more,  sponge  off  the  eggs  with  a 
damp  cloth  and  move  to  a  clean  place.  Burn  everything  about  the 
nest  and  either  thoroughly  disinfect  or  burn  it.  Wage  constant 
warfare  against  lice  and  mites  during  the  period  of  incubation  and 
the  result  will  be  a  clean  lot  of  chicks.  It  has  been  said  that  three 
lice  will  break  up  a  sitting  hen  or  kill  a  brood  of  chicks.  This 
probably  is  not  always  true,  but  it  is  certain  that  a  hen  that  starts 
to  incubate  with  three  lice  on  her  body  will  probably  have  enough 
by  the  end  of  the  hatch,  unless  properly  cared  for,  to  infest  all  the 
chicks  and  render  the  whole  brood  either  very  unsatisfactory,  or 
worthless.  An  ounce  of  lice  powder  at  the  beginning  of  the  hatch 
is  worth  a  good  many  pounds  after  the  chicks  are  a  few  weeks  old. 
—(Mich.  B.  245.) 

ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION. 

THE  INCUBATOR. 

The  machine  used  in  artificial  incubation  or  hatching  is  called 
an  Incubator.  There  are  so  many  different  kinds  of  machines  used, 
that  a  description  of  them  all  is  quite  impossible  in  an  article  of 
this  kind.  At  the  present  time  they  are  all  constructed  upon  similar 
principles  and  along  the  same  lines,  and  nearly  all  of  them  derive 
their  heat  from  lamps  that  burn  kerosene.  In  some  of  the  hot-air 
machin-es  the  heat  is  applied  through  the  medium  of  heated  air, 
while  in  others — ^the  hot-water  machines — the  eggs  are  supplied 
with  heat  from  pipes  filled  with  hot  water. 

Hot-Air  and  Hot-Water  Incubators. — In  the  hot-air  incubator 
a  common  kerosene  lamp  is  used  to  furnish  the  current  of  hot  air 
which  passes  over  and  around  the  egg  chamber  and  which  keeps 
the  eggs  at  the  proper  temperature  for  hatching.  Like  the  hot- 
water  machine,  it  is  supplied  with  a  regulator,  which,  acting  upon 
a  valve  or  damper,  regulates  the  admission  of  heat  to  the  egg 
chamber. 

In  this  incubator  water  is  heated  and  forced  through  metal 
tubes  over  the  eggs,  thus  distributing  heat  throughout  the  egg 
chamber.  It  is  supplied  with  a  regulator  which  works  upon  the 
same  principle  as  does  that  of  the  hot-air  machine. 

PARTS  OP  AN  INCUBATOR. 

The  selection  of  the  lamp  is  so  important  that  all  poultry  men 
should  be  warned  against  buying  a  poor  lamp.  Manufacturers,  as 
well  as  purchasers,  should  remember  that  while  the  lamp  is  half 
the  incubator  the  burner  is  half  the  lamp.  The  lamp  is  the  primary 
source  of  heat  in  both  hot-air  and  hot-water  machines.  Many  kinds 
of  lamps  have  been  tried  and  many  patents  have  been  granted 
upon  lamps  and  parts  thereof  for  incubator  use,  but  the  tendency 
is  to  discard  all  that  are  in  any  manner  complicated  and  to  return 
to  the  plain,  old-fashioned  burner  and  chimney.  The  oil  reservoir 
should  be  made  of  metal,  either  copper  or  galvanized  iron,  as  those 
made  of  glass  are  too  liable  to  break  and  are  too  heavy  to  handle 
conveniently.  This  reservoir  sliould  have  a  flat  bottom  and  a  flat 
top.     It  should  have  a  capacity  exceeding  the  twenty-four  hours' 


548  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

demand  of  the  machine.  This  is  very  important,  for  sometimes  it 
happens  that  the  operator  is  detained  for  some  reason  and  can  not 
reach  his  machine  at  the  proper  hour,  and  in  such  a  case  the  lamp 
must  contain  oil  enough  for  a  few  hours  overtime.  This  reservoir 
should  be  plain  and  smooth  outside  and  inside.  It  should  be  well 
made  and  well  finished,  having  no  rough  projections  or  slivers  of 
metal  or  solder  to  catch  the  hands,  the  clothing,  or  the  cleaning 
cloths.  Attached  to  this  reservoir,  or  body  of  the  lamp,  should  b^ 
a  good,  strong  handle  large  enough  for  the  hand  of  the  operator. 
Better  no  handle  at  all  than  one  that  is  slender,  sharp-edged,  flim- 
sily  attached,  or  too  small  for  the  use  of  more  than  one  or  two 
fingers.  Select  a  lamp  with  a  handle  that  is  broad,  strong,  smooth, 
and  firmly  attached.  The  lamp  is  for  use,  and  it  should  be  built 
to  stand  handling.  It  must  be  strong  in  order  that  it  may  be  con- 
venient. 

Burner. — The  burner  is  the  very  important  part  of  the  incu- 
bator lamp.  It  should  be  made  with  the  greatest  regard  to  stability 
and  accuracy.  The  flatrwick  tube  is  the  most  common,  and,  when 
the  burner  is  properly  constructed,  it  answers  every  purpose.  But 
many  manufacturers  are  careless  about  the  quality  of  their  burners, 
and  are  sending  out  flimsy  and  poorly  made  articles  that  are  diffi- 
cult to  manipulate  and  are  imperfect  in  action.  A  little  careless- 
ness in  selecting  a  burner  has  led  to  the  condemnation  of  many  a 
good  incubator.  The  burner  should  be  made  of  good  material, 
such  as  brass  or  copper,  and  never  of  poor  material,  such  as  iron  or 
plated  tin.  The  wheel  or  lever  used  in  raising  and  lowering  the 
wick  must  be  stout,  large  enough  for  its  purpose,  easy  to  find,  and 
must  turn  exactly  and  easily.  Never  wast^e  any  time  upon  a  burner 
that  does  not  work  promptly  and  readily,  so  far  as  the  wdck  is  con- 
cerned. If  it  turns  hard,  or  does  not  turn  to  the  thirty-second  of 
an  inch,  it  is  useless  and  will  cause  trouble. 

The  tube  holding  the  wick  should  be  strongly  made  of  material 
that  will  not  break,  spring,  or  bend,  and  it  should  be  so  adjusted  to 
the  size  of  the  wicks  furnished  with  the  outfit  that  the  wick  can 
pass  up  and  down  freely  without  pinching  or  binding.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  should  not  be  so  large  or  loose  as  to  allow  the  escape 
of  gas  along  the  side  of  the  wick.  In  one  case  the  pinching  of  the 
wick  will  interfere  with  capillary  attraction,  and  in  the  other  the 
looseness  of  the  wick  will  cause  an  uncertain  or  unsteady  flame. 
The  wick  tube  should  be  perfectly  true  and  smooth  across  the  top. 
A  rough  edge  with  notches,  depressions,  or  projections  of  metal  or 
brazing  will  make  it  difficult  to  trim  the  wick;  and  a  poorly 
trimmed  wick  gives  off  an  uncertain  degree  of  heat.  Alongside  the 
wick  should  be  a  small  tube  for  the  escape  of  surplus  gas  or  vapors 
from  the  reservoir,  but  this  tube  must  never  project  above  or  even 
to  the  top  of  the  wick  tube,  for  if  it  does  it  will  interfere  with  trim- 
ming and  be  likely  to  fill  with  cinder  or  soot. 

The  space  under  the  wick  screen  should  -be  wide  open.  The 
hinge  to  the  cap  should  be  very  strong  and  work  freely  to  the  fullest 
extent.    The  snap,  or  catch,  to  the  cap  should  have  proper  strength 


POULTRY  KEEPING  549 

and  tension,  and  should  fasten  the  wick  cap  firmly  to  the  burner. 
Every  detail  should  be  examined  before  the  burner  is  sold.  The 
following  questions  should  be  settled  before  the  lamp  is  packed 
for  shipment:  Does  it  leak?  Does  it  fit?  Does  the  elevator  turn 
easily  and  accurately?  Is  the  wick  tube  perfect?  Is  the  top  of  the 
wick  tube  level  and  smooth?  Can  the  wick  be  trimmed  nicely? 
Has  the  burner  a  chimney  that  has  been  made  to  fit?  Does  the 
screw  or  snap  that  fastens  the  chimney  work  easily  and  properly? 
Does  the  thread  of  the  burner  fit  the  thread  in  the  socket  of  the 
lamp?  This  last  question  may  seem  unnecessary,  but  the  writer 
has  purchased  incubators  having  burners  which  could  not  be  turned 
into  the  lamp.  All  these  little  matters  count  and  have  much  to  do 
with  the  success  or  failure  of  the  hatch.  While  some  of  the  imper- 
fections of  a  lamp  are  visible,  others  can  not  be  discovered  until 
an  attempt  is  made  to  use  the  lamp  in  heating  an  incubator,  or  to 
clean,  trim,  and  fill  it. 

Chimney. — The  chimneys  of  different  makes  of  incubators 
vary  greatly  in  form.  Few  are  well  made,  whatever  their  shape. 
The  base  or  lower  circumference  should  be  smooth  and  level.  The 
spiral  or  bevel  of  conical  chimneys  should  be  so  cut  that  the  chim- 
ney stands  plumb  when  on  the  lamp.  The  top  circumference 
should  be  smooth  and  without  slivers  upon  the  edge  to  cut  the 
hands  or  catch  the  cloth  in  cleaning.  The  mica  front  should  be 
large  enough  to  show  the  full  width  and  height  of  the  flame,  and 
this  mica  should  be  fastened  neatly  and  securely.  Allowance  should 
be  made  for  contraction  and  expansion.  Referring  again  to  the 
forms  of  chimneys,  the  most  satisfaction  is  derived  from  those  of 
a  cylindrical  outline.  They  are  preferred  to  those  of  a  conical  out- 
line, although  those  of  the  inverted-cone  form  are  convenient  to 
handle  and,  because  of  their  wide,  open  tops  and  short  canal,  very 
easy  to  clean. 

Nearly  every  incubator  cat<alogue  describes  its  lamp  in  glowing 
terms,  but  a  large  number  of  the  lamps  sold  are  useless  and  dis- 
credit their  manufacturers.  It  would  cost  but  little  more  to  make 
them  better,  and,  if  they  were  properly  inspected  and  tested  before 
shipment,  it  would  hardly  be  necessary  to  devote  so  much  space  to 
this  subject. 

Wick. — Nothing  has  been  found  yet  that  takes  the  place  of  the 
plain  cotton  wick.  Other  materials  have  been  tried  in  the  so-called 
"wickless  machines,"  but  while  wicks  of  these  new  materials  are 
more  durable  than  cotton,  they  need  about  the  same  attention  in 
cleaning  if  not  in  trimming.  The  wick  should  be  of  medium 
weave  and  some  firmness  and  be  made  to  fit  the  burner  in  which  it 
is  to  be  used. 

Body  of  the  Incubator. — ^The  body  of  an  incubator  should  be 
mounted  upon  good  strong  legs  and  at  a  reasonable  height  from- 
the  floor.  If  too  high  or  too  low,  the  machine  is  very  inconvenient 
to  operate.  The  writer  prefers  that  the  top  of  the  incubator  be 
about  36  inches  from  the  floor.  Manufacturers  of  incubators 
should  remember  that  these  machines  are  moved  about  and  are 


550  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

sometimes  required  to  carry  weight,  and  they  should  furnish  them 
with  legs  for  utility  rather  than  for  ornament.  The  body  of  an 
incubator  should  be  made  of  nonshrinkable  material  and  should 
be  air-tight  and  have  well-fitted  joints.  None  but  the  very  best  of 
workmen  should  be  allowed  to  work  upon  an  incubator.  More  de- 
pends upon  a  good  carpenter  than  upon  a  good  painter,  and  the 
value  of  any  incubator  lies,  not  in  how  well  does  it  look,  but  in  how 
well  it  is  made.  The  walls  of  the  body  should  be  three  in  number, 
making  two  air  spaces,  and  each  of  these  three  walls  should  be  well 
constructed  and  with  good  tight  joints.  If  each  of  these  walls  is 
not  tightly  made,  then  the  manufacturer  should  not  boast  of  his 
air  spaces,  for  an  open  space  can  not  be  called  an  air  space.  The 
outside  surface  of  the  body  should  be  of  smooth  finish.  Seams,  flut- 
ing, beadwork,  and  unnecessary  ornamentation  should  be  avoided. 
It  is  easy  to  see  how  vermin  can  infest  an  incubator  that  is  made 
of  beaded  matching.  The  top  of  an  incubator  should  be  smooth 
and  unincumbered.  It  is  useful  as  a  work  table  in  testing,  cooling, 
or  turning  eggs,  and  it  should  be  a  clear,  free  surface.  It  is  quite 
an  inconvenience  to  have  part  of  the  regulator  upon  the  top  of  the 
machine.  A  good  feature  of  some  incubators  is  that  they  have  the 
regulator  either  at  the  end  of  the  machine  or  under  cover,  if  at  the 
top  of  the  table. 

The  inside  of  an  incubator,  or  the  space  known  as  the  egg 
chamber,  should  be  well  finished.  No  bad  joints  and  no  slivers  or 
other  evidences  of  bad  workmanship  are  allowable.  The  trays 
should  be  smooth,  well  made,  and  should  slide  easily  upon  the 
tracks.  If  the  trays  stick  or  hang  when  being  drawn  out  or  pushed 
in,  the  machine  is  defective  and  should  not  be  accepted  by  the  pur- 
chaser. Such  a  defect  will  not  cause  loss  of  time  and  patience  merely, 
but  it  may  cause  the  loss  of  a  trayful  of  eggs.  The  space  called  the 
"egg  chamber"  should  be  deep  enough  from  above  downward,  or,  as 
carpenters  express  it,  "high  enough  between  joints,"  that  the  trays 
and  eggs  have  plenty  of  space,  and  so  that  when  necessary  the  hand 
or  thermometer  can  be  passed  back  over  the  eggs.  This  is  impor- 
tant. There  should  be  at  least  3^/^  inches  space  between  the  top  of 
the  eggs  and  the  heating  tank.  Convenience  and  evenness  of  tem- 
perature both  demand  that  the  top  of  the  eggs  should  not  be  too 
near  the  source  of  heat.  Besides  this  point,  the  air  around  the  eggs 
will  be  better  because  of  this  space. 

Nursery. — The  nursery,  or  chick,  space  below  the  trays  should 
be  ample.  From  the  bottom  of  the  tray  to  the  floor  of  the  nursery 
should  be  a  space  of  nearly  4  inches.  This  space  will  give  the  chicks 
in  the  nursery  a  chance  to  stand  erect  and  also  allow  the  trays  to 
be  moved  in  or  out  without  danger  to  the  youngsters  below.  One 
of  our  best  incubators  is  faulty  in  this  respect,  and,  while  it  is  a 
very  successful  hatcher,  it  decapitates  or  otherwise  injures  several 
of  the  chicks  every  time  the  tray  is  drawn  out  or  replaced.  Better 
no  space  below  than  a  space  that  is  too  limited.  The  removable 
nursery  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  improvements  that  has  been 
made  in  incubator  attachments  for  many  years,  and  all  who  have 


POULTRY  KEEPING  551 

used  it  agree  that  no  machine  is  complete  without  it.  It  gives  an 
abundance  of  room  for  the  chicks  as  they  drop  from  the  tray  above 
and  it  permits  the  removal  of  the  chicks  from  the  nursery  without 
disturbing  any  unhatched  eggs  that  may  be  left  in  the  tray.  The 
bottem  of  the  nursery  is  covered  with  a  canvas  carpet  so  that  the 
chicks  will  not  be  lamed  or  injured  by  slipping.  The  floor  of  the 
removable  nursery  is  usually  attached  to  the  front  of  the  egg  cham- 
ber at  right  angles  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  whole  nursery 
can  be  drawn  out  as  easily  as  one  usually  pulls  out  the  drawer  of 
his  desk.  Such  an  arrangement  makes  cleaning  and  inspection 
easy,  besides  giving  one  access  to  the  chicks  in  cases  of  partial  or 
delayed  hatches.  It  also  makes  it  possible  to  use  the  nursery  to  its 
greatest  advantage.  The  first  twenty-four  hours  are  very  impor- 
tant ones  in  the  life  of  a  chick,  and  a  properly  constructed  remov- 
able nursery  is  the  best  place  that  has;been  found  for  its  safety  and 
welfare. 

The  tray  should  be  strongly  made  of  well-dressed  material  well 
put  together.  It  should  not  spring  nor  sag  when  loaded  with  eggs. 
It  should  be  made  of  soft  wood,  and  the  nails  and  screws  used 
should  be  long  enough  to  hold  the  parts  firmly  together.  A  flimsy 
or  poorly  made  tray  is  to  be  avoided.  It  means  loss  of  time  and 
loss  of  eggs  by  breaking.  The  writer  once  bought  an  incubator  the 
trays  of  which  were  put  together  with  carpet  tacks  and  screws  too 
short  to  hold  the  different  parts  in  position.  The  attempt  to  use 
was  accompanied  by  the  lo^  of  nearly  a  trayful  of  eg^,  and  he 
hopes  that  his  readers  will  profit  by  his  experience  and  examine  all 
trays  carefully  before  setting  up  a  new  incubator.  Many  trays  are 
partitioned  by  wire  into  small  spaces,  each  capable  of  holding  five 
or  six  eggs.  As  a  rule  such  trays  are  unsatisfactory.  A  simple 
division  by  three-cornered  wooden  strips  into  transverse  rows  or 
ranks  is  highly  satisfactorv%  and  it  is  preferable  to  any  other  form 
of  tray.  The  edged  strips  of  wood  stiffen  the  tray  without  encum- 
bering it,  they  take  up  no  egg  room,  and  do  not  interfere  wnth  the 
process  of  turning.  The  tray  must  not  be  allowed  to  slide  all  the 
way  back  against  the  wall  of  the  egg  chamber.  A  space  of  at  least 
21/2  inches  should  be  allowed  between  the  tray  and  the  back  wall 
of  the  machine.  A  block  should  be  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  trac-k 
at  its  farther  end  to  prevent  the  operator  from  forcing  the  tray  back 
and  closing  up  this  space.  This  is  important,  as  the  chicks  are  apt 
to  be  pinched,  crippled,  or  killed  if  the  tray  can  be  pushed  too  far 
ba^'k.  A  similar  space  should  be  allowed  between  the  front  edge 
of  the  ^^g  tray  and  the  door.  The  chick  needs  this  space  when  it 
drops  from  the  tray  to  the  nursery. 

Returning  to  our  consideration  of  the  body  of  the  incubator, 
much  can  be  said  about  the  arrangement  of  the  door,  or  hinged 
window,  in  front.  Select  a  machine  with  a  double-glass  door.  The 
two  layers  of  gla.ss  must  have  1  inch  of  space  between  them  so  that 
they  can  be  cleaiied.  Many  manufacturers  are  careless  about  the 
fit  of  the  door.  It  should  open  and  close  easily,  but  snugly.  If  it 
does  not  open  and  close  easily,  one  is  liable  to  jar  the  eggs  and  dis- 


552  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

turb  the  level  of  the  incubator.  The  sash  of  the  door  should  be 
heavy  enough  for  strength,  but  not  so  wide  as  to  interfere  with  the 
view  of  the  eggs  or  the  thermometer.  The  glass  in  the  door  should 
be  wide  enough  in  the  perpendicular  to  afford  the  operator  a  full 
view  of  the  egg  chamber  without  stooping  or  kneeling.  It  is  not 
a  view  of  the  wooden  edge  of  the  tray  that  the  operator  wants;  it  ig 
a  view  of  the  thermometer,  the  eggs,  or  the  chicks.  The  glass 
should  be  located  so  as  to  permit  this  view,  but  if  the  glass  is  too 
narrow  or  not  properly  placed,  or  if  the  margin  of  the  sash  is  too 
wide,  the  window  will  be  of  little  value  to  the  operator.  This 
matter  is  worthy  the  attention  of  the  manufacturer,  for  there  is  quite 
a  prejudice  against  a  machine  the  temperature  of  which  can  not  bo 
watched  without  the  removal  of  the  thermometer  from  it.  Many 
manufacturers  send  machines  with  doors  imperfectly  fitted,  the  glass 
of  which  is  covered  with  paint,  putty,  or  varnish,  which  can  not  be 
removed,  and  it  is  impossible  to  read  the  thermometer  through  such 
doors.  Once  more  purchasers  are  warned  to  avoid  the  machine  that 
will  not  permit  them  to  read  the  thermometer  without  opening  the 
door.  Manufacturers  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  light  should 
strike  the  egg  tray  from  above  instead  of  from  below. 

Thermometer. — It  is  really  surprising  that  up  to  the  present 
time  so  little  improvement  has  been  made  in  thermometers.  An  in- 
strument of  this  kind  should  be  plainly  legible  and  it  should  be  con- 
venient to  handle.  The  usual  practice  of  glazing  the  back  of  the 
tube  with  white  porcelain  makes  the  reading  of  the  temperature  very 
difficult.  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  this.  This  white 
background  makes  a  grayish  shade,  the  color  of  the  mercurial  col- 
umn, and  unless  the  light  is  very  good  and  strikes  the  figures  from 
the  right  direction  it  is  almost  impossible  to  ascertain  the  tempera- 
ture without  removing  the  thermometer  from  the  machine.  This  is 
bad,  as  the  column  is  likely  to  contract  or  expand  while  being  con- 
veyed to  the  light.  The  column  should  be  large  enough  to  be  seen 
from  a  distance  of  at  least  4  feet,  and  the  markings  and  figures 
should  be  few  and  very  plain.  Many  of  the  frames  in  which  the 
glass  is  set  are  cumbersome,  take  up  too  much  room,  obscure  the 
view,  have  sharp  corners  or  long  legs  to  catch  upon  the  tray  or 
sleeve,  and  yet  are  too  unstable  to  stand  alone  or  stay  where  placed. 
A  thermometer  with  a  red  or  green  background,  a  large  mercurial 
column,  a  few  plain  marks  and  figures,  and  mounted  upon  a  con- 
venient yet  substantial  frame  will  be  a  boon  to  poultry  men.  Im- 
provements will  be  made,  and  it  is  well  for  purchasers  to  ask  for  the 
latest  and  the  best.  In  connection  with  thenuometers  it  is  well  to 
state  that  the  so-called  "magnifying  lens"  is  a  failure  and  much  more 
difficult  to  read  than  the  plain  round  tube  unless  it  is  held  in  exactly 
a  certain  position  with  reference  to  the  light.  The  thermometer  tube 
need  not  be  over  4  inches  long,  and  the  less  metal  it  has  attached  to 
it  the  better.  In  regard  to  the  accuracy  of  the  thermometer,  almost 
any  physician  will  test  it  for  you  by  the  side  of  his  clinical  ther- 
mometer, which  has  about  the  same  scale  and  range. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  653 

Regulator. — Many  are  the  methods  that  have  been  tried  for  auto- 
matically regulating  the  temperature  of  the  egg  chamber.  So  far 
all  of  them  depend  upon  the  principle  of  contraction  and  expansion. 
The  demand  is  for  some  simple  device  that  will  allow  the  tempera- 
ture to  rise  so  high  and  no  higher,  and  that  will  maintain  the  tem- 
perature at  that  degree  regardless  of  the  weather  or  external  influ- 
ences. Most  regulators  act  upon  a  damper  over  the  top  of  the  lamp, 
and,  by  opening  or  closing  the  same,  regulate  the  amount  of  heat 
that  passes  into  the  incubator.  The  expanding  horseshoe-shaped 
bar,  the  elliptical  spring  bar,  and  the  metallic  disk  are  the  most  com- 
mon regulator  powers  of  the  present.  Perhaps  in  the  course  of  time 
some  one  will  make  a  regulator  from  a  coil  or  spiral  spring  that, 
reaching  clear  across  the  top  of  the  egg  chamber,  will  very  accu- 
rately control  the  admission  of  heat. 

At  the  present  time  the  best  regulator  is  the  double  disk,  whether 
filled  with  air  or  with  liquid.  Excellent  results  are  obtained  by  using 
the  single  disk,  but  the  double  disk  is  still  better.  The  disk,  in 
order  to  be  useful,  should  be  large  enough  to  have  some  force  and  to 
note  the  slightest  variation  in  temperature.  A  disk  of  only  1  or  2 
inches  diameter  has  hardly  power  enough,  nor  is  it  delicate  enough 
for  quick  and  perfect  action.  The  writer  prefers  the  double  disk 
and  that  with  a  diameter  of  4  or  5  inches.  Such  disks  will  be  very 
susceptible  to  changes  in  temperature  and  will  be  strong  enough  to 
act  upon  the  damper.  Of  course  there  are  machines  that  use  the 
horseshoe  or  buggy  spring  expanding  bar,  which  work  fairly  well; 
but  as  fast  as  possible  the  writer  has  these  attachments  removed  and 
the  disk  substituted  for  them.  Many  purchasers  have  no  patience 
with  a  regulator  that  will  not  work  from  the  start,  and,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  first  impressions  are  prejudicial,  it  is  safer  to  ship  articles 
that  wnll  go  together  readily  and  work  from  the  start.  There  is 
something  in  the  location  of  the  regulator.  The  disk  should  be 
placed  near  the  center  and  well  toward  the  back  of  the  egg  chamber. 
It  should  be  placed  so  high  that  it  is  not  in  the  way  of  the  eggs  or 
the  tray.  Another  reason  for  placing  the  disk  high  is  that,  because 
the  chicks  as  they  hatch  will  tumble  around  more  or  less  before  drop- 
ping into  the  nursery,  one  or  more  of  them  may  hit  the  regulator, 
thus  disturbing  its  adjustment  and  bringing  disaster  to  the  remain- 
der of  the  hatch.  The  regulator  should  be  strongly  fixed  in  its 
bearings,  so  that  an  accidental  touch  will  not  put  it  out  of  order. 

Most  machines  have  the  long  bar  or  damper  lever  upon  the  top 
of  the  body.  This  is  a  serious  fault.  The  top  of  the  machine  is  the 
most  convenient  table  for  cooling,  testing,  or  turning  eggs,  and  it 
should  be  free  and  clean  for  that  use.  Besides  this,  the  lever,  when 
located  outside  and  upon  the  top  of  the  machine,  is  easily  affected 
by  a  current  of  air  and  also  liable  to  become  bent  or  dislocated.  A 
child,  a  stray  fowl,  a  mouse,  a  cat,  or  a  slight  breeze  will  be  likely  to 
interfere  with  the  action  of  the  regulator  if  it  is  exposed  upon  the  top 
of  the  incubator.  Some  makes  of  incubators  have  the  damper  lever 
at  the  end  of  the  case ;  others  have  it  above  the  egg  chamber,  where 
it  is  covered  and  protected.    The  adjustment  of  the  regulator  should 


554  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

be  perfect  and  accurate.  Threads  should  be  true  and  cut  to  fit  the 
bur;  rods  should  be  of  proper  length  and,  if  weights  are  used,  they 
should  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  fixed  in  the  proper  position. 
The  writer  sees  no  use  for  the  weight,  nor  does  he  favor  a  very  long 
lever.  By  principle  of  direct  action  the  damper  is  its  own  weight, 
and  vnth  the  disk  regulator  no  other  weight  seems  necessary.  In 
some  machines  the  regulator  is  cumbersome,  takes  too  much  space  in 
the  egg  chamber,  and  interferes  with  the  handling  of  the  trays;  in 
others  it  is  loosely  set  and  constantly  getting  out  of  balance  and 
dropping  down  upon  the  eggs  or  chicks.  The  disk  regulator  is  less  in 
thd  way  and  less  liable  to  fall  down  than  any  other  that  the  writer 
has  used. 

Few  machines  are  perfect  in  all  their  parts,  but  when  one  is 
found  that  suits  in  most  details  it  is  kept  and  remodeled  to  suit  every- 
day requirements.  Most  manufacturers  make  a  mistake  in  their  fail- 
ure to  test  every  machine  as  a  whole  before  sending  it  out.  Made  of 
the  same  materials,  from  the  same  patterns,  by  the  same  machinery 
and  the  same  workmen,  all  mechanical  products  are  liable  to  vary 
somewhat  in  their  action.  Each  incubator  has  an  individuality,  and 
it  requires  a  thorough  test  at  the  factory.  The  purchaser  can  feel 
assured  that  plenty  of  incubators  are  now  made  by  firms  that  test 
them  in  the  shops  and  whose  regulators  can  be  relied  upon  as  surely 
as  can  a  watch  or  clock.  So  much  has  been  written  upon  the  subject 
of  ventilation  that  the  reader  need  not  expect  the  writer  to  add  much 
that  is  new  to  the  literature  upon  this  subject.  One  thing  is  sure, 
namely,  that  in  nature  the  mother  hen  is  compelled  to  allow  fresh 
air  access  to  her  eggs.  But  she  frequently  makes  her  nest  in  places 
where  the  air  is  far  from  good,  and  yet  she  gives  us  a  fair  hatch 
regardless  of  atmospheric  surroundings.  It  is  not  likely  that  fre- 
quent currents  of  fresh  air  over  the  eggs  are  necessary  to  successful 
incubation,  nor  does  it  seem  certain  that  air  in  motion,  even  if  it  has 
been  warmed,  is  inclined  to  promote  hatching.  If  the  machine  is 
opened  twice  a  day  and  the  eggs  taken  out  to  be  cooled  or  turned, 
they  get  about  all  the  ventilation  they  really  need.  But  accidents 
may  happen ;  there  may  be  leaking  of  steam  or  smoke,  or  a  breaking 
of  an  overlooked  decomposing  egg,  and,  for  fear  that  such  an  acci- 
dent may  happen  between  the  hours  of  inspection,  it  is  well  to  have 
a  system  of  moderate  ventilation  in  operation.  One  of  the  best 
methods  is  a  circular  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  machine,  this  hole 
being  about  1%  inches  in  diameter  and  covered  with  fine  wire  screen- 
ing on  the  inside  and  provided  with  a  slide  of  tin  or  other  metal 
upon  the  bottom  or  outside.  This  slide  should  be  open  when  the 
machine  is  first  heated.  It  should  work  easily  and  be  slightly  open 
all  the  time,  and  should  be  altered  according  to  the  weather.  One 
thing  often  overlooked  is  the  quality  of  the  air  in  the  room  occu- 
pied by  the  incubator.  The  room  should  be  clean,  free  from  dust 
and  mold,  moderately  dry,  and  contain  air  of  ahsolute  purity.  This 
has  more  to  do  with  the  condition  of  the  air  in  the  egg  chamber  than 
many  are  inclined  to  admit,  and  is,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  the 
major  part  of  ventilation. 


Pair  of  Black  Langshans.     Dept.  of  Agr. 


^m 

^m 

■      A 

r  -  * 

m 

m  im 

iW     ..  i 

^ 

fLK, 

in 

% 

Pen  of  Light  Brahmas.    Depi.  of  Agr. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  557 

Moisture. — This  is  another  topic  that  has  been  freely  discussed 
in  the  poultry  journals.  A  great  many  different  plans  have  been 
advocated  for  keeping  the  air  in  the  egg  chamber  properly  charged 
with  water.  The  simple  plan  of  placing  in  the  bottom  of  the  egg 
chamber  a  saucer  containing  a  small  wet  sponge  is  as  good  as  any. 
There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  better  method  than  this  of  rendering 
the  air  around  the  eggs  humid.  The  amount  of  moisture  required  is 
so  little  and  varies  so  much  under  different  circumstances  that  the 
ingenuity  and  judgment  of  most  operators  can  be  relied  upon  to 
provide  moisture  as  needed.  If  the  incubator  is  operated  in  a  cellar 
or  basement,  the  air  will  probably  be  damp  enough  without  the 
further  introduction  of  moisture  into  the  egg  chamber. 

Summary  of  the  Defects  of  Incubators. — Poor  material,  poor 
workmanship,  and  poor  arrangement  are  all  to  be  condemned.  Ma- 
chines of  poor  construction,  or  constructed  out  of  refuse  material 
from  other  lines  of  manufacture,  will  no  longer  satisfy  the  up-to-date 
poultry  man.  Incubators  made  out  of  the  odds  and  ends  of  other 
goods,  or  with  coarse,  dull  tools,  are  no  longer  in  demand.  Ma- 
chines made  by  men  who  know  nothing  about  the  poultry  business, 
or  who  take  no  interest  in  that  business  and  lack  experience  in  oper- 
ating incubators,  are  likely  to  prejudice  the  public  against  the  use  of 
all  incubators.  The  inspector  should  be  competent.  If  he  does  not 
know  how  to  test  every  part  of  a  machine  and  exercise  thoroughness 
in  his  work,  one  can  hardly  expect  the  output  of  his  factory  to  give 
satisfaction. 

Summary  of  the  Good  Points  of  an  Incubator. — Good  material, 
good  w^orkmanship,  and  adaptability  of  parts,  or  such  arrangement 
of  the  various  parts  of  the  machine  as  shall  make  it  efficient,  prac- 
tical, and  convenient,  are  desirable.  Two  dead-air  spaces,  good 
strong  legs,  plenty  of  space  in  the  egg  chamber,  good  windows  prop- 
erly placed,  a  good  thermometer  located  where  it  can  be  read  with- 
out disturbing  the  machine  are  all  necessary  and  among  the  strong 
points  of  a  good  incubator.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are  a  good 
lamp — one  with  a  good  burner  and  good  chimney — a  good  regula- 
tor, a  good  strong  tray  properly  placed,  and  a  good  roomy  removable 
nursery  tray  below.  All  chips  and  shavings  should  be  removed  when 
the  machine  is  inspected  or  before  shipment.  Makers  of  incubators 
must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  construction  of  an  incubator 
is  a  living  problem.  It  has  to  do  with  the  promotion  of  life  and  is 
(not  a  mere  matter  of  iron  and  wood.  This  business  requires  more  skill 
and  better  workmanship  than  does  the  construction  of  thrashing  ma- 
chines and  fanning  mills.  This  machine  operates  upon  living  prod- 
ucts and  it  must  bring  forth  living  creatures,  else  it  is  useless. 

Purchasers  should  be  cautioned  against  buying  an  incubator  of 
large  size  for  experimental  or  farm  work.  The  so-called  100-egg 
size  is  large  enough  for  the  beginner.  One  tray  and  one  egg  cham- 
ber are  enough. 

How  to  Operate  an  Incubator. — The  agricultural  papers  and 
poultry  journals  are  full  of  information  upon  the  management  of 
incubators,  and  many  books  have  been  published  to  furnish  instruc- 


558  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

tion  upon  this  subject;  but  a  great  many  farmers  do  not  see  these 
journals  or  the  books.  Once  let  it  be  known  that  the  operation  of  an 
incubator  is  easy  and  simple,  and  once  the  almost  superstitious  dread 
that  some  people  have  of  taking  up  something  new  is  overcome, 
there  will  be  little  trouble  in  teaching  the  uses  and  management  of 
the  common  hatching  machine. 

The  successful  operation  of  an  incubator  depends  upon  accuracy 
and  exactness.  Not  only  should  the  work  be  done  properly,  but  it 
must  be  done  "on  time."  The  woman  who  fills  her  lamps  at  a  cer- 
tain hour  of  the  day,  and  the  man  who  winds  his  watch  or  clock  at 
the  same  hour  every  evening,  need  not  fear  the  task  of  running  an 
incubator.  But  unless  one  is  willing  to  study,  to  read,  and  to  prac- 
tice, and  is  willing  to  attend  to  the  few  wants  of  his  machine  at  the 
right  time,  making  a  specialty  of  promptness  and  punctuality,  it  will 
be  unreasonable  to  look  for  chickens  from  the  best  incubator  under 
his  management. 

The  person  who  runs  an  incubator  must  be  clean  and  careful ; 
he  must  be  at  home  with  his  machine  at  the  same  hour  every  morn- 
ing and  the  same  hour  every  evening ;  he  must  learn  the  peculiarities 
of  nis  incubator  and  carefully  follow  instructions.,  For  such  a  per- 
son the  operation  of  the  ordinary  hatching  machine  will  be  simple 
and  easy  enough.  With  each  shipment  the  manufacturer  sends  out 
a  book  or  card  of  directions.  Read  this  carefully  before  attempting 
to  set  up  the  machine.  Put  the  parts  together  in  exact  accordance 
with  these  directions.  Count  the  parts  and  inspect  them  carefully; 
then  put  them  together ;  see  that  the  machine  stands  level ;  that  the 
doors  open  and  shut  easily;  that  the  regulator  is  in  working  order. 

About  this  time  comes  the  question,  Where  shall  we  set  this  ma- 
chine? This  matter  of  location  is  very  important.  It  has  much  to 
do  with  success  in  hatching.  First,  it  must  have  some  permanency. 
It  must  be  placed  where  it  will  not  be  disturbed,  away  from  jars  and 
vibrations,  out  of  all  drafts  or  where  the  breeze  can  not  strike  it  and 
where  the  opening  and  closing  of  doors  and  windows  will  not  affect 
it.  The  room  occupied  must  be  large  enough  and  have  a  level  floor. 
One  needs  room  to  work  about  an  incubator.  It  should  have  a  clear 
space  around  it,  especially  in  front,  and  at  the  lamp  end  of  the  ma- 
chine there  should  be  plenty  of  room.  The  apartment  should  not 
be  damp  or  dark.  A  clean,  dry,  light  cellar  is  excellent  for  this 
purpose.  Any  dry,  clean  room  will  do,  but,  as  before  stated,  drafts 
or  currents  of  air  over  or  around  the  machine  are  very  detrimental. 
There  should  be  no  stove  or  other  source  of  artificial  heat  in  the 
room  occupied  by  an  incubator.  The  entire  room  should  be  clean 
and  free  from  dust.  Some  of  these  items  have  been  mentioned  in 
the  preceding  lines,  but  their  importance  warrants  a  repetition  here. 

Common  sense  and  circumstances  will  dictate  the  location  of  the 
machine,  but  the  above  suggestions  will  be  found  worth  considering. 
One  thing  is  certain,  if  the  incubator  is  not  afforded  proper  quar- 
ters it  can  hardly  be  expected  to  give  good  results.  The  room  de- 
cided upon,  the  machine  set  up,  its  parts  adjusted,  and  its  level 
taken,  it  is  now  in  order  to  clean,  trim,  and  fill  the  lamp.    The  wick 


POULTRY  KEEPING  559 

should  be  dry-trimmed  with  a  pair  of  sharp  shears  before  it  is 
inserted  in  the  burner.  Then  after  being  passed  up  and  down  the 
tube  a  few  times  it  should  be  trimmed  again  and  its  corners  slightly 
nicked  or  rounded.  Now  is  the  time  to  prove  whether  the  burner  is 
in  perfect  order  and  that  the  wick  works  freely  and  easily.  The 
wiok  should  now  be  moistened  in  kerosene  and  drawn  back  to  its 
proper  position  for  lighting.  All  dust  and  moisture  should  be 
wiped  from  the  burner.  Especially  important  is  it  that  the  start  be 
made  with  a  clean  tube  and  sieve.  The  lamp  should  be  filled  within 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  of  the  top,  arid  then  after  the  burner  is  at- 
tached to  the  lamp  the  whole  should  be  cleaned  with  a  dry,  clean 
cloth.  The  chimney  also  should  be  carefully  cleaned  with  a  dry 
cloth.  It  should  be  free  from  dirt,  dust,  or  grease.  If  the  chimney 
is  not  kept  perfectly  clean  the  lamp  will  smoke,  and  a  smoky  lamp 
means  a  poor  hatch.  Dry  cleaning  cloths  should  be  set  apart  for 
this  purpose.  All  these  details  looked  after,  the  lamp  can  be  lighted 
and  placed  in  position  if  the  machine  is  a  hot-air  machine ;  but  if  it 
is  a  hot-water  machine  the  lamp  must  not  be  lighted  until  the  tank 
is  filled  with  water  in  accordance  with  the  instructions  that  accom- 
pany the  machine.  Study  the  structure  of  your  lamp  and  exercise 
great  care  in  putting  it  together  as  well  as  cleaning  and  filling  it 
the  first  time.  Familiarity  gained  and  habits  formed  will  be  of 
value  to  the  operator  in  the  future  management.  Accuracy  and 
thoroughness  are  important. 

Use  nothing  but  the  best  grade  of  oil.  No  incubator  will  do 
good  work  with  poor  kerosene.  The  best  will  cost  less  in  the  end. 
It  will  give  more  heat,  less  smoke,  and  make  less  dirt  and  less  work. 
If  oil  is  bought  by  the  barrel  do  not  accept  it  in  an  old  barrel.  It 
may  be  short  in  measure  or  it  may  contain  water  and  rubbish  in  the 
bottom  of  the  barrel. 

With  the  incubator  in  its  place,  all  parts  adjusted,  the  tank,  if 
any,  filled  with  water,  and  the  lamp  lighted  and  wick  turned  up  so 
as  to  give  a  clear,  white  flame — just  high  enough,  but  not  too  high — 
we  are  ready  to  balance  the  machine  or  to  establish  the  ratio  between 
the  thermometer,  the  regulator,  and  the  lamp. 

Adjusting  the  Incubator. — ^The  incubator  should  be  run  with 
the  trays  empty  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours  before  the  eggs  are 
placed  in  the  egg  chamber.  This  gives  it  a  chance  to  get  well  warmed 
throughout,  and  it  also  gives  the  operator  time  and  practice  in  adjust- 
ing the  regulator  so  that  it  will  keep  the  egg  chamber  at  the  proper 
temperature.  This  temperature  should  be  exactly  100°  F.  for  several 
hours  before  the  eggs  are  put  into  the  egg  chamber.  All  this  time 
the  lamp  should  be  kept  in  order  and  made  to  burn  with  a  clear, 
white  flame,  so  that  it  does  not  smoke  and  so  that  it  can  be  turned  a 
little  either  up  or  down  without  smoking.  This  is  essential.  The 
blaze  must  be  good  from  the  start  and  the  regulator  balanced  to  a 
good  flame,  and  this  must  be  done  before  the  eggs  go  into  the  egg 
chamber.  It  is  easier  and  safer  to  experiment  with  the  lamp  and  the 
regulator  when  the  egg  chamber  is  empty  than  when  the  machine  is 
full  of  eg^.    A  few  hours  spent  in  adjustment  will  be  time  saved 


560  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

later  on.  Nearly  every  machine  is  accompanied  by  a  <;ard  of  direc- 
tions for  operating  it,  which  should  be  studied  and  followed. 

It  is  not  the  province  of  this  article  to  explain  the  individual 
peculiarities  of  the  regulatoi*s  of  different  makes,  but  rather  to  show 
what  results  are  to  be  sought.  The  damper  over  the  top  of  the  chim- 
ney should  be  kept  free  from  the  chimney,  say  about  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  of  space  being  left  between  or  around  the  margin  of  the 
damper.  If  you  are  using  a  hot-water  machine,  allowance  must  be 
made  accordingly  and  leakage  looked  for  before  setting  the  eggs. 
The  general  principle,  so  far  as  the  regulator  and  the  lamp  are  con- 
cerned, is  the  same  in  all  machines.  At  the  end  of  the  experimental 
twenty-four  hours,  again  fill  the  lamp  and  trim  the  wick,  and  with 
the  machine  running  steadily  at  100°  F.  the  egg  tray,  loaded  accord- 
ing to  directions  given  below,  can  be  placed  in  the  egg  chamber. 
The  eggs  should  be  clean  and  dry  and  should  have  been  prepared 
and  balanced  as  suggested  in  the  early  part  of  this  article. 

Filling  the  Trays. — When  filling  the  trays  put  in  eggs  enough 
to  fill  completely  every  space,  with  every  egg  lying  upon  it  side. 
Do  not  stand  the  eggs  upon  end  nor  pile  them  one  upon  another. 
The  filled  tray  being  now  placed  in  the  egg  chamber,  close  the  door, 
being  careful  not  to  slam  it  and  so  disturb  the  regulator  or  the  lamp. 
The  machine  can  now  be  left  by  itself  an  hour.  At  the  end  of  that 
time  visit  it,  and  if  the  thermometer  still  stands  at  100°  leave  it 
again  for  another  hour.  At  the  third  visit  it  may  be  necessary  to 
turn  the  regulator  thumbscrew,  or  the  wick  may  need  raising  or  low- 
ering a  little.  It  will  be  a  matter  of  judgment  at  first  whether  you 
change  the  wick  or  the  regulator.  In  most  cases,  if  the  blaze  is  about 
right,  it  is  best  to  leave  it  so  and  to  more  completely  balance  the  ma- 
chine by  a  slight  manipulation  of  the  regulator,  for  if  this  is  nicely 
done  upon  the  start  the  temperature  can  be  controlled  during  the 
entire  period  of  incubation  by  slightly  turning  the  wick.  Note  the 
repetition :  Have  your  flame  to  suit  you  at  the  outset,  leave  it  so,  and 
adjust  the  regulator  accordingly. 

It  takes  twenty-four  hours  properly  to  test  the  lamp  and  adjust 
the  regulator.  During  this  time  the  eggs  are  gradually  warming  up, 
and  the  operator  is  supposed  to  be  watching  the  machine  and  study- 
ing his  instruction  book.  If  a  hot-water  machine  is  used,  some  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  the  time  occupied  in  warming  the  tank,  unless 
it  is  filled  with  water  already  warmed.  Let  the  operator  bear  in 
mind  that  each  incubator  has  its  own  peculiarities  and  must  be 
learned  and  managed  accordingly.  Another  thing  to  note  is  that 
the  manufacturer  of  an  incubator  is  likely  to  understand  its  manage- 
ment and  the  operator  is  quite  safe  in  following  the  printed  direc- 
tions for  setting  up  and  starting  the  machine ;  but,  while  the  manu- 
facturer understands  the  mechanical  details  of  the  construction  and 
adjustment  of  his  goods,  his  notions  about  the  future  management 
of  his  or  any  other  machine  may  not  be  at  all  like,  nor  at  all  superior 
to,  those  of  some  other  manufacturer.  This  is  illustrated  in  natural 
incubation.  One  farmer  sets  all  his  hens  in  straw  nests,  another  sets 
them  all  in  chaff  nests,  another  sets  them  all  upon  the  ground  and  in 


POULTRY  KEEPING  561 

earth  nests,  but  the  results  are  about  the  same.  Methods  may  seem 
to  differ  and  yet  results  may  be  very  much  alike. 

The  hatch  can  now  be  said  to  be  begun.  The  incubator  has  been 
set  up,  adjusted,  and  tested  under  heat  for  twenty-four  hours.  It 
has  been  found  capable  of  maintaining  an  even  temperature,  and 
the  eg^  are  already  warm  in  the  egg  chamber.  The  thermometer 
has  been  placed  at  a  level  with  the  top  of  an  egg  near  the  center  of 
the  tray.  At  first  the  work  will  require  a  few  visits  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  one  hour  apart,  but  after  the  third  of  these,  if  everything 
seems  all  right,  the  machine  can  be  left  aJone  for  three  or  four  hours, 
but  the  operator  should  be  sure  to  visit  it  just  before  he  retires  for 
the  night. 

Temperature  of  Incubator. — On  the  morning  of  the  second  day 
the  temperature  should  have  risen  to  102°  F.  It  must  not  be  forgot- 
ten that  from  now  on  the  eggs  will  manifest  a  little  heat  of  their 
own  and  this  must  be  considered,  as  it  will  influence  the  action  of  the 
regulator.  Or,  in  other  words,  if  the  egg  is  fertile  the  germ 
will  begin  to  waken  into  life  and  possess  and  give  off  heat.  This 
lessens  the  work  of  the  lamp  and  should  make  the  operator  cautious 
in  his  manipulations  of  the  regulator.  The  temperature  from  now 
on  should  be  kept  at  103°  F,  If  the  machine  is  balanced  right,  a 
very  slight  turn  of  the  regulator  button  or  the  wick  elevator  is  all 
that  will  be  required.  The  operator  must  not  become  over-anxious 
now;  he  should  resist  all  temptation  to  tamper  unnecessarily.  It  is 
better  to  change  the  adjustment  but  a  mere  trifle  and  then  wait  a 
little  to  observe  the  result  than  to  make  great  and  abrupt  changes. 
It  is  very  easy  to  cook  the  eggs  and  quite  as  easy  to  chill  them.  All 
changes  should  be  gradual,  and  the  machine  always  be  under  the 
control  of  the  operator.  Once  in  good  working  order,  the  less  an 
incubator  is  disturbed  the  better.  From  now  on  it  should  be  visited 
at  regular  intervals,  three  times  a  day — morning,  noon,  and  night. 
At  the  same  hour  every  morning  the  wick  should  be  trimmed,  the 
chimney  cleaned,  and  the  lamp  refilled.  The  visit  at  noon  is  simply 
one  of  inspection  and  observation.  At  this  visit  the  operator  should 
look  first  at  the  thermometer  and  then  at  the  lamp.  If  the  tempera- 
ture is  right  and  the  lamp  is  burning  well,  there  is  nothing  more 
to  do. 

Returning  to  the  work  of  the  morning  after,  the  lamp  is  cared 
for  and  started  again,  the  operator  should  watch  it  carefully  for  a 
brief  period.  Then,  if  the  thermometer  shows  the  proper  tempera- 
ture, it  is  in  order  to  turn  the  eggs.  During  turning  the  tray  should 
be  removed  from  the  egg  chamber  and  the  door  closed.  Some  of  the 
details  of  turning  have  been  given.  The  hand  should  be  clean  and 
the  eggs  gently  rolled  around.  It  should  not  require  much  time  to 
turn  the  eggs,  three  or  four  minutes  being  sufficient.  As  a  rule  no 
other  cooling  is  necessary,  but  this  subject  will  be  referred  to  later 
on.  Many  devices  have  been  invented  for  turning  the  eggs,  but  the 
simple  method  of  turning  by  hand  is  sufficient.  Gently  brush  or  roll 
them  around  or  change  them  from  one  side  of  the  tray  to  the  other. 
The  necessity  for  turning  depends  upon  the  fact  that  unless  the  egg 


562  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

is  turned,  its  substance  will  gravitate,  the  egg  will  become  too  dry 
upon  one  side,  and  the  chick  will  become  attached  to  this  dry  side. 
Such  an  event  will  result  in  a  dead  or  deformed  chick.  The  whole 
process  of  turning  is  so  simple  that  further  explanation  seems  unnec- 
essary. As  to  how  frequently;  they  should  be  turned,  once  a  day  is 
sufficient,  though  many  practice  turning  twice  a  day.  This  turning 
should  be  continued  from  the  third  until  the  nineteenth  day.  After 
the  usual  signs  of  hatching  can  be  heard  the  eggs  must  not  be  moved 
or  disturbed.  After  the  nineteeth  day  the  rule  "do  not  turn  them," 
is  imperative.  The  chick,  ready  to  break  its  way  out,  has  found  its 
proper  position,  and  to  move  the  egg  may  so  place  the  chick  that  it 
can  not  work  to  advantage  or  that  it  will  drown  or  smother. 

Cooling. — Many  successful  poultry  men  pay  little  attention  to 
cooling  the  eggs  further  than  to  take  plenty  of  time  in  turning. 
Much  depends  upon  the  machine,  and  more  upon  the  condition  of 
the  atmosphere.  If  not  exposed  to  draft  or  sunlight,  the  eggs  can  be 
left  outside  the  machine  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  and  be  none 
the  worse  for  the  exposure,  but,  as  a  rule,  an  exposure  of  five  minutes 
is  sufficient.  That  some  cooling  is  necessary  seems  borne  out  in 
natural  incubation  by  the  practice  of  the  hen,  which  leaves  her  nest 
from  ten  to  sixty  minutes  every  morning.  Of  course,  the  hen  may 
do  this  for  her  own  accommodation,  but  it  seems  to  be  part  of  the 
programme  in  natural  hatching,  and  better  results  are  obtained  when 
the  eggs  are  cooled  somewhat  every  day.  This  practice  of  cooling 
should  be  continued  to  the  eighteenth  day.  Right  here  it  may  be 
well  to  advise  the  inexperienced  operator  to  keep  the  egg  chamber 
closed  after  the  evening  of  the  eighteenth  day  and  until  the  close  of 
the  hatch. 

Moisture. — This  subject  is  one  upon  which  opinions  differ 
vastly.  In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  much  depends  upon  the  incu- 
bator, its  location,  and  the  external  atmosphere.  All  agree  that  a 
certain  amount  of  moisture  is  needed.  In  natural  incubation  the 
hen  leaves  her  nest  early  in  the  morning,  while  the  dew  is  yet  upon 
the  grass,  and  if  caught  upon  her  return  to  the  nest  her  feathers  will 
be  found  to  be  wet.  Yet  some  of  the  most  successful  hatches  have 
been  made  by  hens  that  were  not  allowed  to  leave  the  hatching  pen. 
Hence  the  argument  is  not  settled.  But,  from  the  fact  that  the  early 
morning  atmosphere  is  damp  and  the  eggs  are  exposed  to  this  moist 
a,tmosphere  while  the  hen  is  off  the  nest,  it  is  safe  to  infer  that  a 
limited  amount  of  moisture  is  essential.  If  the  incubator  stands  in  a 
damp  cellar,  a  very  good  hatch  can  be  made  without  the  introduction 
of  any  moisture  into  the  egg  chamber ;  while  upon  the  other  hand,  if 
the  machine  is  located  in  a  dry  room  and  the  weather  is  dry,  a  poor 
hatch  can  be  expected  if  no  moisture  is  supplied.  Many  different 
methods  of  supplying  moisture  have  been  suggested,  but  most  ex- 
perienced operators  incline  to  the  simplest  methods.  A  small  sponge 
saturated  with  pure  water  can  be  placed  in  the  egg  chamber  and  al- 
lowed to  remain  there  over  night,  or  a  saucer  containing  a, little 
water  can  be  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  egg  chamber  and  left  from 
time  to  time,  or  the  hand  of  the  operator  can  be  dipped  in  warm  wa- 


POULTRY  KEEPING  563 

ter  and  brushed  lightly  over  the  eggs  just  before  they  are  returned 
to  the  machine  in  the  morning.  The  last  seems  to  be  a  natural 
method  and  does  not  overcharge  the  egg  chamber  with  moisture. 
Too  much  moisture  will  ruin  the  hatch,  and  it  is  better  to  err  upon 
the  side  of  too  little  than  too  much.  A  good  rule  is  to  note  the  baro- 
meter and  in  damp  weather  supply  very  little  moisture.  As  to  what 
is  meant  by  much  or  little  moisture,  the  writer  thinks  that  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  water  is  plenty  for  100  eg^  in  wet  weather,  while  in  dry 
weather  an  ounce  is  none  too  much,  mis  being  for  a  period  of  twenty- 
four  hours.  Or,  again,  if  the  machine  stands  in  a  cellar,  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  water  will  last  100  eggs  three  days,  while  in  a  dry,  well-venti- 
lated room  a  tablespoonful  of  water  every  twenty-four  hours  will  do 
no  harm.  The  water  supplied  must  be  clean  and  pure  and  should  be 
warm  when  it  is  introduced.  Surely  with  these  few  hints  the  opera- 
tor ought  to  be  able  to  settle  the  moisture  question  for  himself. 

Testing. — The  egg  will  show  signs  of  hatching  within  thirty 
hours  of  its  first  exposure  to  heat.  Along  about  the  twenty-eighth 
hour  a  point  denoting  the  head  and  another  denoting  the  heart  will 
appear.  About  the  forty-fifth  hour  the  expert  can  detect  a  slight  mo- 
tion of  the  heart.  In  about  seventy  hours  the  membrane  known  as 
the  allantois  is  visible.  This  envelope  is  the  temporary  breathing 
apparatus  of  the  chick.  On  the  fifth  day  the  streaks  denoting  the 
limbs  can  be  seen.  On  the  sixth  day  the  liver  can  be  located,  and  a 
slight  voluntary  motion  is  observable.  By  the  seventh  day  the  lungs, 
stomach,  and  brain  show  development;  the  eyes  can  be  found  by  the 
tenth  day ;  and  on  the  twelfth  day  feathers  begin  to  form.  The  bill 
opens  and  shuts  by  the  fifteenth  day,  and  the  cry  of  the  chick  is 
heard  about  the  eighteenth  day.  Soon  after,  or  early  on  the  nine- 
teenth day,  the  chick  bursts  the  air  cell  at  the  end  of  the  egg  and 
begins  to  use  its  lungs  in  breathing.  From  this  time  it  grows  rapidly 
and  soon  becomes  strong  enough  to  break  through  the  shell. 

While  the  process  of  hatching  is  very  interesting,  the  practical 
operator  need  not  concern  himself  with  minute  details.  The  eggs 
should  be  tested  at  least  three  times  during  the  period  of  incubation. 
First,  as  a  matter  of  economy.  Eggs  not  fertile  will  not  spoil  for  a 
few  days,  and  they  will  be  as  good  for  the  table  or  feed  after  a  few 
days  in  the  incubator  as  after  as  many  days  in  the  nest.  Again,  eggs 
that  are  doubtful  can  be  cooked  for  food  for  young  chicks  or  cooped 
fowls.  Another  reason  why  nonfertile  eggs  should  be  discovered 
and  removed  is  that  they  absorb  some  heat  from  the  air  of  the  egg 
chamber  and  generate  none  of  their  own.  Again,  if  nonfertile  eggs 
happen  to  be  old  when  placed  in  the  tray  they  are  liable  to  decompose, 
and,  by  giving  off  poisonous  gases,  foul  the  air  of  the  egg  chamber 
and  poison  the  chicks  in  the  good  eggs.  However,  it  is  not  wise  to 
disturb  the  eggs  too  frequently.  Testing  upon  the  seventh,  the  tenth, 
and  the  fourteenth  days  is  quite  sufficient.  All  nonfertile  and  all 
doubtful  eggs  should  be  removed  from  the  machine  as  soon  as  their 
condition  is  detected. 

The  process  of  testing  is  simple  enough  after  a  little  experience 
is  acquired.    It  depends  upon  the  appearance  of  the  egg  when  it  13 


664  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

held  between  the  ej^e  and  a  light.  In  order  that  the  view  may  be 
most  advantageous,  it  must  be  contrasted  with  a  dark  border.  Many- 
different  egg  testers  have  been  devised,  but  they  all  depend  upon  the 
above  principle.  The  simplest  in  construction  is  a  plain  tube  about 
ly^  inches  in  diameter  and  made  of  tin,  wood,  or  cardboard.  The 
egg  is  placed  snugly  against  the  opening  in  this  tube,  and  it  is  so  held 
that  the  egg  is  between  the  tube  and  the  light  and  the  tube  is  be- 
tween the  egg  and  the  eye.  With  the  eye  close  to  the  uncovered  end 
of  the  tube,  a  picture  of  the  egg  can  be  seen  through  the  transparent 
shell.  If  the  test  is  made  in  a  dark  room,  a  much  better  view  can 
be  obtained.  A  very  fair  test  can  be  made  in  a  dark  room  by  hold- 
ing the  egg  before  a  small  aperture  in  a  window  shade,  provided  the 
sun  is  shinning  against  the  window.  In  cloudy  weather,  when  the 
sun  can  not  be  depended  upon,  some  kind  of  an  egg  tester  is  required. 
All  manufacturers  furnish  some  kind  of  egg  tester  with  every  ma- 
chine sent  out,  and  the  most  of  them  work  upon  the  same  principle 
and  are  operated  in  the  same  way.  Evening  is  the  best  time  for 
making  the  test.  Have  ready  a  low  table  and  an  empty  tray,  also  a 
basin  or  a  basket.  The  operator  can  work  best  if  seated  at  the  table 
with  the  lamp  in  front  of  him ;  upon  his  left  is  the  tray  of  eggs  to  be 
tested,  with  the  empty  tray  and  basin  upon  his  right.  Every  detail 
should  be  arranged  before  the  eggs  are  removed  from  the  egg  cham- 
ber, as  a  prolonged  exposure  is  to  be  avoided.  One  by  one  the  eggs 
are  taken  from  the  tray,  tested  as  above  suggested,  the  appearance 
observed,  and  the  egg,  if  fertile,  placed  in  the  empty  tray,  or,  if  in- 
fertile, placed  in  the  basket.  As  soon  as  all  are  tested  the  tray  con- 
taining the  fertile  eggs  is  replaced  in  the  incubator,  the  door  of  which 
is  then  closed  and  the  machine  left  as  before.  Experience  soon 
teaches  one  the  appearance  of  the  nonfertile  and  the  spoiled  egg,  as 
contrasted  with  that  of  the  fertile  egg  which  has  already  begun  to 
hatch.  The  fertile,  or  hatching,  egg  will  show  a  spiderlike  forma- 
tion, a  center  with  long  crooked  threads,  or  rays,  leading  outward, 
and  this  formation  will  float  as  the  egg  is  turned,  seeming  to  have  an 
inherent  power  of  motion.  Such  eggs  are  good  and  the  germ  is  alive 
and  hatching.  But  if  this  formation  is  a  black  stationary  spot  and 
the  red  lines  come  together  in  a  circle,  the  egg  is  one  that  has  been 
fertile,  but  the  germ  of  which  is  now  dead.  Such  an  egg  should  be 
removed  from  the  tray  at  once.  The  egg  that  remains  clear  except 
for  a  small  dark  cloud  is  infertile  and  may  possibly  be  used  in  cook- 
ing. In  case  an  egg  is  doubtful  it  can  be  marked  and  returned  to  the 
tray  and  left  there  a  few  days  to  be  tested  again.  All  eggs  that  cool 
too  quickly  should  be  marked  for  special  examination,  and  remem- 
ber that  the  egg  that  does  not  contain  life  will  be  cooler  than  the  live 
egg.  Cracked  eggs  can  be  saved  by  the  use  of  court  plaster,  but  un- 
less it  be  from  a  rare  or  valuable  fowl  the  attempt  to  hatch  a  broken 
egg  will  hardly  'be  worth  the  trouble.  At  the  second  testing,  about 
the  tenth  day,  the  eggs  that  are  hatching  well  wall  be  nearly  half 
darkened,  while  the  others  will  look  more  or  less  as  they  did  in  the 
first  test.  On  the  seventeenth  day  the  chick  will  be  seen  to  fill  all  the 
egg  but  the  air  space,  unless  it  has  died  in  the  shell  since  the  previous 


POULTRY  KEEPING  565 

testing.  The  final  testing  should  be  carefully  made  and  with  the 
shortest  possible  exposure. 

The  Air  Cell. — Books  upon  incubation  devote  much  spaCe  to 
this  subject.  If  the  air  cell  is  too  large  the  egg  is  too  dry,  while  if  not 
large  enough  the  egg  is  too  moist,  and  the  moisture  supply  can  be 
governed  accordingly.  Experience  will  teach  the  operator  much 
more  about  the  air  space  than  will  written  pages,  and  until  he  is  ex- 
perienced he  need  not  attach  very  great  importance  to  it  unless  it  be 
unusually  large  or  small.  By  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  day  this 
occupies  about  one-fifth  of  the  space  in  the  egg,  and  the  chick  ought 
to  occupy  the  remainder  of  this  space.  The  air  cell  gradually  in- 
creases until  the  eighteenth  day.  Upon  the  eighteenth  day,  or  the 
nineteenth  day  at  most,  the  eggs  are  turned  and  cooled  for  the  last 
time.  After  this  do  not  disturb  the  eggs.  If  necessary,  partly  close 
the  ventilator  slide.  Leave  the  door  closed.  Of  course,  the  thermo- 
meter must  be  watched  and  the  lamp  filled  and  trimmed  more  care- 
fully than  ever.  Do  not  be  alarmed  if  the  thermometer  shows  a  tem- 
perature of  104°  at  this  time.  No  harm  will  be  done  if  the  eggs  are 
kept  at  that  temperature  a  few  hours. 

The  operator  is  again  cautioned  to  let  the  eggs  alone  during  the 
last  two  days  of  incubation.  If  the  door  must  be  opened  to  rear- 
range the  thermometer  or  to  supply  moisture,  it  should  be  for  a  brief 
period  only,  and  great  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  jar  nor  change 
the  positions  of  the  eggs.  But  the  lamp  should  be  kept  in  good  order 
and  the  regulator  and  thermometer  watched  closely.  Some  of  this 
has  been  stated  before,  but  it  will  bear  repeating,  for  many  a  good 
hatching  i^rospect  has  been  blighted  by  over-anxiety  or  curiosity. 

At  the  end  of  the  twenty-first  day  open  the  door  and  pull  the 
tray  partly  forward.  Then  remove  the  shells  and,  if  any  chick  is 
found  with  the  shell  dried  upon  it  or  in  any  way  attached  to  it, 
carefully  liberate  the  chick  and  place  it  in  the  nursery  below.  Then 
carefully  close  the  door  and  let  the  machine  alone  for  another  six 
hours  unless  the  eggs  are  all  hatched  sooner. 

The  eggs  about  all  hatched,  now  is  the  time  to  clean  and  set  up 
the  brooder,  which  should  be  heated  a  few  hours  before  the  chicks 
are  removed  from  the  nursery.  After  the  hatch  is  completed  and 
the  chicks  are  removed  from  the  nursery,  the  machine  should  be 
taken  apart,  carefully  cleaned,  and  set  right  for  future  use.  The 
brooder  should  be  started  at  about  98°  F.  and  gradually  lowered  at 
the  rate  of  1°  a  week,  according  to  the  weather  and  the  experience 
and  judgment  of  the  poultry  man. 

The  chicks  should  not  be  fed  until  they  are  thoroughly  dried 
and  have  been  out  of  the  incubator  at  least  twenty-four  hours.  The 
first  feed  should  be  fine  sharp  grit  or  sand,  upon  which  is  sprinkled 
a  very  little  hard-boiled  egg  chopped  fine.  After  this  they  should 
be  fed  every  three  hours  a  little  broken  grain  or,  better  yet,  some  of 
the  excellent  prepared  dry  chick  foods  upon  the  market.  Clean,  fresh 
water  should  be  supplied  from  the  start.  Wet,  sloppy  food  should  be 
avoided.  If  none  of  the  manufactured  chick  foods  are  at  hand,  a 
substitute  can  be  made  by  cracking  a  mixture  of  wheat,  corn,  and 


566  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

egg  shells.  Any  good  poultry  journal  will  give  valuable  hints  upon 
the  subject  of  raising  chickens  in  brooders. 

Summary. — Study  your  incubator;  acquaint  yourself  with  all 
its  parts ;  read  the  manufacturers'  directions  for  setting  it  up ;  set  it 
up  carefully  and  according  to  instructions ;  never  try  to  run  an  incu- 
bator in  a  drafty  place,  nor  near  a  stove,  nor  where  the  sun  shines 
upon  it;  set  fertile  eggs  only;  waste  no  effort  upon  those  that  are 
doubtful ;  learn  how  to  trim  and  clean  a  lamp ;  keep  the  lamps  full 
and  the  wick  and  tube  clean;  avoid  smoke;  see  that  the  eggs  are 
clean  and  dry  before  setting  them;  balance  all  eggs,  large  end  up, 
a  few  hours  before  placing  them  in  the  tray;  do  not  overfill  the 
tray ;  turn  every  egg  the  third  day ;  cool  the  eggs  every  morning ;  be 
sure  your  hands  are  clean  when  handling  eggs ;  test  all  eggs  by  the 
seventh  day;  test  again  by  the  eleventh  day;  test  again  by  the  fif- 
teenth day ;  if  the  air  space  is  too  large,  supply  moisture ;  if  too  small, 
put  a  saucer  of  dry  lime  in  the  room  and  run  without  moisture  a  day 
or  two ;  do  not  expect  to  learn  all  about  the  air  cell  the  first  hatch — 
you  will  learn  that  later;  do  not  disturb  the  eggs  after  the  evening 
of  the 'eighteenth  day;  have  a  regular  hour  for  incubator  work;  do 
not  tinker  too  much  with  the  regulator;  get  the  adjustment  right 
and  keep  it  so ;  heat  your  machine  and  make  your  adjustment  before 
placing  the  eggs  in  the  egg  chamber. 

General  Remarks. — The  average  farmer,  his  wife,  his  son,  or  his 
daughter,  should  not  expect  to  learn  all  about  the  management  of 
an  incubator  from  the  perusal  of  written  pages.  Experience  comes 
from  the  work  itself.  This  work  is  easy,  interesting,  and  fascinating. 
It  occupies  the  mind  and  leads  to  investigation.  More  than  that,  it 
leads  to  success  and  profit.  But  great  results  can  not  be  expected 
in  the  beginning.  The  poultry  business  is  a  trade  and  must  be 
learned.  Many  a  person  is  idle  today  and  looking  for  some  sphere 
of  usefulness  who  could  learn  how  to  operate  an  incubator  to  both 
mental  and  financial  advantage.  But  the  work,  slight  as  it  is,  must 
be  done  properly  and  at  the  right  time.  The  poultry  business  is  hon- 
orable and  profitable,  but  it  requires  study  and  experience.  We  serve 
a  long  and  faithful  apprenticeship  to  learn  other  more  laborious  and 
less  remunerative  trades,  when  the  same  amount  of  application  would 
in  less  time  make  us  experts  with  an  incubator  and  give  us  a  trade 
in  a  line  not  affected  by  strikes  or  lockouts,  or  liable  to  be  over- 
crowded.—(Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  236.) 

(Publications  quoted  from  and  consulted  on  incubation:  Mich. 
B.  245;  Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  236;  Kansas  B.  150;  West  Va.  B.  98;  Minn. 
B.  91;  Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  357;  Ark.  B.  99;  Pa.  B.  87:  Utah  B.  92, 102; 
S.  C.  B.  81;  Ont.  Agr.  Cal.  B.  163.) 

BROODING. 

Natural  Brooding. — If  the  chicks  are  to  be  raised  with  hens  a 
supply  of  small  coops  will  be  needed.  The  common  inverted  V- 
shaped  coop  is  quite  satisfactory  in  warm  weather,  or  even  in  cold 
weather,  if  it  is  placed  in  a  sheltered  location,  or  in  a  shed.  The 
sides  forming  the  roof  of  this  coop  should  be  two  feet  in  length  at  the 
peak  and  three  feet  long  from  the  peak  to  the  ground  on  the  slope 


POULTRY  KEEPING  567 

and  the  angle  where  the  two  meet  should  be  about  75°.  The  back 
should  be  boarded  up  tight.  The  front  should  be  boarded  down 
about  one-third  of  the  way  from  the  top  and  the  remainder  slatted. 
This  is  probably  the  most  common  coop  in  use  in  this  country. 

Another  very  good  coop  for  hens  with  chicks  in  cool  weather, 
consists  of  a  house  three  feet  six  inches  by  four  feet  two  inches.  It 
should  be  three  feet  high  in  front  and  two  feet  six  inches  in  the  rear. 
Hinge  the  front  side  on  as  a  door  which  should  have  a  light  in  it; 
then  board  the  remainder  tight  and  cover  with  building  paper.  The 
hen  may  be  confined  in  a  crate  within  and  the  floor  covered  with  fine 
litter.  This  will  prevent  the  hen  covering  the  chicks  with  chaff 
when  scratching.  As  soon  as  the  chicks  are  a  week  old  the  crate  can 
be  removed  as  the  chicks  will  then  be  active  enough  to  keep  out  of 
the  way. 

Early  chicks  can  often  be  kept  in  an  unused  stable  or  building 
that  is  well  lighted.  A  fairly  constant  temperature  aids  growth 
and  thus  gives  more  satisfactory  results.  Later  in  the  season,  after 
the  cold  winds  and  rains  are  over,  place  the  hen  and  chicks  in  a 
small  coop  out  of  doors.  The  coops  may  be  used  without  floors  un- 
less rats  are  troublesome,  in  which  case  they  will  need  perfectly  solid 
floors.  The  coop  should  be  moved  every  day  or  two  to  prevent  kill- 
ing the  grass  under  it,  and  secure  clean  premises.  If  hawks  and  crows 
are  troulDlesome,  a  run  can  be  made  in  front  of  each  coop,  using 
inch  mesh  wire  netting  when  the  danger  is  great.  If  the  danger 
of  loss  from  this  source  is  not  serious  use  a  two-inch  mesh  netting 
to  allow  the  chicks  to  go  through  and  forage  outside.  The  runs 
should  be  moved  to  fresh  ground  every  few  days. 

A  barrel  may  be  converted  into  a  coop  for  housing  a  hen  and  her 
chicks.  Dig  a  hole  in  the  ground  large  enough  to  admit  one-third  of 
the  barrel.  Then  place  the  barrel  on  its  side  in  the  hole  and  put  the 
earth  in  it,  even  with  or  slightly  above  that  outside.  The  head 
should  be  left  intact  in  one  end.  Remove  the  other  end  and  drive 
stakes  in  the  ground  before  the  opening  two  inches  apart,  thus  con- 
fining the  hen  and  allowing  the  chicks  to  pass  through.  Packing 
boxes  may  be  used  in  various  ways  if  covered  with  building  paper, 
but  in  general  it  will  be  found  more  satisfactory  to  build  good,  sub- 
stantial coops  which  can  be  used  for  several  years. — (Mich.  B.  245.) 

Brooders. — For  those  who  wish  to  raise  large  numbers  of  early 
chickens,  or  who  keep  only  non-sitting  breeds,  the  brooder  is  a  neces- 
sity. In  buying  a  brooder  the  chief  points  to  be  observed  are:  a 
good  lamp,  a  heating  device  giving  off  the  heat  from  a  central  drum, 
and  an  arrangement  which  facilitates  easy  cleaning.  The  brooder 
should  be  large,  having  not  le.ss  than  nine  square  feet  of  floor  space. 
The  work  demanded  of  a  brooder  is  not  as  exacting  as  with  an  in- 
cubator. The  heat  and  circulation  of  air  may  vary  a  little  without 
damage,  but  they  must  not  fail  altogether.  The  greatest  trouble  with 
brooders  in  operation  is  the  uncertainty  of  the  lamp.  The  brooder- 
lamp  should  have  sufficient  oil  capacity  and  a  large  wick.  Brooder- 
lamps  are  often  exposed  to  the  wind,  and,  if  cheaply  constructed  oc 


668  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

poorly  enclosed,  the  result  will  be  a  chilled  brood  of  chicks,  or  per- 
haps a  fire. 

The  chief  thing  sought  in  the  internal  arrangements  of  a 
brooder  is  a  provision  to  keep  the  chicks  from  piling  up  and  smother- 
ing each  other  as  they  crowd  toward  the  source  of  heat.  This  can  be 
accomplished  by  having  the  warmest  part  of  the  brooder  in  the  cen- 
ter rather  than  at  the  side  or  corner.  If  the  heat  come  from  above 
and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  brooder  be  heated  to  the  same 
temperature,  no  crowding  will  take  place. 

The  temperatures  given  for  running  brooders  vary  with  the 
machine  and  the  position  of  the  thermometer.  The  one  reliable 
guide  for  temperature  is  the  action  of  the  chicks.  If  they  are  cold 
they  will  crowd  toward  the  Source  of  heat;  if  too  w^arm  they  will 
wander  uneasily  about;  but  if  the  temperature  is  right,  each  chick 
will  sleep  stretched  out  on  the  floor.  The  cold  chicken  does  not 
sleep  at  all,  but  puts  in  its  time  fighting  its  way  toward  the  source 
of  heat.  In  an  improperly  constructed  or  improperly  run  brooder 
the  chicks  go  through  a  varying  process  of  chilling,  sweating  and 
struggling  when  they  should  be  sleeping,  and  the  result  is  puny 
chicks  that  dwindle  and  die. 

The  arrangement  of  the  brooder  for  the  sleeping  accommoda- 
tions of  the  chicks  is  important,  but  this  is  not  the  only  thing  to  be 
considered  in  a  brooder.  The  brooder  used  in  the  early  season,  and 
especially  the  outdoor  brooder,  must  have  ample  space  provided  for 
the  daytime  accommodation  of  the  chick.  This  part  of  the  brooder 
must  be  well  lighted  and  somewhat  cooler  than  the  hover. — (Kan. 
B.  150.) 

Temperature. — In  brooding  chicks  either  in  individual  brood- 
ers or  in  brooder  houses  the  main  thing  which  must  be  watched  is  the 
temperature,  for  if  the  temperature  is  either  too  high  or  too  low,  the 
results  will  be  totally  unsatisfactory  even  though  all  of  the  other  con- 
ditions governing  the  health  of  the  chicks  are  ideal.  Chicks  three  or 
four  days  old  are  fairly  hardy  little  creatures  and  can  endure  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  cold  provided  that  as  soon  as  they  become  too 
cold  they  can  quickly  get  warm  again.  But  if  they  are  forced  to  re- 
main where  the  temperature  is  too  low  they  catch  cold  very  quickly, 
the  lungs  soon  become  inflamed,  little  nodules  of  light  colored  cheesy 
matter  form  in  them  and  death  results. 

The  temperature  of  the  brooder  or  brooder  house  when  the 
chicks  are  first  transferred  from  the  incubator  should  be  practically 
as  high  as  the  temperature  of  the  incubator  from  which  the  chicks 
have  just  been  removed,  or  from  95  degrees  to  100  degrees  F.  This 
temperature  should  be  maintained  for  the  first  week,  never  allowing 
it  to  fall  below  95  degrees.  The  second  week  the  temperature  should 
not  be  allowed  to  drop  lower  than  90  degrees.  These  temperatures 
refer  to  the  air  temperature  taken  on  a  level  with  the  chicks.  After 
the  second  week  the  temperature  should  be  reduced  gradually  until 
the  chicks  are  old  enough  to  do  without  artificial  heat. — (West  Va. 
B.  98.) 


POULTRY  KEEPING  569 

Rearing  Chicks  With  Brooders. — Many  people  prefer  the  arti- 
ficial method  of  raising  chicks,  but  want  something  cheap.  It  is  not 
always  wise,  however,  to  use  the  cheapest.  A  packing  case  brooder 
which  will  accommodate  fifty  chicks  can  'be  built  for  about  a  dollar. 
This  brooder  has  given  excellent  results,  but  must  be  used  in  a  shed 
or  colony  house.  The  brooder  proper  is  made  of  four  ten-inch 
boards,  three  feet  long,  on  which  is  nailed  a  tin  or  galvanized-iron 
cover.  Above  this,  around  the  sides,  are  strips  one  inch  thick,  and 
on  these  strips  sits  the  floor  of  the  brooder.  There  should  be  a  couple 
of  one  inch  holes  in  each  strip  to  admit  air.  The  floor  should  be 
made  of  matched  lumber.  In  the  center  an  eight  inch  hole  should  be 
cut,  and  over  this  an  old  tin  pan,  about  ten  inches  across  at  the  top 
(which  is  now  to  become  the  bottom)  and  four  inches  deep,  should 
be  placed.  The  sides  of  this  tin  should  be  punched  full  of  holes. 
For  a  hover  a  table  two  feet  six  inches  square,  with  legs  about  four 
and  one-half  inches  long,  may  be  used.  Cheap  felt  may  be  tacked 
on  for  a  curtain,  care  being  taken  that  it  is  cut  from  top  to  bottom 
every  five  or  six  inches.  For  an  outside  wall  four  four-inch  strips, 
three  feet  long,  nailed  together  and  set  on  the  brooder,  will  be  satis- 
factory. AVhen  the  chicks  are  ten  days  old,  one  side  may  be  taken 
away,  and  a  bridge  used  so  that  they  may  run  from  under  the  hover 
direct  to  the  floor  of  the  room.  Any  good  lamp  may  be  used  in  this 
brooder.  The  burner  can  be  bought  for  twenty-five  cents,  and  the 
bowl  may  be  made  of  a  two-quart  tin  basin  covered  with  a  small  pie 
plate  turned  bottom  side  up.  This  plate  should  have  a  hole  punched 
in  it  and  should  be  fastened  to  the  collar  of  the  burner  with  a  drop 
of  solder.  It  is  also  advisable  to  fasten  the  plate  to  the  basin  in  the 
same  way. —  (Conn.  B.  3'6.) 

A  temperature  of  100  degrees  is  essential  to  successful  brooding 
of  chickens  in  either  large  or  small  flocks.  The  larger  the  flock  the 
more  important  it  is  that  a  high  temperature  be  maintained,  because 
the  greater  is  the  danger  of  crowding.  When  the  chickens  become 
cold  they  like  to  go  quickly  to  a  warmer  temperature  than  they  could 
occupy  with  comfort  or  safety  if  compelled  to  remain  there.  Chick- 
ens will  crowd  when  they  become  cold  if  sufficient  heat  is  not  sup- 
plied. It  is  but  natural  that  they  should.  A  chicken's  body  tempera- 
ture is  normally  about  105  to  106.  Therefore,  a  cold  chicken  can 
not  be  blamed  for  rubbing  up  against  another  chicken  105  degrees 
warm  instead  of  standing  alone  in  a  temperature  of  80  to  85  degrees. 
The  more  the  chickens  crowd  the  hotter  the  pile  becomes  and,  there- 
fore, the  more  attractive  is  the  source  of  heat  to  the  chickens  on  the 
outside.  If  a  temperature  of  100  degrees  is  maintained,  the  chickens 
will  spread  out  of  their  own  accord.  They  can  be  trusted  to  remain 
in  the  temperature  which  is  most  comfortable  to  them,  which  also 
will  be  the  temperature  best  suited  to  their  needs.  The  first  sense  to 
be  developed  in  a  young  chick,  seems  to  be  the  sense  of  touch,  as 
manifested  by  the  sensation  of  warmth,  which  to  the  chick  means 
comfort  and  comfort  to  the  chick  means  home.  The  first  instinct, 
therefore,  to  be  awakened  in  the  chick  appears  to  be  that  of  location. 


570  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

When  once  it  feels  and  sees  the  source  of  heat  and  comfort,  it  will 
almost  invariably  return  to  it. 

The  importance  of  a  high  temperature  in  a  brooder  cannot  be 
overestimated.  It  is  vitally  important.  Heat  brought  the  young 
chick  into  the  world  and  lack  of  heat  will  take  it  out  of  the  world. 
Without  warmth  chickens  do  not  sleep  well.  They  huddle,  i.  e.,  they 
are  compelled  to  stand  up  to  avoid  being  trampeled  to  death.  A 
chicken  cannot  sleep  standing.  Without  sleep  a  chicken  does  not 
rest.  Without  rest  a  chicken  cannot  grow.  Sleep  and  rest  are  as 
important  to  a  chicken  as  to  a  baby.  A  large  part  of  the  slow  growth 
and  mortality  with  young  chickens  is  caused  by  lack  of  sleep,  due  to 
lack  of  heat.— (Cornell  B.  246.) 

Care  of  Chicks. — Where  the  chicks  are  to  be  raised  on  a  large 
scale  the  brooder  house  heated  by  hot  water  pipes  is  the  most  eco- 
nomical, for  in  this  case  there  is  only  one  fire  to  attend,  and  the  work 
of  feeding  and  watering  the  chicks  can  be  done  much  easier  than 
when  the  chicks  are  scattered  about  in  individual  brooders.  In  fact 
outside  brooders  are  not  very  satisfactory.  Unless  an  enormous 
amount  of  care  and  attention  be  given  to  them  the  temperature  is 
sure  to  vary  so  much  thai  the  chicks  do  not  thrive.  In  addition  the 
work  has  to  be  done  out  of  doors  in  all  sorts  of  weather,  making  it 
disagreeable  and  costly  to  perform. 

Feeding. — Next  in  importance  to  the  temperature  at  which  the 
little  chicks  are  kept  is  the  food  which  they  receive.  In  the  case  of  a 
chick  nature  provides  for  its  sustenance  until  it  is  able  to  run  about 
and  obtain  food  partly  by  its  own  efforts.  The  food  material  thus 
provided  consists  of  the  contents  of  the  yolk  sack  which  is  slipped 
into  the  abdominal  cavity  a  few  hours  before  the  chick  is  hatched. 
The  yolk  sack  is  connected  with  the  intestine  hy  a  duct  through  which 
the  semi-fluid  mass  passes  into  the  digestive  system  where  it  is 
absorbed.  It  is  due  to  this  provision  that  it  is  not  wise  to  feed  chicks 
until  they  are  two  or  three  days  old.  If  fed  too  soon  or  too  much 
there  seems  to  be  a  tendency  for  the  material  which  is  present  in 
the  yolk  sack  to  remain  unabsorbed.  When  this  occurs  putrefactive 
changes  soon  begin  to  take  place,  some  of  the  products  thus  formed 
pass  into  the  circulatory  system  of  the  chick,  bowel  trouble  results, 
and  the  chick  dies.  Not  only  may  the  non-absorption  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  yolk  sack  be  caused  by  feeding  too  soon  or  too  much, 
but  it  is  quite  probable  that  this  trouble  may  also  be  caused  by  the 
breeding  stock  being  too  fat  or  otherwise  out  of  condition,  or  by 
too  variable  a  temperature  or  by  a  lack  of  sufficient  ventilation  dur- 
ing the  incubation  of  the  eggs. 

During  the  first  two  or  three  days  after  the  chicks  are  hatched 
they  require  warmth  and  the  opportunity  to  gain  strength  rather 
than  to  receive  food.  They  should  be  supplied  with  water,  however, 
and  it  will  do  no  harm  if  they  have  a  little  fine  chick  grit  at  which 
to  peck.  After  the  second  day  they  are  usually  fed  as  follows:  The 
infertile  eggs  are  boiled  and  run  through  a  food  chopper,  shell  and 
all.  The  ground  egg  is  then  thoroughly  mixed  with  five  or  six 
times  its  bulk  of  rolled  oats.    This  mixture  constitutes  the  first  and 


POULTRY  KEEPING  571 

last  meals  of  the  day  for  tlie  first  two  weeks,  and  is  fed  on  shallow 
troughs  or  on  plates.  At  the  morning  meal  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  chicks  do  not  eat  too  much.  They  should  be  left  somewhat  hun- 
gry at  this  meal  so  that  they  will  exercise  during  the  middle  of  the 
day  by  scratching  for  the  hard  grain  which  is  scattered  in  the  litter. 
At  the  evening  meal  they  may  be  fed  more  liberally  on  the  egg  and 
rolled  oats  mixture.  The  hard  ^ain  consists  of  a  mixture  of  cracked 
corn,  cracked  wheat,  oatmeal,  millet  seed,  broken  rice,  etc.  For  small 
chicks  the  grains  should  be  cracked  fine,  the  pieces  of  corn  not  being 
larger  than  one-half  of  a  kernel  of  wheat.  At  times  the  prepared 
chick  foods  for  scratching  material  have  been  found  most  satisfac- 
tory. The  fine  cracked  grains  should  be  scattered  in  the  litter  as 
often  as  convenient  so  that  the  chicks  may  be  kept  busily  engaged  all 
day  long  hunting  for  the  grain,  and  care  should  be  exercised  that 
they  do  not  find  it  too  easily. 

After  two  or  three  weeks  cracked  wheat  and  cracked  com  are 
gradually  substituted  for  the  prepared  chick  food,  and  a  mash  com- 
posed of  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings  and  'beef  scrap  is 
substituted  for  the  egg  and  rolled  oats.  Excellent  results  have  been 
secured  in  feeding  little  chicks  according  to  the  method  advocated 
by  the  !Maine  Experiment  Station.  Briefly  this  method  is  as  follows : 
A  mixture  of  three  parts  of  corn  meal,  one  part  wheat  bran,  and  one 
part  wheat  middlings  or  flour  is  used  from  which  to  make  bread.  This 
is  mixed  very  stiff  with  skim  milk  or  water  and  salted  as  usual  for 
bread.  It  is  baked  in  a  slow  oven,  and  w^hen  done  the  loaves  are 
split  open  and  returned  to  the  oven  where  it  remains  until  the  bread 
is  thoroughly  dry.  The  crusts  are  then  pounded  until  they  are 
pulverized.  The  infertile  eggs  are  hard  boiled  and  ground  shell  and 
all  in  a  sausage  mill.  One  part  ground  egg  and  four  parts  bread 
crumbs  are  then  mixed  together  and  the  mixture  run  through  the 
sausage  mill  or  food  chopper. 

The  chicks  are  fed  in  the  morning  and  at  night  on  the  bread 
and  egg  mixture,  and  during  the  middle  of  the  day  they  scratch 
in  the  litter  for  the  dry  cracked  grain  or  chick  food  which  is  pro- 
vided for  tliem.  The  egg  mixture  is  used  for  about  two  weeks, 
and  although  it  is  expensive  when  infertile  eggs  are  not  available 
yet  it  makes  the  chicks  thrive  wonderfully  w^ell.  Grit  and  charcoal 
must  be  freely  provided  and  after  the  chicks  are  a  few  days  old 
green  food  in  some  form  becomes  a  practical  necessity. — (W.  Va. 
B.  98.) 

Frequency  of  Feeding. — ^Young  chicks  should  be  fed  a  little  at 
a  time  and  often.  They  should  be  fed  early  in  the  morning  and 
lUSt  before  going  to  bed  at  night,  and  not  less  than  three  times  in  the 
intervening  period.  For  the  first  two  weeks  they  may  be  fed  three 
meals  of  soft  feed  and  two  of  hard,  and  after  that  age  two  of  soft  and 
three  of  hard,  feeding  loss  soft  feed  as  they  grow  older.  No  more 
moistened  soft  feed  should  be  given  at  one  time  than  they  will  eat 
up  clean.  If  any  is  left  it  should  be  removed,  for  nothing  causes 
more  bowel  looseness  and  dysentery  among  young  chicks  than  sour 
feed.    The  finely  cracked  grains  may  be  safely  used  from  the  start, 


572  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

but  the  chicks  do  not  as  a  rule  grow  as  rapidly  as  when  a  part  of  the 
feed  is  ground.  When  the  chicks  are  from  four  to  six  weeks  old,  the 
frequency  of  feeding  may  be  decreased  to  four  times  a  day. 

Green  Feed. — Green  feed  must  be  supplied  in  some  form.  If 
the  chicks  are  cooped  on  young  grass  they  will  help  themselves,  but 
if  confined  in  small  yards  green  feed  should  be  given  them.  To  be 
easily  assimilated,  some  tender  and  easily  broken  green  stuff  should 
be  furnished,  such  as  finely  cut  grass  from  the  lawns,  lettuce  leaves, 
onion  tops,  chopped  fine,  or  boiled  vegetables. 

Animal  Food. — When  chicks  have  a  free  range  they  pick  up 
insects  and  worms.  These  are  most  abundant  during  the  spring 
and  summer  and  it  is  at  this  time  that  the  chickens  thrive.  When 
they  can  not  get  these  abundantly  animal  feed  must  be  furnished 
in  some  other  form.  Beef  scraps,  animal  meal,  green  cut  bone  may 
be  fed. 

Milk. — ^Young  chickens  are  fond  of  milk.  It  is  highly  nutri- 
tious and  promotes  growth,  and  may  take  the  place  of  other  animal 
feed  to  some  extent.  Skim  milk  is  excellent ;  if  whole  milk  is  fed  it 
is  well  to  dilute  it  with  one-third  to  one-half  of  water. 

Grit. — Grit  is  another  necessity.  A  dish  of  chick  size  grit 
should  be  always  before  them,  that  they  may  help  themselves. 

Water. — Fresh,  cool  water  should  be  constantly  accessible,  so 
that  a  drink  can  be  taken  whenever  wanted.  Many  cases  of  cramps 
are  caused  by  letting  the  chicks  become  thirsty  and  then  fill  up  on 
water. 

Charcoal. — Many  successful  poultry  men  keep  it  before  the 
chicks,  while  others  never  use  it.  If  chicks  are  not  thrifty  it  is  one  of 
the  simple  things  to  supply  before  changing  the  feed  or  beginning  to 
give  medicine. — (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  287.) 

After  the  chicks  become  old  enough  and  hardy  enough  to  do 
without  artificial  heat  they  are  removed  from  the  brooder  house  and 
placed  in  colony  houses.  These  should  have  a  door  and  window  in 
front  and  be  provided  with  perches.  When  the  chicks  are  placed  in 
these  houses  temporary  runs  are  made  by  means  of  poultry  wire. 
The  chicks  are  thus  confined  for  a  week  or  two  until  they  become 
waywised  to  their  new  home.  Then  the  wire  is  removed  and  the 
chicks  are  allowed  unrestricted  range  for  the  rest  of  the  season. 

If  the  colony  houses  are  too  near  together  the  chicks  sometimes 
get  in  the  habit  of  crowding  into  certain  houses  at  night  instead  of 
remaining  uniformly  distributed  among  the  difi'erent  houses.  This 
can  be  prevented,  quite  largely,  by  closing  all  openings  so  as  to  ex- 
clude animals  prowling  about  at  night,  for  the  entrance  of  a  skunk 
or  weasel  into  a  house  will  cause  the  chicks  to  shun  that  particular 
house  when  they  go  to  roost  on  the  following  night.  Also  the  chicks 
are  enabled  to  find  their  own  homes  more  promptly  when  the  houses 
are  painted  different  colors. 

^  A  Chick  Feed-Hopper. — The  hopper-feeding  of  finely  cracked 
grain  to  young  chicks  calls  for  a  device  with  a  large  available  feeding 
surface,  handy  to  fill,  easy  to  clean  and  which  will  prevent  the  chick- 
ens from  scratching  out  the  grain.    Such  a  device  is  made  by  cutting 


A  Good  Type  of  Tamworth  Boak.    Dept.  of  Agr. 


Hog  Sick  of  Hog  Cholera.  (Chronic  Type.)    F.  Bul.  379. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  575 

a  galvanized  iron  feed-trough  in  suitable  lengths  and  soldering  a  strip 
of  three-quarter-inch  mesh  galvanized  chicken-wire  over  the  top. 
The  surface  of  the  wire  should  be  about  an  inch  below  the  edges  of 
the  trough  to  prevent  the  throwing  out  of  grain. 

The  ordinary  wooden  V-shaped  trough  can  be  similarly 
adapted;  care  being  taken  to  cut  the  wire  so  that  there  will  be  no 
long  points  of  wire  to  injure  the  chickens. — (Cornell  B.  248.) 

(Publications  quoted  from  and  consulted:  Agr.  Dep.  F.  B. 
357;  Colo.  B.  164;  Ind.  B.  146;  Ark.  B.  99;  Pa.  B.  87;  West  Va.  B. 
98;  Cornell  B.  246;  Me.  B.  193;  Conn.  B.  36;  Kansas  B.  150.) 

FEEDING  AND   CARE. 

The  problem  of  feeding  is  one  of  great  importance,  and  should 
be  carefully  considered,  for  on  it  depends  to  a  large  extent  not  only 
the  general  health  of  the  birds,  but  also  the  economy  which  pro- 
motes success.  It  is  a  subject,  however,  which  should  be  studied  with 
a  large  amount  of  common  sense,  for  there  are  no  hard  and  fast  rules 
which  can  be  laid  down  as  applying  to  every  case.  The  price  of 
feeds  and  the  general  environment  should  be  considered  in  deter- 
mining the  right  rations. 

For  the  largest  profit  a  good  proportion  of  the  eggs  should  be 
secured  during  the  winter.  If  two  extra  eggs  per  week  can  be  ob- 
tained from  each  hen  a  good  profit  will  be  made,  while  if  the  prod- 
uct is  increased  by  only  one  egg  per  week  in  winter,  this  one  egg 
will  pay  for  all  the  feed  the  hen  eats.  To  obtain  this  greater  produc- 
tion, not  only  should  the  fowls  be  young  and  of  a  good  laying  breed, 
but  the  feeder  should  have  a  full  knowledge  of  the  proper  feed  and 
its  preparation. 

The  nutriment  in  the  feed  of  laying  hens  serves  a  twofold  pur- 
pose— to  repair  waste  and  furnish  heat  to  the  body  and  to  supply  the 
egg-making  materials.  As  only  the  surplus  over  what  is  needed  for 
the  body  is  available  for  egg  production,  the  proper  feeds  should  be 
fed  in  sufficient  quantities  to  induce  this  production. 

In  supplying  feed  to  fowls  there  are  three  kinds  of  constituents 
which  should  be  present  in  certain  fairly  well  fixed  proportions  if 
the  desired  results  are  to  be  obtained  most  economically.  These 
constituents  are  mineral,  nitrogenous,  and  carbonaceous,  all  of  which 
are  contained  in  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  barley,  but  not  in  the  right 
proportions  to  give  the  greatest  egg  yield.  In  addition  some  animal 
feed  and  green  feed  should  be  supplied. 

In  feeding  poultry  a  valuable  lesson  may  be  learned  from  na- 
ture. In  the  spring  the  production  of  eggs  on  the  farm  is  an  easy 
matter.  Fowls  which  are  at  liberty  to  roam  find  an  abundance  of 
green  and  animal  feed  on  their  range,  which  with  grain  furnishes  a 
perfect  ration  for  laying  hens.  In  addition  to  this  they  get  plenty 
of  exercise  and  fresh  air.  So  far  as  lies  within  his  power,  then,  the 
feeder  should  aim  to  make  the  winter  conditions  springlike. 

Systems  of  Feeding. — There  are  two  systems  in  use  for  the 
feeding  of  fowls,  in  one  of  which  all  the  feed  is  given  dry  and  in  the 
other  of  which  one  or  more  of  the  daily  feeds  consists  of  a  moistened 
mash.    For  convenience  they  may  be  termed  the  "dry-feed"  and  the 


576  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

"mash"  systems,  although  in  the  dry-feed  system  a  dry  mash  is  often 
fed.  Dry  feeding  is  used  by  many  where  it  is  not  convenient  to 
make  and  feed  a  moistened  mash.  The  greatest  advantages  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  dry  system  are  the  saving  of  labor  and  the  lessened 
danger  of  bowel  trouble  resulting  from  sloppy  or  soured  mashes. 

Dry  Feeding. — In  the  dry-feed  system  for  laying  hens,  as  suc- 
cessfully practiced  on  a  New  York  poultry  farm,  the  whole  grains 
fed  are  as  follows,  in  the  proportions  indicated :  200  pounds  cracked 
corn;  360  pounds  wheat;  130  pounds  oats. 

This  mixture  is  scattered  in  the  litter  early  in  the  morning  and 
again  at  about  11.30  a.  m.,  and  this  inducas  abundant  exercise.  A 
hopper  containing  a  dry  mash  is  hung  against  the  wall.  The  mash 
is  made  up  of  the  following  ingredients,  in  the  proportions  indicated 
(by  measure) :  32  parts  corn  meal;  30  parts  meat  (animal)  meal; 
30  parts  ground  alfalfa;  2  parts  oyster  shell;  1  part  grit;  1  part  char- 
coal. 

The  hopper  containing  this  mash  is  opened  about  an  hour  after 
the  noon  feed  of  grain,  or  about  12.30  p.  m.,  and  the  fowls  have 
access  to  it  for  the  remainder  of  the  day.  Of  all  grain  feeds  that  are 
usually  supplied  to  farm  poultry,  com  has  been  and  still  is  the  most 
popular,  which  is  probably  due  to  its  abundance  and  relative  cheap- 
ness, and  because  it  is  the  most  relished  of  all  the  grains.  Corn  is 
heating  and  fattening,  and  when  fed  to  closely  confined  fowls  in 
large  quantities  fat  rather  than  eggs  is  the  usual  result,  and  it  should 
be  balanced  with  meat,  bone,  linseed,  gluten,  and  such  feeds  as  are 
rich  in  nitrogenous  matter,  for  corn  is  deficient  in  this  constituent. 
When  com  is  fed  to  laying  hens  that  have  opportunity  to  take  plenty 
of  exercise  and  to  secure  insects  and  green  feed,  much  more  satis- 
factory results  are  likely  to  be  obtained  than  when  it  is  fed  to  the 
same  fowls  closely  confined.  It  may  be  fed  quite  largely  in  the 
cold  climates  during  winter,  but  should  be  fed  sparingly  during 
summer. 

Wheat  is  generally  considered  the  safest  grain  to  be  fed  alone. 
It  is  not  quite  so  fattening  as  corn,  still  is  too  fattening  when  fed 
alone.  This  grain  should  be  supplemented  by  some  meat  feed  or 
skimmed  milk  to  increase  the  proportion  of  protein.  Wheat  con- 
tains more  protein  than  corn,  about  the  same  amount  of  carbo- 
hydrates, but  less  fat,  and  on  the  whole  is  considered  not  so  valuable 
for  fattening,  but  better  for  growth.  Wheat  screenings,  if  they  are 
of  a  good  grade,  can  frequently  be  purchased  and  fed  to  advantage. 
Of  course  there  is  always  the  danger  of  introducing  weed  seed  on  the 
farm.  "Burnt  wheat"  can  seldom  be  fed  advantageously,  the  differ- 
ence in  price  between  this  and  good  wheat  being  usually  too  slight 
to  warrant  one  in  feeding  it. 

Oats  are  often  fed  for  variety,  but  are  not  well  liked  unless 
Ihulled,  the  hulls  being  tough  and  rather  indigestible.  Hulled  oats, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  relished  by  poultry  and  are  excellent  for  pro- 
ducing eggs.  When  they  can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  price  in 
comparison  with  other  grains  they  may  be  fed  quite  largely.  Barley 
does  not  seem  to  be  greatly  relished  by  hens,  but  may  be  used  to 


POULTRY  KEEPING  677 

give  variety  to  the  grain  ration.  It  has  a  Httle  more  protein  than 
corn  and  a  little  less  than  oats.  Buckwheat  is  quite  well  liked  by 
fowls,  but  is  not  very  widely  fed.  It  may  be  fed  to  vary  the  ration. 
Buckwheat  middlings  are  rich  in  protein  and  make  a  good  mixture 
with  corn  meal.  Rye  is  not  fed  largely,  and  does  not  seem  to  be 
much  relished  by  poultry.  It  is  supposed  to  cause  bowel  trouble 
when  fed  freely. 

3Ia8h  Feeding. — ^It  is  the  practice  of  a  large  percentage  of  the 
most  successful  poultrymen  to  feed  a  part  of  the  daily  grain  ration 
ground.  Most  of  them  feed  the  ground  grain  moistened  with  either 
milk  or  water,  although  some  feed  it  dry.  A  fowl's  gizzard  is  capable 
of  grinding  all  kinds  of  grain,  but  it  is  generally  considered  to  bo 
more  economical  to  have  a  part  of  the  grinding  done  by  steam  or 
water  power.  The  soft-feed  idea,  however,  must  not  be  overworked. 
A  beginner  often  reasons  that  it  is  cheaper  for  the  miller  than  for 
the  fowl  to  grind  the  grain ;  but  the  powerful  muscles  of  the  gizzard 
are  there  to  be  used,  and  experience  has  shown  that  the  balance  of 
power  of  functions  in  the  fowl's  economy  makes  the  vigorous  exer- 
cise of  the  gizzard  beneficial.  When  feeding  moistened  ground  feed 
ihave  it  a  comparatively  dry,  crumbly  mash,  and  not  a  thin  slop. 
Give  what  they  will  eat  readily  in  15  to  20  minutes. 

Poultrj'men  do  not  agree  as  to  the  time  of  day  when  the  soft 
feed  should  be  fed.  Some  assert  that  it  should  be  fed  in  the  morn- 
ing, others  at  noon,  and  still  others  at  night.  The  greater  proportion 
give  the  ground  feed  in  the  morning,  a  large  number  at  night,  and  a 
few  at  noon.  The  number  who  feed  at  noon,  however,  is  becoming 
larger.  Those  who  give  the  soft  feed  in  the  morning  reason  that  the 
fowls  which  have  been  on  the  perches  during  the  night  have  largely 
digested  the  feed  consumed  the  day  before,  and  consequently  have 
comparatively  empty  crops  and  digestive  organs,  and  in  order  that 
the  morning  meal  may  be  easily  and  quickly  digested  the  fowls 
.should  be  fed  only  ground  and  moistened  feed.  Other  careful 
feeders  state  that  if  a  moi.stened  mash  is  fed  in  the  morning  the  hen 
is  likely  to  become  gorged  with  feed  early  in  the  morning  and  take 
to  the  roost  for  the  remainder  of  the  day.  It  is  probably  more  import- 
ant that  a  part  of  the  grain  should  be  ground  than  that  it  should  be 
fed  at  any  particular  time  of  day.  In  an  experiment  in  West  Vir- 
ginia the  egg  production  was  practically  the  same  whether  mash  was 
fed  in  the  morning  or  at  night. 

The  following  are  given  as  sample  mashes : 

100  pounds  com  meaJ.  100  pounds  wheat  bran. 

150  pounds  ground  oats.  100  pounds  corn  meaJ.^ 

150  pounds  wheat  bran.  75  pounds  wheat  middlings. 

30  pounds  linseed  meal.  75  pounds  cut  clover  or  al- 

30  pounds  beef  scraps.  falfa. 

100  pounds  com  meal .  100  pounds  wheat  bran. 

100  pounds  ground  oats.  100  pounds  ground  corn. 

100  pounds  wheat  bran.  100  pounds  ground  oats. 

100  pounds  ground  barley. 


678  DOMESTIC  ANI3IALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Miscellaneous  Feeds. — Chickens  eat  a  large  amount  of  animal 
matter  in  the  form  of  insects,  worms,  and  other  low  forms  of  animal 
life  when  allowed  to  range  at  will.  If  the  poultry  keeper  is  to  get 
the  best  results  from  his  fowls  in  winter  he  must  furnish  a  substitute 
for  this  class  of  feed.  For  this  purpose  green  cut  bone,  meat  scraps, 
and  animal  meal  may  be  used.  Green  cut  bone  is  usually  fed  by 
itself,  while  the  scraps  and  meal  may  be  readily  mixed  with  the  mash. 
Cut  bone  consists  of  green  or  fresh  bone  sliced  or  shaved  into  thin 
pieces  by  a  bone  cutter.  Bones  fresh  from  the  butcher  have  more 
or  less  meat  adhering,  and  the  more  of  such  meat  the  better,  for  the 
combination  of  bone  and  meat  is  excellent  for  producing  eggs.  Where 
a  good  supply  of  fresh  bone  can  be  obtained  regularly  it  is  very  use- 
ful but  it  can  not  be  kept  sweet  for  as  long  a  period  as  the  beef  scraps 
and  animal  meal.  Green  cut  bone  should  be  fed  carefully  and  in  a 
sweet  condition,  otherwise  bowel  trouble  may  result.  One  pound  a 
day  is  sufficient  for  20  hens,  but  not  over  one-half  pound  should  be 
fed  to  that  number  when  first  beginning  to  feed  it.  From  one-half 
to  three-fourths  pound  of  animal  meal  or  meat  scraps  may  be  fed  to 
12  or  15  hens.  Any  form  of  meat  is  likely  to  loosen  the  bowels  of 
the  hen  when  first  fed,  and  the  hens  should  be  watched  carefully  and 
not  fed  too  much.  After  the  fowls  have  become  accustomed  to  the 
animal  meal  or  meat  scraps  it  may  be  kept  constantly  before  them. 

Green  Feed. — If  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained  with  poultry 
they  must  be  furnished  wuth  a  plentiful  supply  of  green  feed.  Where 
fowls  have  unlimited  range  on  a  farm  they  will  secure  green  feed 
during  the  spring,  but  during  the  winter  it  must  be  supplied  for 
them.  The  question  of  how  to  supply  the  best  feed  at  the  least  cost 
is  one  that  each  poultry  keeper  must  decide  largely  for  himself.  It 
will  probably  make  but  little  difference  what  kind  of  green  feed  is 
supplied  provided  it  is  relished  by  the  fowls.  Cabbages,  turnips, 
beets,  potatoes,  etc.,  are  suitable  for  this  purpose.  The  larger  roots 
and  the  cabbages  may  be  suspended  by  means  of  a  wire  or  string,  or 
they  may  be  placed  on  the  floor,  in  which  case  it  would  be  well  to 
split  the  turnips  or  beets  lengthw^ise  with  a  large  knife.  Potatoes  and 
turnips  should  be  fed  cooked.  The  mangel  is  an  excellent  root  for 
feeding  raw.  Cut  clover  soaked  in  boiling  water  fed  alone  or  wdth 
the  mash  is  good.  Clover  meal  and  ground  alfalfa  make  very  good 
feeds  for  this  purpose.  Where  the  fow^ls  are  yarded  and  not  enough 
green  feed  is  furnished  by  the  yards,  a  small  patch  of  clover,  alfalfa, 
or  rape  may  be  sown.  Any  one  of  these,  if  frequently  mowed,  will 
furnish  a  great  quantity  of  grefen  feed  in  a  form  which  is  relished  by, 
the  fowls.  ^  Canada  field  peas  may  also  be  sown  for  this  purpose,  and 
when  fed  in  a  tender,  crisp  condition  are  eaten  readily.  Rye  is  a 
good  crop  for  late  fall  and  early  spring,  for  it  will  germinate  and  grow 
in  very  cold  weather  and  will  live  through  the  winter.  As  a  general 
thing,  fowls  should  have  once  a  day  about  all  the  green  feed  they 
will  eat. 

Hay. — ^Clover  hay  may  be  fed  economically  to  laying  hens  and 
may  be  prepared  as  follows:  Cut  into  as  short  lengths  as  possible 
(one-fourth  to  one-half  inch)  and  place  in  a  bucket.    Then  pour 


POULTRY  KEEPING  679 

boiling  water  over  it  and  allow  to  stand  for  two  or  three  hours  or 
over  night.  When  ready  to  feed,  drain  off  the  water  and  mix  the  hay 
with  the  mash.  The  hay  may  constitute  about  one-half  the  bulk  of 
the  feed,  although  the  exact  proportion  is  immaterial.  Clover  hay  is 
bast,  but  any  kind  is  valuable.  The  feeder  must  be  careful  not  to 
give  too  much  bulky  feed,  for  the  hen,  having  a  small  crop,  can  not 
make  use  of  as  large  an  amount  of  it  as  the  cow  and  other  rumi- 
nants can. 

Water. — Plenty  of  fresh  water  should  always  be  accessible  to  the 
hens.  If  supplied  irregularly  they  are  likely  to  drink  too  much  at  a 
time.  It  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays  in  summer  or  be 
allowed  to  freeze  in  winter  if  this  can  be  avoided.  In  very  frosty 
weather  it  is  often  worth  while  to  give  them  slightly  warmed  water 
two  or  three  times  a  day  rather  than  permit  them  to  drink  water  at 
the  freezing  point.  A  flock  of  50  hens  in  good  laying  condition  will 
require  4  to  6  quarts  of  water  a  day. 

Milk. — When  properlv  fed,  milk  makes  an  excellent  feed  for 
poultry.  In  feeding  sour  milk  or  buttermilk,  however,  the  feeder  must 
exercise  care  not  to  give  too  much  or  bowel  trouble  will  very  likely 
result.  Skimmed  milk  is  an  economical  feed.  In  skimming,  the 
most  valuable  food  constituents — the  nitrogenous  substances — are  left 
in  the  skimmed  milk.  Net  only  does  this  skimmed  milk  contain 
much  nutritive  material,  but  it  contains  it  in  a  form  which,  as  a  rule 
is  easily  digested.  Skimmed  milk  may  often  be  advantageously  sub- 
stituted in  part  for  meat.  Milk  may  be  used  in  mixing  the  soft  feed, 
or  it  may  be  given  the  fowls  to  drink  in  addition  to  water. 

Grit  and  other  Substances. — Grit  is  essential  to  the  health  of 
fowls  and  to  economy  in  feeding.  Grit  takes  the  place  of  teeth  in 
preparing  the  feed  for  further  digestion  and  is  required  for  the  proper 
preparation  of  feed  in  the  gizzard.  When  the  feed  is  not  properly 
taken  care  of  in  this  organ  an  undue  strain  is  thrown  on  the  fowl's 
system,  often  resulting  in  disease,  and  also  allowing  much  of  the 
nutriment  to  pa^s  through  the  bird's  body  without  being  absorbed. 
In  every  pen  or  yard  a  box  of  grit  should  be  kept.  Recent  investi- 
gators have  asserted  that  grit  is  a  part  of  the  necessary  feed,  giving  the 
fowls  strong  bones  and  a  bright  plumage. 

Lime. — Ordinarily,  the  hen  does  not  consume  enough  lime  to 
form  the  shells  of  eggs  if  she  is  laying  abundantly  unless  something 
besides  the  ordinary  grain  feeds  is  accessible  to  her.  Oyster  shells  are 
very  good  for  this  purpose.  A  box  of  crushed  shells  may  be  placed 
before  the  fowls,  allowing  them  to  eat  at  will.  Old  mortar  and  fine 
gravel  are  also  useful  in  supplying  lime. 

Charcoal. — This  has  a  great  absorptive  power  for  gases,  impuri- 
ties, and  acids,  and  thus  acts  as  a  corrective  when  the  stomach  is  sour 
and  digestion  has  been  impaired. 

Methods  of  Feeding. — Fowls  should  have  empty  crops  in  the 
morning,  and  tJie  crops  should  never  be  quite  full  until  it  is  time  to 
go  to  roost  at  night.  For  the  first  feed,  grain  scattered  in  the  litter 
early  in  the  morning  is  preferred,  the  sooner  the  better  after  the  birds 
leave  the  roosts,    This  induces  them  to  exercise,  which  is  especially 


580  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC, 

important  on  cold  winter  mornings.  In  the  middle  of  the  day  a 
warm  moistened  mash  should  be  given,  about  what  they  will  eat 
within  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and  at  night,  about  an  hour  before 
they  go  to  roost,  a  liberal  feed  of  grain  should  be  scattered  in  the 
litter.  , 

Frequency  of  Feeding. — Some  poultrymen  feed  their  flocks  twice 
a  day,  while  others  feed  them  three  times  a  day.  The  best  plan  is  to 
feed  fowls  in  confinement  three  times  a  day  and  those  having  free 
range  in  summer  twice  a  day.  When  there  is  a  very  long  interval 
between  feeds  it  is  difficult  to  keep  fowls  busy  which  are  kept  in  con- 
finement. Idle  fowls  often  contract  bad  habits,  such  as  feather  pull- 
ing and  egg  eating,  besides  going  out  of  condition  from  lack  of  exer- 
cise. In  case  it  is  not  convenient  to  feed  three  times  a  day,  the 
moistened  mash  may  be  fed  in  the  morning,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  noon  feed  of  grain  may  be  scattered  in  the  litter,  which  will  keep 
the  fowls  busy  a  great  part  of  the  day.  For  those  who  can  not  con- 
veniently feed  their  fowls  early  in  the  morning  a  good  plan  is  to 
scatter  grain  plentifully  in  the  litter  after  the  birds  have  gone  to 
roost.  This  grain  will  furnish  feed  for  the  early  morning.  Some 
poultry  keepers  can  look  after  their  fowls  only  once  a  day.  If  this  is 
in  the  morning,  moistened  mash  may  be  fed,  followed  by  throwing 
grain  in  the  litter  to  furnish  feed  for  the  remainder  of  the  day.  If 
it  is  in  the  evening,  before  dark,  a  moistened  mash  may  be  given, 
and  either  after  the  fowls  go  to  roost  or  in  the  morning,  before  day- 
light, grain  may  be  scattered  in  the  litter  for  eating  during  the  day. 

Amount  of  Feed. — It  is  im.possible  to  state  any  exact  quantity 
of  feed  that  should  be  given  to  each  fowl  per  day,  as  the  appetites  of 
the  birds  vary  according  to  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  kept, 
the  season  of  the  year,  and  the  kind  of  fowl,  some  being  much  greater 
eaters  than  others.  The  general  rule  is  to  keep  the  birds  slightly 
hungry  during  the  day,  not  giving  all  they  will  eat  until  just  before 
roosting  time.  The  birds  should  be  handled  now  and  then  when  they 
are  on  the  perch,  and  if  they  are  either  too  fleshy  or  too  poor  their 
rations  should  be  modified. 

Importance  of  a  Varied  Ration. — In  feeding  gTain  the  aim  of 
the  feeder  should  be  to  give  a  variety.  No  one  kind  of  grain  alone  is 
best.  Variety  may  be  secured  by  mixing  the  grains  or  by  feeding  the 
different  kinds  of  grain  on  different  days.  This  variety  is  in  accord- 
ance with  nature.  When  on  free  range  the  fowls  obtain  a  little  of 
several  different  kinds  of  feed.  Grain  should  not  be  made  the  sol6 
feed,  for  then  fat  and  not  egg's  is  the  usual  result. 

Effect  of  Feed  on  Character  of  Egg. — In  extreme  cases  the  flavor 
and  the  odor  of  the  feed  have  been  imparted  to  the  egg.  Onions  have 
been  fed  in  sufficient  quantity  to  bring  about  this  effect.  Feeds  of 
high  and  objectionable  flavor  should  not  be  fed  by  those  who  desire 
to  produce  a  first-class  article.  In  no  ease  should  tainted  feed  be 
allowed  to  enter  into  the  ration.  Feed  also  has  an  influence  on  the 
color  of  the  yolk.  Com  fed  exclusively  will  give  a  deep  yellow  or 
highly  colored  yolk,  while  wheat  fed  alone  will  produce  a  much 
lighter-colored  yolk,    A  fairly  high-colored  yolk  is  usually  preferred 


POULTRY  KEEPING  581 

and  can  generally  be  obtained  by  feeding  the  moderate  amount  of 
corn.    Plenty  of  green  feed  also  enriches  the  color  of  the  yolk. 

The  Droppings  as  an  Indication  of  Health — The  condition  of  the 
droppings  furnish  a  good  indication  of  the  hen's  health.  They  should 
be  of  sufficient  consistency  to  hold  their  shape,  but  should  not  be  too 
soKd.  In  color  they  should  be  dark,  tapering  off  into  grayish  white. 
If  the  droppings  are  soft  or  pasty  and  of  a  yellowish  or  brownish 
color,  it  indicates  too  much  carbohydrates  or  a  lack  of  meat.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  droppings  are  watery  and  dark  with  red  splashes 
diarrhea  usually  indicates  unsanitary  conditions,  either  in  the  sur- 
roundings, the  feed,  or  the  water. 

Molting. — Where  a  specialty  is  made  of  producing  winter  eggs 
it  is  important  that  the  hens  shed  their  feathers  early,  so  that  the  new 
plumage  will  be  grown  before  cold  weather  begins.  Henry  Van 
Dreser  has  proposed  a  way  by  which  it  is  possible  to  cause  a  flock  of 
fowls  to  pass  through  the  molting  period  early  and  uniformly.  This 
method  consists  in  withholding  part  of  the  feed  for  about  two  weeks, 
which  stops  egg  production  and  reduces  the  weight  of  the  fowls,  and 
then  feeding  heavily  on  a  ration  suitable  for  the  formation  of  the 
feathers  and  the  general  building  up  of  the  system.  This  method 
was  tried  at  the  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  with  good  results. 
The  hens  molted  more  rapidly  and  with  more  uniformity,  entering 
winter  in  better  condition  than  similar  fowls  fed  continually  during 
the  molting  period  on  an  egg-producing  ration.  Whether  this 
method  is  employed  or  not,  the  fowls  should  receive  a  more  nitroge- 
nous ration  than  the  one  ordinarily  fed.  The  addition  of  a  little  lin- 
seed meal  during  the  molting  period  will  aid  in  the  production  of  a 
new  coat  of  feathers.  An  increase  in  the  amount  of  animal  feed  will 
also  be  beneficial. 

Exercise. — During  the  spring  season  fowls  having  free  range 
get  abundant  exercise.  Close  confinement  without  exercise  is  not 
conducive  to  the  best  results,  although  the  feed  provided  may  be  the 
best,  for  idle  hens  soon  grow  too  fat  to  lay.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  give  laying  hens  which  are  confined  too  much  exercise.  The  fowls 
may  be  encouraged  to  exercise  in  various  ways,  such  as  feeding  corn 
on  the  cob,  suspending  cabbage  heads,  beets^  etc.,  so  that  the  birds 
have  to  jump  for  them,  and  scattering  grain  m  the  litter.  The  litter 
should  be  from  4  to  8  inches  deep,  and  may  consist  of  straw  (either 
cut  or  whole),  hay,  leaves,  buckwheat  hulls,  shredded  corn  fodder, 
or  any  convenient  material  of  this  nature.  The  hens  should  be  kept 
hungry  enough  so  that  they  will  work  diligently  all  day  for  the  grain 
scattered  in  this  litter,  which  should  be  removed  whenever  it  becomes 
damp  or  soiled. 

Age  of  Birds  for  Profitable  Egg  Production. — There  are  people 
who  have  the  right  variety  of  fowls,  who  house  and  feed  them  prop- 
erly, and  yet  who  can  not  obtain  eggs  early  in  the  winter  because 
their  fowls  are  too  old.  It  is  seldom  that  it  pays  to  keep  hens  for 
laying  after  they  are  two  and  a  half  years  old ;  not  that  they  will  not 
give  a  profit,  but  that  younger  fowls  will  give  a  greater  profit.  A 
great  many  poultryraen  who  make  a  specialty  of  winter-egg  produc- 


582  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

tion  keep  nothing  but  pullets,  disposing  of  the  1-year-old  hens  before 
it  is  time  to  put  them  in  the  winter  quarters.  Early  hatched  pullets, 
if  properly  grown,  ought  to  begin  laying  in  October  or  early  Novem- 
ber and  continue  to  lay  through  the  winter.  Yearling  hens  seldom 
ibegin  laying  much  before  the  1st  of  January  and  older  hens  not  until 
later.  It  is  the  November  and  December  eggs  that  bring  the  high 
prices.  The  laying  breeds  should  begin  laying  when  about  5  months 
old;  general-purpose  breeds  at  6  months,  and  the  meat  breeds  at  7 
or  8  months.— (Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  287.) 

Broilers. — The  rearing  of  broilers  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
specialties  of  the  poultry  business  and  does  not  appeal  particularly 
to  the  farmer,  but  it  can  often  be  made  a  paying  occupation  in  con- 
nection with  an  egg  farm  or  as  a  winter  employment  for  those  whose 
regular  occupation  gives  them  plenty  of  leisure  at  that  season.  Great 
skill  is  required  to  bring  this  work  to  its  highest  perfection,  and  any- 
one contemplating  the  production  of  broilers  on  an  extensive  scale 
should  not  depend  on  written  directions  for  his  guidance,  but  should 
make  a  careful  study  of  the  market  demands  and  should  visit  one 
of  the  successful  broiler  producers,  for  the  practical  experience  of 
such  men  is  the  safest  guide. 

Broilers  are  young,  plump  chickens,  weighing,  when  dressed, 
from  three-quarters  of  a  pound  to  2  pounds,  and  are  usually  killed 
when  from  six  to  twelve  weeks  old.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
fact  that  they  are  usually  split  down  the  middle  and  the  halves 
broiled.  The  market  demand  today  is  for  broilers  of  three  sizes — 
squab  broilers,  small  broilers,  and  large  broilers.  Squab  broilers 
when  dressed  weigh  from  three-quarters  of  a  pound  to  1  pound  each ; 
small  broilers,  the  size  most  in  demand  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
weigh  from  1  to  1%  pounds  each,  and  large  broilers  from  1%  to  2 
pounds  each.  In  most  American  markets  a  yellow-skinned  and 
yellow-legged  bird  is  preferred,  but  this  is  not  of  as  much  importance 
as  good  quality  of  meat.  The  raising  of  broiler  chickens  until  the 
finishing  period  is  reached  is  practically  the  same  as  the  raising  of 
chickens  for  other  purposes.  The  main  point  is  to  keep  them  grow- 
ing rapidly. 

To  Finish  Broilers  for  Market. — A  fat  broiler  is  quite  a  rarity; 
the  best  that  can  be  done,  in  general,  is  to  have  it  plump,  for  the 
natural  tendency  of  the  chick  is  to  use  all  nutriment  for  growth  and 
development.  When  the  birds  are  nearly  large  enough  for  the 
market  they  should  be  given  all  the  fattening  feed  they  will  eat, 
and  for  this  purpose  corn  in  various  forms  should  be  fed  freely. 
They  will  digest  more  feed  if  fed  ground  than  if  whole  or  cracked. 
A  moistened  mash  consisting  of  about  two-thirds  corn  meal  and  one- 
third  bran  by  bulk  is  good.  Cooked  potatoes  are  good,  and  milk, 
with  a  little  sugar  added,  will  hasten  fattening.  Broilei-s  may  be  sold 
alive  or  dressed  according  to  the  discretion  of  the  grower.  If  dressed 
this  should  be  done  according  to  the  demands  of  the  market  to  which 
they  are  to  be  shipped. 

Roasters. — ^For  roasting,  a  young  fowl  about  full  grown,  but  still 
soft  meated,  is  used,  and  to  roast  satisfactorily  it  must  be  moderately 


POULTRY  KEEPING  583 

fat.  Roasters  are  roughly  classed  as  "small  roasters"  and  "large 
roasters."  The  greatest  demand  is  for  small  roasters  weighing  4 
or  5  pounds  each,  though  the  demand  for  large  roasters  weighing  8 
or  9  pounds  each  is  steadily  increasing.  Yellow  skin  and  yellow  legs 
are  more  generally  demanded  than  a  white  skin  and  dark  legs. 

If  the  chickens  have  been  properly  grown  and  are  in  good 
healthy  condition,  about  ten  or  twelve  days'  confinement  in  a  pen 
and  small  yard,  with  fattening  feed,  will  put  them  in  as  good  condi- 
tion as  is  desirable.  They  should  then  be  dressed  and  packed  accord- 
ing to  market  demands.  The  growing  and  marketing  of  roasters  is 
an  important  business  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  especially  in  the 
vicinity  of  large  cities.  Near  Boston,  in  what  is  known  as  the  "South 
Shore"  district,  the  production  of  roasters  engages  the  attention  of 
many  people,  several  of  whom  make  it  an  exclusive  business.  A 
poultryman  living  near  a  good  market  or  having  good  shipping 
facilities  which  bring  a  good  market  near  him  can  often  dispose 
of  his  surplus  cockerels  as  roasters  to  good  advantage. — (F.  B.  287.) 

MISCELLANEOUS   NOTES  ON   EGG   PRODUCTION. 

Flocks  that  laid  best  during  the  first  two  periods  also  laid  best 
in  the  last  period.  In  other  words  the  flocks  that  laid  poorly  in  the 
early  winter,  when  they  did  begin  to  lay  did  not  surpass  those  that 
had  been  laying  at  least  fairly  well  all  the  time.  It  is  also  shown  that 
it  was  the  flocks  that  laid  best  in  December  and  January  from  which 
the  greatest  profit  was  secured. — (Cornell  B.  204.)  Leghorn  pullets 
hatched  in  April  gave  better  results  than  those  hatched  in  late  May. 
The  profit  was  about  one  and  a  half  times  greater  from  the  April 
hatched  than  from  the  May  hatched. —  (Utah  B.  51.)  The  egg  pro- 
duction of  pullets  was  notably  in  excess  of  that  of  hens  particularly 
in  the  earlier  periods  when  the  price  of  eggs  was  highest . — (Cornell 
B.  212.)  Forced  pullets  produced  more  eggs  of  a  larger  size,  at  less 
cost  per  dozen  than  retarded  pullets. — (Cornell  B.  249.)^  There  is 
nothing  in  the  results  that  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  necessary 
or  advisable  to  crack  the  com  fed  to  hens  kept  for  laying  eggs. — (Me. 
B.  114.)  The  average  food  cost  of  one  dozen  eggs  for  the  year  was  9.2 
cents. — (Cornell  B.  211.)  The  average  cost  of  feeding  a  hen  for  the 
year  was  99.6  cents.  For  laying  hens  the  rations  containing  animal 
food  proved  superior  to  others  in  which  all  the  organic  matter  was 
derived  from  vegetable  sources.  The  vegetable  food  ration  supple- 
mented by  bone  ash  proved  equally  efficient  for  limited  periods. — 
(N.  Y.  State  B.  (Geneva).)  The  result  of  two  year's  experiment 
with  floored  and  unfloored  houses  shows  that  fowls  remain  in  as 
healthy  condition,  and  lay  as  many  or  more  eggs  when  kept  in  un- 
floored houses,  as  they  do  when  kept  in  houses  provided  with  floors. 
— (West  Va.  B.  60.)  Hopper-fed  dry  mash  gave  better  results  in 
gain  of  weight,  production  of  eggs,  gain  in  weight  of  eggs,  hatching 
power  of  eggs,  days  lost  in  molting,  mortality,  health  and  profit  per 
hen,  than  wet  mash. — (Cornell  B.  249.)  Mature  hens,  which  are  fed 
very  sparingly  for  about  two  weeks  and  then  receive  a  rich  nitroge- 
nous ration,  molt  more  rapidly  and  with  more  uniformity,  and 
enter  the  cold  weather  of  wmter  in  better  condition  than  similar 


584  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

fowls  fed  continually  during  the  molting  period  on  an  egg  produc- 
ing ration.— (West  Va.  B.  83.) 

(Publications  on  feeds  and  feeding  quoted  from  and  consulted: 
Utah  B.  51;  Cornell  B.  204;  West  Va.  B.  115,  60;  Ind.  B.  71;  R. 
I.  B.  84,  127;  Cornell  B.  249;  West  Va.  B.  83;  Cornell  B.  211,  212; 
N.  Y.  State  (Geneva) ;  Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  287;  Me.  B.  193). 

FATTENING  POULTRY. 

Four  methods  of  fattening  poultry  are  practiced  in  this  country, 
viz.:  Pen  fattening,  crate  fattening,  machine  cramming,  and  hana 
cramming.  The  first  two  are  probably  the  most  common  to-day, 
while  the  third  is  gaining  rapidly  as  its  results  are  becoming  better 
known,  and  the  fourth  is  used  only  where  but  few  birds  are  fattened. 

Pen  Fattening. — This  is  practiced  by  a  great  many  people  who 
do  not  have  the  time  and  inclination  to  use  other  methods.  The  es- 
sentials of  pen  fattening  are  quiet,  darkness,  except  at  feeding  time, 
and  plenty  of  soft  feed  given  at  regular  intervals,  usually  three  times 
a  day.  Birds  may  'be  kept  in  flocks  of  15  or  20,  but  the  sexes  should 
be  separated. 

Crate  Fattening. — In  crate  fattening  a  few  fowls  are  confined 
in  crates  and  fed  from  a  trough.  A  crate  B  feet  long,  18  inches  high, 
and  18  or  20  inches  wide  is  suitable  and  is  large  enough  for  a  dozen 
birds.  Sometimes  such  a  crate  is  divided  into  two  or  three  compart- 
ments, 4  to  6  birds  being  placed  in  each  compartment.  But  little 
room  for  the  'birds  to  move  about  is  desirable,  for  the  less  exercise 
a  bird  obtains  the  more  readily  does  it  fatten.  The  top,  back,  and 
ends  of  the  crates  should  be  solid  if  they  are  to  be  placed  outdoors, 
but  if  they  are  to  be  in  a  building  they  may  be  built  of  lath  or  slats. 
These  slats  should  be  2  inches  apart  in  front,  so  as  to  permit  the  birds 
to  eat  from  the  troughs  which  are  hung  just  outside  of  the  coop.  The 
slats  of  the  bottom  of  the  coop  should  be  about  1  inch  apart  to  permit 
the  droppings  to  fall  through.  In  indoor  feeding  the  crates  should 
be  placed  in  a  dark  room,  and  just  before  feeding  enough  light 
should  be  admitted  to  allow  the  birds  to  see  to  eat.  They  are  usually 
fed  three  times  a  day,  and  are  permitted  to  eat  for  half  an  hour  at 
a  time,  when  the  room  is  again  darkened  and  the  uneaten  feed 
removed. 

Machine  Cramming. — For  the  best  results  a  machine  is  essen- 
tial, especially  for  the  last  ten  days,  for  otherwise  the  birds  will  not 
eat  nearly  so  much  as  they  can  digest  and  assimilate. 

The  machine  is  thus  described:  A  reservoir  under  which  is 
placed  a  small  force  pump  operated  by  means  of  a  lever  worked 
'by  the  foot  is  placed  on  a  tripod.  A  tube  is  fixed  to  one  end  of 
the  pump,  through  which  the  feed  passes  when  the  lever  rod  is 
lowered.  This  tube  is  of  rubber  or  metal.  If  rubber,  it  may  have  a 
metal  point.  Metal  tubes  are  more  easily  kept  clean.  The  feed  is 
placed  in  the  reservoir,  and  is  made  into  the  consistency  of  thick 
cream.  There  are  several  ways  of  holding  the  bird,  but  the  following 
will  be  found  simple  and  effective:  Fold  the  wings  and  grip  the 
bird  firmly  either  between  the  right  elbow  and  side  of  the  body,  or 
between  the  left  elbow  and  the  body,  whichever  is  the  more  conve- 


POULTRY  KEEPING  585 

nient.  The  head  is  grasped  in  the  left  hand,  the  first  finger  being 
placed  in  the  mouth  to  keep  it  open.  The  tube  is  placed  in  the 
mouth  and  the  bird  is  gently  drawn  on  until  the  end  of  the  tube 
reaches  the  crop,  the  neck  being  elongated  as  much  as  possible.  The 
lever  bar  is  gently  lowered  by  the  foot  and  the  food  is  thus  forced  into 
the  crop.  One  hand  is  kept  on  the  crop  and  as  soon  as  it  is  suffi- 
ciently full  the  foot  is  removed  from  the  lever  and  the  bird  is  gently 
removed.  The  operator  soon  leams  to  know  when  the  crop  is  full. 
No  stated  amount  that  should  be  fed  to  an  individual  can  be  given, 
for  the  quantity  varies  with  the  size  of  the  crop.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  in  preparing  the  feed  to  see  that  there  are  no  lumps,  for  the 
tube  is  small  and  easily  becomes  blocked. 

Hand  Cramming. — This  is  a  good  system  where  but  few  fowls 
are  being  fattened,  but  would  be  found  rather  laborious  where  many 
are  fattened.  The  feed  is  made  into  boluses,  or  balls,  which  should 
be  about  2  inches  long  and  one-half  inch  in  diameter.  A  large  num- 
ber of  these  are  prepared  before  commencing  to  feed.  The  operator 
sits  on  a  stool  or  box,  firmly  grips  the  fowl  between  his  knees,  and 
elongates  the  neck,  holding  the  head  in  a  similar  manner  to  that 
described  in  using  the  cramming  machine.  He  then  dips  a  bolus  in 
skim  milk  or  water  and  forces  it  into  the  bird's  mouth,  pressing  it 
down  the  throat  with  his  finger.  The  neck  above  the  bolus  is  then 
gripped  with  the  thumb  and  first  finger,  which  are  run  downward 
along  the  neck,  forcing  the  bolus  into  the  crop.  It  will  probably 
take  from  14  to  18  of  these  boluses  to  fill  the  crop,  depending  on  its 
capacity.  Some  feeders  practice  this  method  in  connection  with 
crate  fattening.  The  attendant,  after  feeding  in  the  crates,  feels  the 
crop  of  each  bird,  and  any  not  having  a  sutficiently  filled  crop  are 
crammed  in  the  manner  described. 

Feed  for  Fattening. — Fattening  birds  should  always  receive  soft 
feed.  As  they  have  no  exercise  they  require  a  feed  that  can  be 
quickly  and  easily  digested.  The  following  mixture  is  fed  at  the 
New  York  establishment  referred  to  under  the  description  of  the 
cramming  machine :  100  pounds  finely  ground  barley,  100  pounds 
finely  ground  corn,  100  pounds  finely  ground  oats  (with  hulls  sifted 
out),  to  which  mixture  is  added  10  per  cent  of  beef  scraps.  Butter- 
milk or  skim  milk  is  used  for  mixing,  the  former  being  preferred. 
A  little  salt  is  sometimes  added.  The  birds  are  fed  twice  a  day  at 
intervals  of  twelve  hours,  and  are  crammed  for  about  three  weeks. 
It  is  important  that  the  intervals  between  the  feedings  should  be  as 
nearly  equal  as  possible. 

Another  ration  may  be  made  as  follows:  100  pounds  ground 
oats,  100  pounds  ground  com,  50  pounds  flour,  4  pounds  tallow.— 
(Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  287.) 

HOUSES. 

A  poultry  house  should  be  warm,  dry,  light,  and  well  ventilated 
without  draughts.  A  neglect  of  any  of  tliese  requirements  is  enough 
to  destroy  the  usefulness  of  the  hoiLse,  in  part  at  least.  There  are 
many  theories  advanced,  for  building  poultry  houses  that  will  not 
bear  a  practical  test    Great  care  should  -De  used  to  have  all  buildings 


586  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

and  fixtures  connected  with  the  house  as  simple  as  possible  thus 
reducing  to  the  lowest  point,  the  labor  in  caring  for  the  fowls. 

Location. — One  of  the  first  and  most  important  questions  to 
decide  in  starting  a  poultry  plant  is  the  location.  The  factors  deter- 
mining the  location  are;  the  markets,  soil,  and  climate.  It  is  be- 
lieved these  are  here  named  in  the  order  of  their  importance.  It  is 
of  little  use  to  produce  a  good  article  if  one  is  out  of  reach  of  markets 
that  are  willing  to  pay  reasonable  prices  for  poultry  produce.  People 
living  near  cities  and  large  towns  will  therefore  have  an  advantage 
over  those  living  in  remote  regions.  While  this  should  be  considered 
carefully  in  starting  it  should  not  discourage  people  from  keeping 
poultry  because  they  do  not  live  near  a  large  city.  Many  large  and 
successful  poultry  farms  ship  their  produce  from  one  to  three  hun- 
dred miles.  By  making  contracts  ahead  they  are  enabled  to  realize 
a  good  profit  on  the  investment. 

Soil. — The  soil  should  be  a  sandy  loam  and  high  enough  so  that 
all  surface  w^ater  may  drain  away.  When  such  a  location  is  not  at 
hand  and  it  is  necessary  to  build  upon  low  or  level  land,  a  foundation 
for  the  house  should  be  built  of  brick  about  two  feet  high  and  the 
inside  filled  in  with  earth  (preferably  gravel  or  sand)  to  the  top  of 
the  foundation  and  graded  up  to  the  same  level  outside.  The  ground 
should  be  sloping  away  from  the  building  on  all  sides.  This  will 
materially  aid  in  keeping  the  house  dry.  Do  not  locate  a  house  in 
a  bank  as  it  is  almost  sure  to  be  damp.  Dampness  must  be  guarded 
against  in  all  dealings  with  poultry  or  disease  and  failure  are  apt  to 
follow. 

Climate. — "^^Tiile  it  is  true  that  poultry  will  live  and  thrive  in 
nearly  every  clime,  about  40°  North  latitude  is  best  adapted  to  their 
requirements.  A  colder  climate  than  this  rather  than  warmer  for 
several  reasons  would  be  preferred.  The  hot  summers  in  the  South 
furnish  ideal  conditions  for  the  rapid  multiplication  of  all  kinds  of 
vermin  which  prey  upon  the  birds.  Disease  genns  are  more  numer- 
ous and  seem  to  develop  much  faster  than  in  a  colder  climate.  A 
very  hot  climate  has  a  depressing  influence  on  laying  hens  and  will 
greatly  retard  the  growth  of  chicks,  if  it  does  not  ruin  them  entirely. 
Eggs  laid  when  the  weather  is  moderately  cool  are  of  better  quality ; 
that  is  they  have  what  is  called  "more  body"  than  those  laid  in  hot 
weather  unless  the  latter  are  kept  in  refrigerators  until  used. 

Size  and  Dimensions  of  House. — The  size  of  the  building  re- 
quired will  depend  largely  on  the  number  of  fowls  to  be  kept  and  on 
me  size  of  the  flocks.  From  40  to  50  seems  to  be  about  as  many  as 
is  safe  and  economical  to  keep  together.  With  flocks  of  this  size 
about  5  square  feet  of  floor  space  should  be  allotted  to  each  bird, 
which^  will  suffice  in  most  cases  where  careful  attention  is  given  to 
cleanliness  and  ventilation.  If  the  fowls  are  kept  in  smaller  flocks 
more  floor  space  per  bird  will  be  needed.  Where  the  climate  is  so 
mild  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  keep  the  fowls  confined,  except  for  a 
few  days  at  a  time,  less  space  per  bird  wnll  be  sufficient.  The  smaller 
breeds,  being  more  active  and  restless,  require  about  as  much  room 
as  the  larger  breeds. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  587 

For  the  greatest  amount  of  floor  space  for  the  least  cost,  a  build- 
ing should  be  square,  for,  other  things  being  equal,  the  nearer  square 
a  liouse  is  the  less  lumber  it  will  take.  It  is,  however,  out  of  the 
question  to  have  a  large  house  built  square.  The  building  should  not 
be  so  wide  that  the  sun  can  not  reach  the  back  of  the  house,  otherwise 
it  will  be  damp.  Fourteen  feet  is  a  convenient  width  if  there  are  no 
alleyways.  The  house  should  be  built  as  low  as  possible  without 
danger  of  the  attendants  bumping  their  heads  against  the  ceiling. 
A  low  house  is  more  easily  warmed  than  a  high  one. 

The  two  most  common  plans  of  building  are  what  are  known 
as  the  scratching  shed  plan  and  the  continuous  long  house.  The 
scratching  shed  plan  is  to  build  a  small  roosting  and  laying  room 
and  connected  with  it,  a  room  somewhat  larger  with  an  open  front 
facing  the  south.  The  floor  of  this  room  is  covered  with  straw  for 
the  hens  to  exercise  in  during  the  day  time.  The  open  front  is  cov- 
ered with  wire  netting  to  confine  the  birds.  It  is  also  fitted  with  cloth 
covered  frames  hinged  at  the  top  to  be  closed  during  stormy  weather. 
The  object  of  this  plan  is  to  furnish  the  fowls  with  fresh  air  and  exer- 
cise in  a  natural  way,  with  a  warm  place  in  which  to  sleep  at  night. 
The  continuous  closed  front  house  with  a  shed  roof  sloping  to  the 
rear,  and  fitted  with  windows  enough  in  front  to  furnish  sufficient 
light  for  the  fowls  is  a  common  style. — (Minn.  B.  91.) 

Foundation  Walls. — When  permanent  houses  are  to  be  built  it 
is  usually  most  economical  to  erect  them  on  foundations  made  of 
brick,  stone,  or  concrete.  These  should  be  built  deep  enough  to  pre- 
vent heaving  by  frost  and  high  enough  to  prevent  surface  water 
from  entering.  Where  large  stones  or  bricks  are  not  readily  avail- 
able good  Malls  may  be  made  from  small  stones.  In  case  none  of 
these  foundation  materials  is  available  the  building  may  be  erected 
on  posts. 

The  Roof. — There  are  three  general  styles  of  roofs — the  single 
pitch,  the  ^able  roof,  or  double  pitch  with  equal  sides,  and  the  com- 
bination, with  one  long  and  one  short  pitch. 

The  single-pitch  roof  is  the  easiest  to  build.  It  gives  the  highest 
\  crtical  front  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays  and  throws  all  the  rain  water 
to  the  rear;  but  in  order  to  have  the  back  wall  of  sufficient  height  to 
allow  a  person  to  work  conveniently  in  the  rear  portion  of  the  house 
it  is  necessary  to  have  the  front  wall  very  high — unless  a  very  slight 
pitch  is  used — whichi  requires  much  more  lumber  for  the  front  side 
than  in  the  case  of  the  other  two  styles.  The  gable  roof  provides  for 
a  garret  space,  which  may  be  filled  with  straw,  thus  helping  to  make 
the  house  warm  and  dry. 

Most  roofs  can  be  one-fourth  pitch.  Shingle  roofs,  however, 
should  generally  be  one-third  pitch.  In  any  case  the  steeper  the 
pitch  the  greater  will  be  the  cost  of  roofing  and  the  longer  the  roof 
will  last. 

There  are  several  prepared  roofing  materials  which  are  good,  or 
the  roof  may  consist  of  matched  lumber  or  shingles. 

Style  of  Roof. — The  most  suitable  style  of  roof  depends  entirely 
upon  the  type  of  house.    The  commonest  form  used  is  the  shed  roof, 


588  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

sloping  one  way,  best  adapted  to  the  narrow  house  facing  the  south. 
A  roof  of  this  kind  with  the  high  side  to  the  south  sends  all  the 
water  to  the  rear,  is  simple  to  construct  and  will  not  absorb  as  much 
heat  as  the  combination  or  gable  roof,  upon  a  portion  of  which  the 
sun's  rays  strike  more  directly.  The  shed  roof  should  not  be  used  on 
houses  over  fourteen  feet  wide  as  the  length  of  span  will  permit 
sagging  and  in  order  to  secure  a  sufficient  pitch  to  the  roof  the  front 
would  need  to  be  excessively  high  thus  causing  greater  cost  of  con- 
struction. 

Another  type  of  roof  frequently  used  is  the  gable  form  which 
does  away  with  the  long  span,  thus  being  adapted  for  use  on  wider 
buildings.  In  addition  it  affords  a  greater  pitch  which  is  desirable  in 
the  use  of  shingles.  The  objections  to  its  use  are  that  it  is  necessary 
to  have  the  back  side  of  the  house  as  high  as  the  front,  thus  causing 
a  waste  of  material  upon  the  back,  ends  and  partitions. 

The  combination  roof  is  in  reality  a  roof  combining  the  features 
of  the  shed  and  gable  roof  having  unequal  spans,  the  shorter  usually 
being  about  one-third  the  length  of  the  longer.  This  roof  has  the 
advantage  of  both  types  in  that  it  can  be  used  on  a  house  wider  than 
the  shed  roof  type,  affording  a  steeper  pitch  with  less  cost  for  siding. 
In  addition  the  back  side  of  the  building  is  no  higher  than  with  the 
shed  roof  thus  making  it  much  more  economical  to  construct  than 
the  gable  roof.  It  should  be  remembered  that  as  long  as  the  pitch  of 
the  roof  remains  unchanged  the  material  used  for  all  three  styles  of 
roofs  is  exactly  the  same  and  the  saving  in  material  occurs  in  the 
sides,  ends  and  partitions.  Bearing  this  in  mind  an  examination  of 
the  figure  herein  will  show  the  desirable  features  of  this  type  of  roof 
as  compared  to  the  shed  or  gable  when  used  on  a  house  sixteen  feet 
wide  and  having  one  foot  rise  to  every  three  feet  horizontal  run.  The 
dotted  line  shows  the  average  angle  of  the  sun's  rays  for  Dec.  21  at 
the  latitude  of  about  44°  which  indicates  the  necessity  of  placing  the 
windows  6  feet  6  inches  high  in  order  for  the  sunlight  to  reach  the 
far  side  of  the  house  within.  The  front  of  the  house  is  7  feet  high  to 
permit  this  arrangement  of  windows,  while  the  back  of  the  house  is 
only  high  enough  to  work  in  conveniently.  The  shed  roof  would  be 
9  feet  8  inches  high  to  the  top  of  the  plate,  or  2  feet  8  inches  higher 
than  the  combination  roof.  The  gable  roof  in  the  back  would  be  7 
feet  high,  while  4  feet  8  inches  is  as  high  as  necessary,  causing  a 
waste  of  material  in  the  back  of  the  house.  It  is  apparent  that  for 
these  specific  conditions  the  combination  roof  has  the  advantage  over 
the  other  two  types  commonly  used  in  poultry  houses. 

Ventilation. — The  most  important  essential  in  a  poultry  house 
is  an  efficient  system  of  ventilation,  affording  an  abundance  of  fresh 
air  without  drafts.  Fresh  air  insures  dryness  in  the  poultry  houses. 
A  damp  cold  atmosphere  is  much  more  disastrous  than  a  dry  ex- 
tremely low  temperature. 

Ventilation  may  be  secured  by  patent  ventilators,  straw  lofts, 
muslin  curtains,  and  open  fronts.  Patent  ventilators  are  seldom 
used  on  account  of  the  cost  of  construction  and  the  unsatisfactory 
manner  in  which  they  operate  in  the  low  types  of  building. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  589 

The  straw  loft  is  made  by  leaving  spaces  of  one-inch  or  more 
between  the  ceiling  boards  which  are  covered  with  a  foot  or  so  of 
loose  straw.  Both  ends  of  the  loft  should  have  openings,  the  one  on 
the  windward  side  being  kept  closed  during  cold  weather  while  the 
other  should  remain  open.  This  method  of  ventilation  has  a  double 
advantage  in  that  it  not  only  affords  an  abundance  of  fresh  air,  but 
the  straw  takes  up  the  moisture  readily,  thus  rendering  the  house 
dry  and  producing  a  satisfactory  system  of  ventilation.  In  addition 
the  house  with  a  straw  loft  is  very  desirable  during  hot  weather,  the 
temperature  being  influenced  less  by  the  heat  from  the  sun. 

Muslin  is  bein^  used,  in  part,  in  place  of  glass  windows  to 
secure  fresh  air  and  is  exceedingly  popular  because  of  its  economical 
features.  Houses  with  one  square  foot  of  muslin  and  one  square  foot 
of  glass  to  every  eighteen  square  feet  of  floor  space  are  common,  the 
amount  varying  from  one  foot  of  muslin  to  twenty  feet  of  floor  space 
in  a  house  ten  feet  wide  to  one  foot  of  muslin  to  ten  square  feet  of 
floor  space,  in  a  house  twenty  feet  wide.  Some  poultrymen  are  build- 
ing houses  with  all  the  windows  covered  with  muslin  and  where  this 
is  done  double  the  amount  of  muslin  previously  mentioned  should  be 
used.  A  combination  of  glass  and  muslin  is  preferred  and  is  satis- 
factory if  properly  used.  The  house  should  be  aired  out  each  day 
more  than  the  muslin  permits,  for  as  soon  as  the  cloth  becomes  damp 
it  will  not  allow  the  air  to  pass  back  and  forth  thus  rendering  the 
ventilation  imperfect.  Should  the  walls  and  ceiling  become  damp 
insufficient  ventilation  is  being  used  or  the  house  is  not  suffi- 
ciently aired  out  during  the  day.  Any  odors  in  the  house  indi- 
cate deficient  ventilation  and  more  fresh  air  should  be  admitted. 
Fresh  air  is  essential  to  insure  a  healthy  flock,  but  in  supplying  it 
one  must  not  overlook  the  danger  of  drafts.  Drafts  can  be  avoided  to 
some  extent  by  placing  all  openings  on  the  side  of  the  house  opposite 
that  of  the  prevailing  winds.  Frames  can  be  hinged  at  the  top  or 
side  or  made  to  slide  up  and  down  as  part  of  the  window,  in  any  con- 
venient manner  to  suit  the  individual  requirements.  A  moderate 
sized  frame  also  permits  more  efficient  control  of  ventilation  as  one 
often  finds  that  with  large  curtains  the  air  is  too  close,  if  kept  closed, 
but  if  kept  open  the  quarters  are  uncomfortable.  In  building  any 
poultry  house  its  summer  use  should  also  be  considered  and  provision 
be  made  for  openings  in  the  back  so  as  to  aflFord  a  free  air  circulation. 

Fresh  Air  House. — This  style  has  recently  come  into  promi- 
nence. It  is  built  with  the  low  side,  not  over  4  feet  high,  to  the  south, 
and  the  high  side  to  the  north,  the  south  side  being  covered  with  a 
wire  screen.  The  open  front  works  most  advantageously  on  a  house 
16x20  feet  wide  although  it  can  be  used  on  a  narrower  house,  pro- 
viding the  amount  of  open  space  is  reduced.  About  1  square  foot 
of  open  front  is  used  to  every  6  to  10  square  feet  of  floor  space. 

As  the  south  side  is  low  it  is  necessary  to  insert  extra  windows 
which  are  usually  placed  in  the  west  end.  These  can  be  removed 
during  the  summer  thus  affording  free  movement  of  air  and  counter- 
acting some  of  the  objectionable  features  of  the  extra  amount  of  heat 
resulting  from  having  the  long  slope  of  the  roof  to  the  south  instead 


590  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

of  to  the  north  as  is  usually  the  case.  The  house  is  self-regulating  so 
far  as  ventilation  is  concerned,  adapting  itself  to  temperature  changes 
■without  necessitating  the  constant  attention  of  an  attendant.  The 
roosts  being  located  on  the  'backside  are  out  of  the  drafts  and  the 
snow  and  storms  do  not  drive  in  to  any  great  extent.  For  breeding 
stock  it  is  exceedingly  popular  and  in  some  localities  it  is  strongly  ad- 
vocated for  egg  production.  From  the  standpoint  of  healthy  flocks 
this  type  of  house  is  not  to  be  excelled  and  as  a  colony  house  it  is 
being  used  to  a  considerable  extent. — (Mich.  B.  266.) 

Floors. — The  floor  may  be  of  earth,  wood,  or  cement.  It  is  im- 
portant that  the  floor  be  dry,  otherwise  it  will  be  impossible  to  keep 
litter  on  the  floor  fit  for  use.  Straw  and  similar  material  gathers 
moisture,  and  when  the  litter  becomes  damp  enough  to  be  limp  it  is 
practically  useless  for  fowls  to  scratch  in  for  their  grain  feed. 

Earth  floors  are  excellent,  provided  they  are  kept  dry.  Except 
in  very  dry  climates,  however,  they  are  apt  to  be  damp.  Where  an 
earth  floor  is  used  it  should  be  3  or  4  inches  above  the  level  of  the 
ground  outside.  An  objection  to  earth  floors  is  the  difficulty  of 
cleaning  them,  for  it  is  usually  necessary  to  remove  2  or  3  inches  of 
the  top  and  to  replace  this  with  fresh  soil,  and  even  then  one  cannot 
be  certain  that  all  of  the  droppings  have  been  removed. 

Board  floors  are  usually  snort-lived  unless  air  is  allowed  to  cir- 
culate under  them.  This  may  be  provided  for  by  means  of  openings 
in  the  foundation  walls,  which  should  be  closed  during  the  winter 
months.  A  board  floor  covered  with  one-fourth  inch  of  fine  sand, 
with  scratching  material  on  this,  makes  a  good  floor.  The  litter  and 
sand  can  be  readily  removed  when  desired  and  fresh  materials  pro- 
vided. If  the  wooden  floors  are  constructed  within  2  or  3  inches  of 
the  ground  it  is  essential  that  the  foundation  walls  be  constructed  in 
such  a  way  that  rats  can  not  gain  access  beneath  the  floor. 

A  good  cement  floor  is  the  best,  for  it  is  easily  cleaned  and  very 
durable.  It  should  be  covered  with  one-fourth  or  one-half  inch  of 
fine  soil  or  sand  and  plenty  of  litter.  In  constructing  this  floor  the 
ground  should  be  excavated  to  the  depth  of  3  or  4  inches  and  then 
filled  in  with  small  stones  or  coarse  gravel  to  make  a  good  foundation. 
Cover  with  about  2  inches  of  mortar,  made  by  mixing  thoroughly, 
while  dry,  one  part  of  good  cement  to  three  or  four  parts  of  sand,  and 
then  wetting  with  water  and  mixing  thoroughly. — (Agr.  Dep.  F. 
B.  287.) 

Walls  of  the  Poultry  House. — They  must  keep  out  rain,  snow 
and  cold  winds.  They  should  also  give  strength  and  rigidity  to  the 
house,  and  must  be  made  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  be  readily 
disinfected  and  cleaned.  They  must  also  be  reasonably  durable  and 
not  too  expensive.  To  fulfill  the  first  requirement  the  walls  are  usu- 
ally made  wind  tight  Cement  blocks  have  been  used  in  some  locali- 
ties and  are  giving  good  service.  Solid  cement  walls  should  never 
be  used  in  the  poultry  house  as  they  become  damp  and  frost  covered 
and  can  never  be  said  to  be  satisfactory.  Sometimes  drain  tiles  are 
used  in  ordinary  cement  walls  making  air  spaces  which  help  keep 
out  dampness.    This  method,  however,  is  not  used  very  extensively. 


Sheep  Barn.    Ewes  in  Foreground. 


One  of  the  Latest  Types  of  Brooder  House.     Note  the  Cloth  Window  in  Upper 
Part  of  Door;    Also  Chick  Exit  Which  is  Provided  by  Opening  Side  Window. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  593 

Metal  covered  walls  are  becoming  more  common  and  give  fair 
service.  They  must  be  kept  constantly  painted  in  order  to  be  dura- 
ble. Most  poultry  houses  are  built  with  wooden  walls.  It  is  usual 
to  use  2x4's  about  two  feet  apart  for  studding  and  either  matched 
lumber  or  rough  lumber  with  roofing  paper  or  battens  to  make  the 
wall  mndproof.  Matched  lumber,  such  as  drop  siding,  is  usually 
placed  on  horizontally  and  is  used  quite  extensively  as  a  house  pre- 
sents a  good  appearance  and  can  be  built  rapidly.  Where  siding  of 
this  kind  is  used  it  should  always  be  painted  before  being  placed  on 
the  house,  care  being  taken  to  have  the  tongues,  grooves,  and  edges 
carefully  painted.  The  boards  should  be  placed  on  the  house  before 
the  paint  becomes  too  dry.  Matched  siding  of  any  kind  should  be 
dry,  well  driven  together  and  well  nailed  so  as  to  be  wind  proof. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  all  matched  lumber  used  in  this  way  is  of 
good  grade  and  free  from  loose  knots  or  other  such  defects.  To  add 
warmth,  tar  building  paper  or  one-ply  roofing  paper  are  often  placed 
between  the  siding  and  studding,  thus  insuring  a  wind-proof  wall. 

Many  old  poultry  hoyses  are  built  with  rough  boards  running 
up  and  down  and  the  cracks  covered  with  battens.  As  a  rule,  this 
method  of  construction  is  not  satisfactory  as  the  battens  become  loose 
leaving  cracks  which  are  very  undesirable.  Rough  boarding,  either 
perpendicular  or  horizontal,  is  also  being  used  q^uite  extensively. 
When  using  roofing  paper  to  cover  rough  boards  it  is  advisable  to 
cement  the  joints  thoroughly  and  then  batten  with  thin  strips,  at 
least  every  two  feet,  and  then  paint  the  entire  outer  surface  with  two 
coats  of  good  paint.  Other  walls  are  constructed  by  nailing  rough 
boarding  to  the  outside  of  the  studding,  covering  with  tar  building 

Eaper,  and  then  with  ordinary  siding  such  as  is  usually  used  on 
ouses.  Just  which  form  of  wall  is  best  to  use  will  depend  very 
largely  upon  the  locality.  With  any  of  these,  or  with  their  modifica- 
tions, which  are  many,  a  tight  wall  can  be  constructed  so  that  which 
is  advisable  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  necessity  of  presenting 
a  good  appearance  or  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  construction  at  a 
low  figure.  Where  the  boarding  runs  up  and  down,  less  studding  are 
used  and  in  this  way  this  type  of  construction  becomes  advantageous. 
In  the  poultry  house,  however,  this  requires  more  cutting  and  more 
labor  to  build.  Where  the  boarding  runs  horizontally  it  is  hard 
to  construct  a  wall  which  will  always  be  wind  proof. — (Wis.  B.  215.) 
Perches. — They  should  be  all  on  the  same  level  in  the  warmest 
part  of  the  pen  away  from  drafts,  and  should  be  readily  removable. 
If  the  perches  are  not  all  on  the  same  level  the  fowls  will  fight  for 
the  highest  perches,  and  may  be  injured  by  falling  from  the  perch. 
The  perches  should  be  in  the  warmest  part  of  the  pen  as  they  need 
the  most  protection  from  the  cold  during  the  night  when  the  fowls 
are  inactive.  At  this  time  the  house  is  also  usually  colder  than  dur- 
ing the  day.  The  perches  should  be  easily  removable  to  facilitate 
cleaning,  disinfecting,  and  fighting  mites.  They  should  be  so  con- 
structed that  a  disinfectant  can  be  readily  applied  to  all  parts.  They 
should  be  as  simple  as  possible  and  made  in  such  a  way  as  to  have 


594  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

the  smallest  number  of  cracks  and  crevices  which  offer  hiding  places 
for  mites  and  other  vermin. 

As  a  general  rule  small  hens  should  have  about  six  inches  of 
perch  space  while  the  larger  hens  should  be  allowed  eight  inches. 
In  the  winter  they  huddle  closer  together,  but  in  the  summer  there 
should  be  plenty  of  room  to  allow  them  to  spread  out.  Perches 
should  be  twelve  inches  apart  and  not  closer  than  fifteen  inches  to 
the  wall  or  ceiling.  Show  birds,  especially  Leghorns,  or  similar  types 
should  be  kept  at  a  greater  distance  from  walls  and  ceilings.  Many 
good  birds  are  spoiled  by  "brooming"  their  tails  against  the  walls. 

There  are  several  methods  of  making  movable  perches.  One  of 
the  most  common  is  by  hinging  them  to  the  wall  at  the  back. — 
(Wis.  B.  215.) 

Partitions. — Although  drafts  are  prevented  to  a  considerable 
extent  by  having  all  the  openings  on  one  side  of  the  house,  yet  in 
long  houses  drafts  can  be  created  by  the  wind  driving  in  one  window 
and  out  another.  In  order  to  avoid  this  solid  partitions  of  boards 
or  a  combination  of  wire  screen  and  canvas  can  be  installed  at 
intervals  of  about  50  feet.  Occasionally  these  solid  partitions  extend 
out  only  the  width  of  the  roosting  chamber,  but  all  partitions  should 
be  solid  for  two  or  three  feet  from  the  floor  to  break  drafts  and  pre- 
vent fighting  through  the  wire  netting. 

Nests. — Convenience  in  handling  and  usefuln&ss  are  the  main 
requirements  for  satisfactory  nests.  Portable  nests  greatly  facilitate 
cleaning  while  darkened  nests  not  only  afford  a  feeling  of  security 
on  the  part  of  the  hen  but  also  tend  to  reduce  the  amount  of  egg 
eating.  Nests  may  be  placed  under  the  droppings  boards  and 
still  maintain  these  requirements.  After  the  droppings  boards 
have  been  made,  the  nests  are  constructed  and  placed  under- 
neath, merely  resting  upon  cleats  at  each  end,  so  that  they  can  be 
removed  and  cleaned  without  interfering  with  the  rest  of  the  struc- 
ture. The  nest  portion  is  made  with  a  board  one  foot  wide  as  a  base 
on  the  front  and  back  of  which  is  nailed  four-inch  strips.  The  parti- 
tions at  intervals  of  one  foot,  are  1  by  12  by  13  inch  pieces,  while 
along  the  top  on  each  side  of  these  are  nailed  two-inch  strips.  Be- 
tween the  strips  on  the  front  a  door  is  hinged  at  the  bottom,  thus 
permitting  the  sections  of  nests  to  be  opened  for  the  removal  of  eggs. 
Back  of  the  nests,  on  the  cleats,  is  placed  a  four-inch  board  for  the 
birds  to  walk  along  until  they  reach  their  particular  nest.  The  sec- 
tion can  be  built  any  desired  length  and  placed  any  convenient  dis- 
tance from  the  floor.  If  the  nests  are  placed  high  enough  to  permit 
the  free  use  of  the  scratching  floor,  the  roosts  are  apt  to  be  too  high, 
but  this  interferes  only  with  certain  breeds  and  is  offset  by  its  econom- 
ical and  effioient  features. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  nests  from  interfering  with  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  droppings  boards  a  type  adapted  to  this  purpose 
possessing  the  desirable  features  of  the  nest  heretofore  described  but 
requiring  more  time  and  material  for  its  construction  should  be 
used.    Being  hung  on  the  wall  it  can  be  placed  at  any  desired  dis- 


POULTRY  KEEPING  595 

tance  from  the  floor  depending  entirely  upon  the  breed  kept. — 
(Mich.  B.  266.) 

Dust  Boxes. — Chickens  never  wash,  as  many  other  birds  do,  but 
cleanse  themselves  of  insects  by  wallowing  in  soil.  Where  board  or 
cement  floors  are  used,  some  means  for  dusting  should  be  provided 
during  the  winter  months.  For  a  flock  of  50  to  60  fowls  a  dust  box 
3  by  5  feet  or  4  by  4  feet  will  be  found  large  enough  in  most  in- 
stances, and  should  be  placed  where  it  can  be  reached  by  sunlight 
during  as  much  of  the  day  as  passible.  Fine,  light,  dry  dust  is  the 
best,  but  sandy  loam  is  good.  Road  dust  is  recommended  by  many, 
but  it  is  apt  to  be  filthy.  Coal  or  wood  ashes  may  be  mixed  with  tne 
soil  if  desired. 

Watering  Devices. — A  convenient  place  should  be  provided  for 
water.  It  is  best  to  construct  a  small  stand  about  1  foot  above  the 
floor  and  place  the  water  dish  on  this.  This  stand  can  be  constructed 
in  the  partition  so  that  the  hens  in  two  pens  drink  from  one  dish. 
It  is,  however,  usually  better  to  give  each  pen  a  separate  drinking 
dish.  The  water  stand  should  be  placed  where  it  is  light,  and  also 
where  it  is  convenient  to  empty  the  dish  and  re-fill  it.  As  a  rule  the 
water  dish  will  keep  cleaner  if  near  the  south  side  of  the  building, 
as  the  hens  scratch  the  litter  toward  the  north  much  more  than  to- 
ward the  front  of  the  house.  A  hen  faces  the  light  usually  when  dig- 
ging in  the  straw  for  her  feed  and  the  result  is  that  the  litter  wor& 
back. 

There  are  numerous  drinking  devices  on  the  market,  many  of 
which  are  valuable.  A  large  number  of  farmers,  however,  use  either 
a  small  pail  or  pan.  A  low  pail  makes  a  very  convenient  water  dish 
as  the  bail  enables  it  to  be  readily  handled  with  one  hand.  A  pan 
also  makes  a  convenient  watering  dish.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
use  watering  devices  of  any  kind  which  have  parts  that  cannot  be 
readily  cleaned.  A  dirty  drinking  dish  is  frequently  a  source  of 
disease  and  should  never  be  permitted  in  any  poultry  house. 

(Puhlications  Consulted.— Wis.  B.  215 ;  F.  B.  287 ;  Mich.  B.  266 ; 
Ark.  B.  99;  Minn.  B.  91;  F.  B.  357;  N.  Y.  Cornell  B.  248;  Mont. 
Circular  9;  Colo.  B.  164;  Md.  B.  146;  Oreg.  B.  96;  Utah  B.  51;  Pa. 
B.  87.) 

Yarding. — As  perfect  sanitation  is  one  of  the  prime  requisites 
to  success,  the  larger  the  yards  are  the  more  easy  it  will  be  to  main- 
tain healthful  conditions  among  the  flocks.  If  the  yard  areas  must 
be  small  more  care  will  have  to  be  exercised.  While  there  is  no 
fixed  rule  relative  to  the  amount  of  yard  space  required,  if  whole- 
some conditions  are  maintained  one  hundred  and  lorty  square  feet 
per  chicken  will  suffice. 

Yard  fences  are  not  invariably  used.  There  may  be  exceptional 
surroundings  and  special  lines  of  production  rendering  them  unnec- 
essary. Single,  double,  and  triple  yard  systems  are  in  use.  The 
single  yards  or  those  extending  out  from  one  side  of  the  house  the 
width  of  the  individual  pen  are  unsatisfactory,  being  too  narrow, 
thus  rendering  it  difficult  to  use  horses  and  implements  with  which 


596  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

to  cultivate  and  reseed.     Green  forage  cannot  be  started  in  these 
yards  without  confining  the  chickens  or  vacating  the  house. 

Double  yards,  with  one  located  on  each  side  of  the  pen,  are 
more  satisfactory.  They  can  be  used  alternately  during  the  season 
with  chickens  foraging  on  one  yard  while  a  fresh  crop  is  being 
started  in  the  other,  thus  using  the  pen  continuously,  or  the  yard 
may  be  used  alternate  years.  Occasion  may  permit  the  combination 
of  two  adjacent  pens  thus  allowing  yards  of  double  width  as  in  the 
case  of  the  commercial  house  with  individual  pens  18  feet  in  width 
and  the  adjoining  yards  36  feet.  This  arrangement  reduces  the  cost 
of  fencing  considerably  and  greatly  facilitates  the  working  of  the 
soil,  and  m  addition  affords  the  chickens  a  greater  amount  of  rang- 
ing area.  By  this  plan  all  cross-fences  can  be  eliminated  should  spe- 
cial conditions  permit.  For  long  continuous  houses  double  yards 
are  most  satisfactory. — (Mich.  B.  266.) 

TURKEYS. 

No  other  kind  of  domestic  poultry  has  come  into  such  general 
use  throughout  the  entire  world  for  Thanksgiving  and  holiday 
feasts  as  has  the  turkey.  Records  show  that  in  England,  in  1541, 
it  was  enumerated  among  the  dainties,  while  in  1573  it  had  become 
the  customary  fare  of  the  farmer.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Ameri- 
can Bronze  turkey  originated  from  the  union  of  the  wild  turkey 
of  North  America  with  the  domestic  turkey  of  this  country. 

North  American  Wild  Turkey. — This  is  the  original  species  of 
the  Eastern  United  States,  known  as  Meleagris  americana,  whose 
colors  are  black,  beautifully  shaded  with  a  rich  bronze,  the  breast 
plumage  being  dark  bronze,  illuminated  with  a  lustrous  finish  of 
coppery  gold.  This  finish  of  bronze  and  gold  emblazons  the  entire 
plumage  throughout  as  if  burnished  into  brightness.  In  the  rays 
of  the  sun  it  shows  a  most  beautiful  combination  of  bronze,  black, 
copper,  and  gold. 

Mexican  Turkey. — The  wild  turkey  of  the  southern,  or  Mexi- 
can, country,  called  by  some  naturalists  Meleagris  Tnexicana,  is 
somewhat  shorter  in  shank  than  the  northern  species,  in  body  color 
metallic-black  shaded  with  bronze,  its  tail  and  other  feathers  being 
tipped  with  white.  This  appears  to  be  the  species  that  was  first 
taken  to  Spain  and  other  European  countries.  It  is  also  thought 
that  the  white  markings  of  the  plumage  of  this  fowl  show  its  in- 
fluence on  the  variety  of  domestic  turkeys  known  as  the  Narragan- 
sett. 

Ocellated  Turkey. — The  wild  species  known  as  the  Honduras 
turkey — scientifically  as  Meleagris  ocellata — was  originally  a  native 
of  Honduras  and  other  parts  of  Central  America.  Some  describe  it 
as  most  beautiful  in  coloring,  equal  to  the  Impeyan  pheasant,  if  not 
richer.  The  head  and  neck  of  this  wild  variety  are  naked  and  no 
breast  tuft  is  present.  This  is  a  beautiful  brilliantly  colored  bird, 
but  cannot  be  successfully  bred  in  domestication  in  the  northern 
climate. 

Domestication. — There  is  apparently  no  contention  regarding 
the  original  transportation  of  the  turkeys  from  America  to  Spain 


POULTRY  KEEPING  597 

between  the  years  1518  and  1526.  It  also  seems  xo  be  admitted  that 
they  were  introduced  into  England  in  1524.  Among  the  earliest 
recorded  varieties  of  domestic  turkeys  we  find  the  Black  Norfolk 
and  the  large  Cambridge  turkey.  Undoubtedly  the  turkey  had 
been  domesticated  in  this  country  prior  to  the  recording  of  these 
varieties  in  England. 

Present  Condition  of  the  Industry. — ^The  growing  of  turkeys 
seems  to  have  improved  within  the  last  few  years  as  a  result  of  a  de- 
termined effort  on  the  part  of  producers  of  what  is  termed  standard- 
bred,  or  exhibition,  stock  to  demonstrate  that  it  is  more  profitable 
to  use  purebred  breeding  stock  than  the  smaller  and  less  vigorous 
stock  of  days  gone  by.  Their  efforts  to  introduce  throughout  the 
country  the  several  standard  varieties  of  turkeys  has  greatly  benefited 
the  turkey-growing  industry  of  this  country.  This  effort  has  sup- 
plied rich,  new,  vigorous  blood  throughout  the  whole  country,  add- 
ing strength  and  vigor  to  innumerable  flocks,  and  thereby,  to  some 
extent,  building  up  the  stock  that  had  become  deteriorated  through 
the  carelessness  and  inattention  of  the  producers  themselves. 

Deterioration  Through  Inbreeding. — The  fact  that  one  fecunda- 
tion is  sufllicient  to  render  fertile  all  the  eggs  of  one  laying  has  made 
possible  the  undermining  of  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  present- 
day  domestic  turkey.  Being  advised  of  this,  hundreds  of  people  de- 
pend upon  their  neighbors'  flocks  for  the  services  of  a  male  an(J 
pay  no  attention  to  the  matter  of  breeding  stock  except  to  keep  one 
or  two  turkey  hens.  This  has  reduced  many  of  the  turkeys  through- 
out the  country  almost  to  a  condition  of  imbecility.  The  lack  of 
vigor  in  a  large  portion  of  the  breeding  stock  throughout  the  coun- 
try has  jeopardized  to  a  certain  extent  the  production  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  market  turkeys  to  supply  the  demand.  In  fact,  not 
fully  realizing  that  their  failure  was  largely  due  to  undermining  the 
vitality  of  their  breeding  stock  through  inbreeding,  people  have  be- 
come so  disheartened  in  some  localities  with  the  meager  results  of 
their  efforts  to  grow  turkeys  for  the  market  that  they  have  desisted 
from  the  attempt. 

Throughout  the  country  the  attention  of  turkey  growers  has 
been  called  to  the  successful  production  of  market  turkeys  in  the 
State  of  Rhode  Island.  Unquestionably  some  of  the  best  market 
turkeys  produced  in  the  world  have  been  sent  out  of  Rhode  Island. 
But  even  there  the  art  was  in  danger  of  being  lost  through  careless 
handling  of  breeding  stock. 

Weights  for  Market. — Turkeys  that  are  hatched  early  in  the 
spring  should  grow  to  weigh  from  14  to  20  pounds  by  Thanksgiving 
week.  These  weights  are  often  exceeded  by  the  best  growers,  but  as 
they  are  the  most  popular  and  most  readily  produced,  they  are  sug- 
gested as  the  mast  advisable.  The  average  yield  of  turkey  hens  is 
from  18  to  30  eggs,  each  of  which  can  usually  be  counted  on  to  pro- 
duce a  living  poult.  The  question  of  profit  from  keeping  turkeys 
simply  resolves  itself  into  the  ability  of  the  grower  to  bring  them  to  a 
marketable  size.  This  can  readily  be  done  if  care  and  attention  be 
given  to  all  the  requirements  for  success, 


598  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Standard  Varieties  of  Domestic  Turkeys. — The  Spaniards  have 
the  credit  of  taking  the  turkey  from  Mexico  to  Europe.  From  the 
Mexican  variety  the  turkeys  of  England  were  bred,  and  what  is 
known  in  England  as  the  Norfolk  variety  we  call  the  Black  turkey. 
Quite  likely  this  variety  came  from  England  to  us,  and  was  used 
as  the  foundation  for  the  cross  with  our  wild  turkeys  to  establish  or 
create  the  Bronze  turkey.  The  influence  of  the  light  markings  of 
the  Mexican  turkey  is  shown  in  the  plumage  of  some  our  our  domestic 
varieties. 

Six  Standard  Varieties. — Six  standard  varieties  of  turkeys  are 
more  or  less  grown  in  this  country,  viz,  Bronze,  Narragansett,  Buff, 
Slate,  White,  and  Black.  The  main  differences  are  in  size  and  color 
of  plumage.  The  Bronze  and  the  Narragansett  are  the  largest,  the 
Buff  and  Slate  are  the  medium,  and  the  Black  and  White  the  small- 
est. Of  late  so  much  improvement  in  size  has  been  made  in  the 
Whites  that  they  have  moved  up  to  contend  for  third  position,  some 
of  them  having  passed  the  30-pound  mark.  The  same  statement  may 
soon  be  made  of  the  Blacks,  as  they  have  greatly  improved  during 
the  last  few  years. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  there  is  a  nonstandard  variety 
known  as  the  Bourbon  Reds.  They  might  well  claim  the  position 
now  held  by  the  Buff  turkeys,  being  quite  like  them  and  more 
largely  grown  for  market  than  are  the  Buffs.  There  is  scarcely 
enough  preference  shown  in  the  open  market  for  any  one  of  these 
varieties  for  table  use  to  cause  it  to  be  favored  in  production  of  tur- 
keys for  the  market.  There  is,  however,  a  strong  preference  at  all 
times  for  the  best  grown  and  best  finished  specimens  of  all  varieties. 
In  Rhode  Island,  where  the  highest  quality  is  produced,  there  does 
not  seem  to  be  much  preference  for  any  particular  variety. 

The  Bronze  Turkey. — This  variety  holds  the  post  of  honor. 
'As  already  stated,  it  probably  originated  from  a  cross  between  the 
wild  and  the  tame  turkey.  Its  beautiful  rich  plumage  and  its  size 
have  come  from  its  wild  progenitor.  To  maintain  these  desirable 
qualities,  crosses  are  continually  made.  In  this  way  the  mammoth 
size  has  been  gained.  Their  standard  weight  ranges  from  16  to  36 
pounds,  according  to  age  and  sex.  Probably  more  of  this  variety 
are  grown  each  year  than  of  all  others.  They  have  been  pushed  on 
all  sides  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others  until  within  a  year  or 
two.  If  possible  the  Bronze  turkey  has  been  developed  too  much  in 
the  direction  of  size.  While  size,  within  reasonable  limits,  is  to  be 
desired  and  encouraged,  when  it  is  confined  to  length  of  thigh  and 
shank,  it  is  a  gain  of  weight  with  but  little  additional  value. 

Coloring. — The  coloring  of  this  variety  is  a  ground  of  black 
blazoned  or  shaded  with  bronze.  This  shading  is  rich  and  glowing, 
a,nd,  when  the  sun's  rays  are  reflected  from  these  colors,  they  shine 
like  polished  steel.  The  female  is  not  as  rich  in  color  as  the  male, 
but  both  have  the  same  color  and  shadings.  Much  of  this  richness 
of  color  is  lost  through  inbreeding,  as  it  is  improved  by  each  cross 
with  the  wild  specimens, 


POULTRY  KEEPING  599 

Selection  of  Breeding  Stock. — ^Naturally  the  Bronze  turkey- 
should  be  the  largest  in  size,  the  most  vigorous  in  constitution,  and 
the  most  profitable  to  grow.  This  would  be  the  status  of  the  variety 
at  present  were  it  not  that  too  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
selection  of  the  females  for  breeding  stock.  It  should  be  fully  under- 
stood that  size  and  constitutional  vigor  come  largely  through  the 
female,  and,  to  have  this  influence  to  the  fullest  extent,  well-pro- 
portioned, vigorous  females  in  their  second  or  third  year  shpuld  be 
selected  as  breeders.  Do  not  select  the  very  large  specimens  for  this 
purpose;  those  of  a  medium  size  are  usually  the  best.  Discard  the 
undersized  females  at  all  times,  as  they  are  of  but  little  value  as 
producers. 

The  Narragansett  Turkey. — The  turkeys  of  this  variety  are  next 
in  size  to  the  Bronze.  They  are  of  black  ground  color,  each  feather 
ending  with  a  band  of  steel  gray,  edged  with  black.  This  imparts 
a  grayish  cast  to  the  entire  surface  plumage.  Mixed  with  this  is 
the  finish  of  metallic  black  and  bronze  luster.  They  are  beautiful  in 
form  and  feather  and  breed  true  to  shape  and  color.  The  female  has 
a  lighter  shade  of  gray  in  her  markings  than  the  male.  Her  entire 
color  throughout  is  of  lighter  shading. 

Size. — The  standard  weights  of  this  variety  are,  for  males,  from 
20  to  30  pounds,  according  to  age;  for  females,  12  to  18  pounds. 
Some  old  males  of  both  this  and  the  Bronze  variety  weigh  over  40 
pounds.  These  weights  are  excessive  and  practically  no  advantage 
in  breeding.  None  of  the  several  varieties  of  turkeys  is  more  de- 
sirable than  this  for  all  purposes,  and  it  should  be  more  generally  cul- 
tivated throughout  the  country  for  market.  Turkeys  of  this  variety 
are  fine  in  form  of  breast  and  body,  not  so  long  in  the  leg  as  the 
Bronze,  and  of  a  rather  more  contented  nature.  They  do  not  average 
so  large  in  size  as  the  Bronze,  but  where  grown  they  are  highly  val- 
ued. Some  declare  that  the  Narragansetts  will  reach  market  size 
and  condition  in  less  time  than  the  Bronze  turkeys. 

The  Buff  Turkey. — This  variety  is  not  generally  grown 
throughout  the  country.  In  many  localities  it  is  almost  unknown. 
The  standard  calls  for  a  pure  buff  color  throughout,  but  this  shade 
of  coloring  is  seldom  seen.  As  bred  for  market,  these  turkeys  are 
of  a  reddi.sh  buff  or  light  chestnut  color  mixed  with  white  and  some 
dark  shadings.  They  are  highly  valued  in  some  localities  for  their 
quick  growth  and  for  their  attractiveness  when  dressed.  Their  aver- 
age weight  is  several  pounds  less  than  that  of  the  Narragansett.  They 
show  evidence  of  having  been  crossed  with  other  varieties,  perhaps  to 
increase  size.  Some  who  raise  this  variety  have  paid  special  atten- 
tion to  its  individuality  and  have  maintained  the  true  type  and  color, 
adding  greatly  to  its  beauty  of  appearance.  Some  of  the  Rhode  Island 
turkey  growers  are  now  paying  attention  to  this  variety  to  determine 
its  value  for  that  state. 

The  Slate  Turkey. — ^This  might  be  called  a  Blue  turkey.  These 
turkeys  about  average  in  size  with  the  Buffs  and  Blacks  as  we  general- 
ly find  them.  They  range  from  10  to  30  pounds  according  to  age  and 
sex.    The  standard  weights  range  from  12  pounds  for  a  pullet  or 


600  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

yotmg  hen  to  27  pounds  for  an  old  torn,  and  in  color  they  are  slaty 
or  ashy  blue  throughout,  usually  spotted  with  black.  The  black 
color  ranges  from  small  spots  to  larger  markings,  but  the  less  of  this 
the  better  for  exhibition  purposes.  The  female  is  usually  of  a  lighter 
shade  than  the  male.  It  might  be  surmised  that  the  Slate  turkey 
originated  from  a  cross  of  White  and  Black  turkeys.  These,  like  the 
Buff  turkeys,  are  not  largely  bred,  though  some  value  them  highly ; 
in  fact,  scarcely  enough  of  them  are  grown  to  fairly  determine  their 
merit  as  market  turkeys.  It  might  be  of  advantage  to  all  if  more 
attention  were  given  to  the  cultivation  of  these  two  neglected  varieties. 

White  Turkey. — In  America  the  white  variety  is  called  the 
White  Holland  turkey,  because  they  were  thought  to  have  originated 
in  Holland,  but  this  is  doubtful  although  they  were  probably  brought 
to  this  country  from  Holland.  White  turkeys  were  formerly  quite 
delicate  and  rather  small,  but  now  are  more  generally  developed. 
This  change  is  attributed  to  an  infusion  of  the  blood  of  White  sports 
from  either  the  Bronze  or  Narragansett  varieties,  which  has  improved 
both  size  and  vigor,  but  detracted  from  the  color  of  shanks  and 
plumage.  In  some  instances  the  shanks  are  not  quite  so  true  a 
pinkish  white  as  is  demanded,  and  the  plumage  is  clouded;  but  this 
in  no  way  detracts  from  their  value  for  market  purposes. 

Size  and  Color. — The  standard  of  weight  is  less  for  the  Whites 
than  for  other  varieties.  They  range  from  10  pounds  for  young  hens 
to  26  pounds  for  old  toms.  Recently  some  toms  have  been  seen  that 
weighed  35  pounds  in  show  condition,  but  this  weight  is  quite  un- 
usual. In  color  of  plumage  they  should  be  white  throughout  (ex- 
cept that  each  has  a  black  beard  on  the  breast),  with  shanks  and 
toes  pinkish  white.  Those  that  have  the  dark  or  slate-colored  shanks 
show  undoubtedly  that  they  have  resulted  from  a  cross  with  some 
other  variety. 

Comparative  Value. — ^In  some  localities  White  turkeys  are 
largely  grown.  They  show  a  vitality  equal  to  that  of  other  varieties, 
and  are  no  more  difficult  to  rear.  In  one  section  visited  the  writer 
found  by  careful  investigation  that  as  large  a  percentage  of  Whites 
was  grown  during  the  very  bad  season  of  1903  as  of  the  other  kinds. 
With  some  the  Whites  did  the  best.  AVhen  the  vigor  is  perfect  and 
the  mating  birds  nonrelated,  the  young  of  White  turkeys  are  quite 
as  easy  to  grow  as  any  young  turkeys. 

One  can  not  select  a  better  variety  for  all  uses  than  the  White 
Holland.  They  grow  to  the  most  profitable  sizes,  dress  beautifully 
for  market,  their  light,  pinkish  white  shanks  add  to  their  appear- 
ance, and  with  them,  as  with  all  white  poultry,  the  pin  feathers 
show  less  than  in  darker  varieties.  The  very  largest  turkeys  are  not 
the  most  profitable  either  to  grow  or  to  sell.  The  medium  sizes — 
from  9  to  18  pounds  dressed — are  most  desirable  for  family  use.  It 
is  said  that  they  are  particularly  adapted  to  restricted  ranges  and 
do  as  well  as  any  breed  when  confined. 

The  Black  Turkey. — This  variety  was  for  a  time  almost  forgot- 
ten and  quite  neglected,  but  of  late  more  attention  has  been  given  it, 
greatly  to  its  advantage  and  improvement  along  the  lines  of  valu' 


POULTRY  KEEPING  601 

able  market  qualities.  The  Black  turkey  of  to-day  is  almost  as  large 
as  the  Bronze  and  fully  its  equal  in  many  ways.  This  is  due  to 
crosses  made  with  Bronze  turkeys,  and  to  proper  selection  thereafter. 
This  variety  is  much  the  same  as  the  English  Norfolk  turkey.  No 
turkeys  are  more  desirable  for  table  purposes.  When  dressed  they 
present  the  yellow  color  of  skin  and  meat  and  the  plumpness  and 
finish  that  are  desirable.  The  Blacks  round  up  nicely  at  an  early 
age,  are  quite  hardy,  and  mature  in  time  for  early  markets.  Black 
turkeys,  like  the  White,  do  not  have  so  great  a  tendency  to  roam  as 
the  Bronze.    The  young  are  quite  hardy. 

Rules  for  Selecting  Stock. — A  few  plain  rules  which  may  be 
observed  to  advantage  are  as  follows:  First,  always  use  as  breeders 
turkey  hens  over  one  year  old.  Be  sure  they  are  strong,  healthy,  and 
vigorous,  and  of  good  medium  size.  In  no  instance  select  the  smaller 
ones.  Do  not  strive  to  have  them  unnaturally  large.  Second,  the 
male  may  be  a  yearling  or  older.  Do  not  imagine  that  the  large 
overgrown  malas  are  the  best.  Strength,  health,  and  vigor,  with 
well-proportioned  medium  size  are  the  main  points  of  excellence. 
Third,  avoid  close  breeding.  New  blood  is  of  vital  importance  to 
turkeys.  Better  send  a  thousand  miles  for  a  new  male  than  to  risk 
the  chances  of  inbreeding.  Secure  one  in  the  fall  so  as  to  be  assured 
of  his  health  and  vigor  prior  to  the  breeding  season. 

Suggestions  in  Regard  to  Breeding  Stock. — No  matter  what 
variety  of  turkeys  may  be  selected  for  keeping,  they  should,  above  all 
things,  be  strong,  vigorous,  healthy,  and  well  matured.  Better  secure 
the  females  from  one  locality  and  the  male  from  another  to  insure 
their  nonrelationship,  rather  than  run  the  risk  of  inbreeding.  In  all 
fowls  it  is  well  to  remember  that  size  is  influenced  largely  by  the 
female  and  the  color  and  finish  by  the  male.  Securing  overlarge 
males  to  pair  with  small  weakly  hens  is  not  wise  policy. 

A  medium-sized  male  with  good  fair-sized  females  of  good  con- 
stitutional vigor  and  mature  age  will  do  far  better  than  the  largest 
with  the  smallest  females. 

Kind  of  Males  to  Select. — ^When  we  stop  to  consider  that  the 
male  turkey  is  one-half  of  the  entire  flock  in  the  matter  of  breeding 
we  may  be  led  to  greater  care  in  his  selection.  None  can  be  too  good 
for  the- purpose;  constitutional  vigor  is  of  first  importance;  without 
this  he  can  not  have  any  value  whatever  for  the  purpose  intended. 
Plenty  of  bone,  a  full,  round  breast,  and  long  body  are  important. 
No  matter  of  what  stock  or  breeding  the  hen  may  be  the  male  should 
be  selected  from  some  standard  variety. 

Number  of  Females  to  One  Male. — The  be.st  rule  for  mating  is 
to  have  four  or  five  females  to  one  male;  some  say  twelve,  and  the 
writer  has  heard  of  a  fine  hatch  and  vigorous  poults  from  a  two-year- 
old  tom  with  twenty  hens;  but  this  is  unusual.  When  they  are 
yarded  and  from  eight  to  ten  females  are  kept,  it  is  better  to  have 
two  toms  and  keep  one  shut  up  while  the  other  is  with  the  hens, 
changing  them  at  least  twice  a  week.  When  they  run  at  large  on  a 
farm  they  will  naturally  divide  into  flocks;  under  such  conditions 
one  male  to  not  more  than  six  females  is  best. 


602  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Pairing. — ^A  feature  of  vital  importance  is  assured  fertility  of 
the  eggs.  As  soon  as  the  hen  turkey  has  paired  with  the  male  she 
pays  but  little  attention  to  him  for  the  time,  being  fully  intent  on 
locating  a  quiet  nesting  place  where  she  can  lay  her  eggs.  If 
perchance  the  pairing  with  the  male  has  not  been  complete,  her  whole 
clutch  of  eg^  will  be  infertile  and  her  time  and  labor  a  total  loss. 
The  importance  of  vigor  in  the  male  is  manifest  at  this  most  critical 
time.  There  is  danger  in  having  extra  males  that  may  disturb  each 
other  at  the  time  of  pairing.  Therefore,  never  allow  but  one  male 
turkey  at  a  time  to  run  with  a  group  of  breeding  hens. 

Danger  from  Insect  Parasites. — -Whether  the  eggs  are  hatched 
by  turkey  hens  or  chicken  hens,  equal  caution  should  be  used  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  insect  parasites  of  any  kind  being  in  or 
about  the  nest  or  upon  the  body  of  the  hen.  A  dirt  foundation  cov- 
ered with  some  slaked  lime  is  a  good  beginning  in  the  construction 
of  a  nest.  Upon  this  should  be  placed  a  fresh  nest  of  soft  straw  or 
hay.  No  other  enemy  is  so  destructive  to  young  poults  as  lice, 
which  are  very  apt  to  infest  them  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched, 
if  a  determined  fight  is  not  made  to  prevent  it.  After  the  poults 
have  begun  to  grow,  they  must  be  watched  continually  to  guard 
against  the  presence  of  the  lice. 

Period  of  Incubation. — It  takes  twenty-seven  to  twenty-nine 
days  for  turkey  eggs  to  hatch.  Those  that  are  perfectly  fresh  will 
hatch  a  few  hours  sooner  than  those  that  have  been  kept  a  week  or 
longer  before  placing  them  under  the  hens. 

The  Use  of  Incubators. — The  eggs  of  turkeys  can  be  hatched  in 
incubators  quite  as  well  as  the  eggs  of  other  fowls.  It  is  preferable, 
however,  to  have  them  hatched  by  the  hens  that  are  to  brood  them ; 
in  fact,  this  is  the  prevailing  custom.  There  is  a  feeling  of  confi- 
dence when  the  eggs  are  in  the  care  of  a  broody  hen  which  does  not 
exist  when  artificial  methods  are  employed  which  depend  for  suc- 
cess on  the  care  of  an  attendant. 

Use  of  Brooders. — The  growing  of  poults  in  brooders  has  been 
tried  to  some  extent.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  are  as  follows :  The 
poults  do  not  seem  to  realize  that  they  should  look  down  to  the  floor 
for  food ;  they  run  about  with  their  head  up,  peeping  continually  for 
food,  until  many  die  from  exhaustion.  To  overcome  this,  the  food 
is  taken  between  the  fingers  and  held  close  to  their  beaks  to  induce 
them  to  eat. 

Copying  Natwre. — It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  in  the  wild 
state  their  food  was  the  bugs,  worms,  seeds,  etc.,  which  they  could 
find  for  themselves,  and  which  were  hunted  for  and  scrambled  after 
continually.  There  was  then  no  overfeeding  upon  rich  unnatural 
foods  that  impaired  health  and  produced  bowel  troubles  or  other  ail- 
ments that  naturally  follow  unwholesome  food.  They  subsisted  by 
their  own  efforts  in  the  wild  state,  while  now  they  are  quite  too  often 
forced  to  eat  unnatural  foods  that  are  furnished  in  hope  of  forcing 
them  to  an  unnatural  growth.  If  the  grower  wishes  to  copy  nature 
as  nearly  as  possible,  the  young  poults  may  be  given  for  their  first 
meal  very  fine  oatmeal  or  finely  cracked  wheat  or  corn,  with  a  little 


POULTRY  KEEPING  603 

fine  grit  of  some  kind  and  a  very  little  granulated  meat  scrap.  Some 
of  the  commercial  brands  of  poultry  food  are  also  good.  They  should 
have  clean  water  convenient  where  they  can  help  themselves  at  will. 

Advantage  of  the  Early  Market. — Keep  them  growing  from 
start  to  finish,  and  have  them  ready  for  the  Thanksgiving  market, 
when  prices  are  usually  the  best.  This  may  be  accomplished  quite 
easily  with  all  the  early  broods,  provided  they  are  properly  and 
liberally  fed  as  the  fall  weather  begins  to  remove  their  natural  food 
supply  of  worms,  bugs,  seeds,  and  herbs  of  all  kinds. 

What  and  When  to  Feed. — As  a  general  rule  do  not  feed  them 
wet  food  or  slops.  Poults  are  seed-eating  chicks,  not  slop  eaters. 
Old  corn  is  better  than  new  for  heavy  feeding,  as  the  latter  is  apt  to 
cause  looseness  of  the  bowels.  If  necessary  to  use  new  com,  it  should 
be  introduced  into  the  ration  gradually.  If  the  poults  have  gained 
a  strong,  well  developed  physique  by  early  fall,  they  will  be  m  fine 
condition  for  heavy  feeding.  As  soon  as  they  h^ve  become  accus- 
tomed to  grain  feeding,  they  may  be  fed  once  or  even  twice  a  day  on 
ground  oats  and  corn  meal  mixed  with  milk. 

Dry-picking. — Dry-picking  is  always  to  be  preferred  when  pre- 
paring the  fowls  for  market.  When  in  fine  condition,  nicely  picked, 
and  sent  to  market  without  having  been  packed  in  ice,  a  turkey  is  at 
its  best,  and  consequently  commands  the  highest  price.  As  soon  as 
the  fowl  is  stuck'  and  the  blood  is  still  flowing,  pluck  the  feathers 
dry  from  its  body,  taking  care  in  doing  this  not  to  break  the  skin  or 
tear  the  flesh.  Nothing  detracts  so  much  from  dressed  poultry  as  torn 
places  upon  the  carcass  or  shank;  picking  must  be  clean  and  nicely 
done.— (Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  200;  Washington  B.  96;  R.  I.  B.  123.) 

DUCKS. 

Standard  Varieties  of  Ducks. — There  are  twelve  standard  varie- 
ties of  ducks  raised  in  this  country,  as  follows :  The  White  Pekin, 
White  Aylesbury,  Colored  Rouen,  Black  Cayuga,  Colored  Muscovy, 
White  Muscovy,  Indian  Runner,  Gray  Call,  White  Call,  Black  East 
India,  Crested  White,  and  Blue  Swedish.  Of  these  varieties,  the  first 
seven  are  considered  profitable  to  raise. 

White  Pekin  Ducks. — Of  all  ducks  for  farm  and  practical  pur- 
poses none  stands  higher  in  popular  esteem  than  the  White  Pekin. 
It  is  valuable  for  raising  on  a  large  scale  and  is  the  most  easily  raised 
of  all.  It  is  a  very  timid  bird  and  must  be  handled  quite  carefully. 
It  was  imported  from  China  in  the  early  seventi&s,  and  has  steadily 
grown  in  popularity  since  its  introduction  into  this  country. 

Description. — The  Pekin  duck  has  a  distinct  type  of  its  own  and 
difi'ers  from  all  others  in  the  shape  and  carriage  of  its  body.  By  some 
it  is  credited  with  having  a  shape  much  like  an  Indian  canoe,  owing 
to  the  full  growth  of  feathers  under  the  rump  and  the  singular 
tumed-up  carriage  of  the  tail.  The  legs  are  set  far  back,  which  causes 
the  bird  to  walk  in  an  upright  position.  In  size  these  ducks  are  very 
large,  some  reaching  as  high  as  20  pounds  to  the  pair.  Their  flesh 
is  very  delicate  and  free  from  grossness,  and  they  are  considered 
among  the  best  of  table  fowls.  They  are  excellent  layers,  averaging 
from  100  to  150  eggs  each  in  a  season.    They  are  nonsitters,  hardy, 


604  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

easily  raised,  and  mature  early.  The  standard  weight  of  the  adult 
drake  is  8  pounds;  adult  duck,  7  pounds;  young  drake,  7  pounds, 
and  young  duck,  6  pounds. 

White  Aylesbury  Ducks. — They  are  second]  to  the  popular 
Pekins  for  market  purposes,  and  are  bred  in  large  numbers  in  Eng- 
land and  Europe.  In  this  country  they  are  not  so  extensively  bred 
as  the  Pekin,  neither  have  they  been  found  so  good  as  the  latter. 
These  ducks  receive  their  name  from  Aylesbury,  the  county  town  of 
Buckinghamshire,  England.  They  are  of  large  size,  pairs  occasion- 
ally reaching  the  weight  of  18  pounds,  the  male  birds  weighing  9  or 
10  pounds  and  the  females  7  or  8.  Birds  weighing  15  to  16  pounds 
to  the  pair  are  the  average. 

Description. — The  head  of  the  Aylesbury  duck  is  long  and 
neatly  formed ;  the  eyes  of  a  deep  leaden  color ;  the  long  wide  bill  is 
of  a  pale  flesh  color  or  pinkish  hue,  and  should  be  free  from  dark 
epots,  bill  of  drake  marred  with  black  being  a  disqualification ;  the 
neck  is  slender,  long,  and  gracefully  curved;  the  body  is  long  and 
deep ;  the  breast  is  full  and  round. 

For  farm  purposes  the  Aylesbury  is  to  be  recommended,  second 
only  to  the  Pekin ;  it  possesses  the  many  good  qualities  of  the  Pekin, 
and  can  be  bred  with  almost  the  same  success.  The  advantages 
claimed  for  the  Aylesbury  are  the  ease  with  which  it  is  acclimated, 
thriving  in  every  country  and  climate ;  its  early  maturity ;  its  great 
hardiness;  its  large  size;  its  great  prolificacy,  and  the  real  beauty 
which  it  possesses.  Raisers  recommend  for  raising  exhibition  birds 
one  drake  to  two  ducks,  or  two  drakes  to  five  ducks,  all  being  allowed 
to  run  together.  Duck  raisers  who  raise  large  numbers  for  market 
breed  them  as  they  do  Pekins,  using  from  four  to  eight  females  to 
one  male,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  Fresh  blood  is 
introduced  every  year  to  keep  up  the  size,  and  breeding  stock  is  sel- 
dom kept  longer  than  the  second  or  third  year.  The  standard  weight 
of  the  adult  drake  is  9  pounds ;  adult  duck,  8  pounds ;  young  drake, 
8  pounds ;  and  young  duck,  7  pounds. 

Colored  Rouen  Ducks. — ^This  duck  is  deservedly  popular 
throughout  this  country,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  most  profitable 
varieties  to  keep.  These  ducks  are  said  to  have  come  originally  from 
the  city  of  Rouen,  in  Normandy.  It  is  known  that  large  quantities 
of  poultry  are  raised  in  Normandy,  and  while  there  may  be  no  posi- 
tive proof  that  these  ducks  came  originally  from  that  city,  large  num- 
bers of  birds  closely  resembling  them  are  to  be  found  in  the  market 
places  there.  Some  writers  contend  that  the  name  should  be  Roan, 
owing  to  their  color,  but  the  color  itself  does  not  support  this  conten- 
tion. The  correct  name  is  Rouen,  and  Roan  is  undoubtedly  a 
corruption. 

Description. — The  Rouen  duck  is  a  fine  market  bird,  but  does 
not  mature  as  early  as  does  the  Pekin  or  the  Aylesbury.  The  flesh 
is  considered  very  delicate,  and  the  breed  is  acknowledged  to  be  ex- 
celtent  for  table  purposes,  being  easily  fattened.  The  Rouen  will 
be  found  a  profitable  bird  to  raise  on  the  farm,  being  hardy,  prolific, 


POULTRY  KEEPING  605 

quiet  in  disposition,  and  of  beautiful  plumage.  Their  eggs  are  not 
as  large  as  those  of  the  Pekin,  and  are  diverse  in  color. 

Both  the  Rouen  drake  and  duck,  clothed  in  plumage  attractive 
and  pleasing  to  the  eye,  are  as  much  fanciers'  fowls  as  any  of  the 
varieties  of  chickens,  yet  they  are  of  much  value  as  market  birds. 
The  only  objection  to  them,  aside  from  their  slow  maturing  quali- 
ties, is  that  of  the  dark  pinfeathers.  This  should  not  stand  against 
them  any  more  than  it  does  against  the  many  valuable  varieties  of 
chickens  that  have  dark  plumage  and  dark  pinfeathers.  To  the 
farmer  who  intends  raising  ducks  for  market  purposes  they  are  to  bo 
recommended.  The  standard  weight  of  the  adult  drake  is  9  pounds ; 
adult  duck,  8  pounds;  young  drake,  8  pounds,  and  young  duck,  7 
pounds. 

Black  Cayuga  Ducks. — This  is  distinctly  an  American  duck, 
having  been  bred  so  long  in  this  country  that  all  trace  of  its  origin  is 
lost.  It  is  said  that  it  was  first  found  in  the  central  part  of  New  York, 
on  Cayuga  Lake.  It  was  sometimes  called  the  Big  Black  duck,  and 
again  the  Lake  duck,  but  is  now  known  only  as  the  Black  Cayuga 
duck.  By  some  it  is  supposed  to  have  originally  come  from  the  wild 
Black  duck,  and  another  story  has  it  that  it  was  first  found  in  Dutch- 
ess County,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  where  a  miller  was  raising  a 
flock  of  thirty,  which  he  said  were  bred  from  a  pair  he  had  cap- 
tured several  years  previous  in  a  mill  pond.  They  were  kept  in  the 
poultry  yard,  easily  tamed,  and  built  their  nests  on  the  edges  of  the 
pond  and  raised  large  broods.  For  many  years  the  Cayuga  has  been 
raised  in  this  country  and  has  been  considered  by  those  who  have 
bred  it  to  be  a  profitable  duck  to  keep. 

Description. — By  some  raisers  the  Cayuga  is  considered  to  be  as 
good  as  the  Pekin  for  early  markets,  and  the  claim  is  made  that  it 
can  be  grown  as  cheaply.  This  assertion  is  not  verified  by  any  prac- 
tical demonstration,  as  these  ducks  are  rarely,  if  ever,  seen  on  any 
farm  where  ducks  are  raised  exclusively.  Though  raisers  generally 
speak  of  their  merits  as  making  them  profitable,  and  place  them  next 
to  the  Pekin  for  early  markets,  they  prefer  the  latter  for  exclusive 
duck  raising  where  early  maturity  and  plump  carcasses  are  wanted. 
Their  black  plumage  is  against  them  also,  and  many  assign  this  as 
the  reason  why  they  are  not  more  extensively  bred.  The  standard 
weight  of  the  adult  drake  is  8  pounds;  adult  duck,  7  pounds;  young 
drake,  7  pounds,  and  young  duck,  6  pounds. 

Colored  and  White  Muscovy  Ducks. — These  form  a  distinct 
genus,  having  several  peculiarities  or  characteristics  w^hich  make 
them  different  from  others.  They  are  sometimes  called  the  Musk 
duck,  owing  to  the  odor  of  musk  which  pervades  the  skin,  but  which 
is  not  noticeable  when  cooked.  These  ducks  are  found  wild  in  the 
warmer  regions  of  South  America. 

Description. — They  are  very  unsatisfactory  birds  to  keep  on  the 
farm  with  other  poultry,  owing  to  their  quarrelsome  and  pugnacious 
natures.  In  the  wild  state,  before  pairing,  the  males  fight  desper- 
ately, doing  great  harm  to  each  other;  and  this  fighting,  quarrel- 
some disposition  is  inherited  by  the  domestic  duck.    The  temper  of 


606  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

the  drake  is  spoken  of  as  abominable ;  his  persecution  of  other  poul- 
try is  never  ceasing.  The  standard  weight  of  the  adult  drake  is  10 
pounds;  adult  duck,  7  pounds;  young  drake,  8  pounds,  and  young 
duck,  6  pounds. 

Indian  Runner  Ducks. — These  ducks  came  originally  from  In- 
dia; hence  the  name  Indian.  The  term  Runner  comes  from  the 
fact  that  they  literally  run  instead  of  waddling  like  most  ducks. 

The  Indian  Runner  is  a  breed  of  small,  utility  duck  noted  for 
its  egg  production,  and  is  often  termed  the  Leghorn  of  the  duck 
family.  These  ducks  have  been  credited  with  records  of  more  than 
200  eggs  each  in  flocks  of  ten,  and  of  192  eggs  each  in  flocks  of  one 
hundred.  The  Runners  are  active  in  their  habits,  are  good  foragers, 
and  on  an  extensive  run  are  able  to  find  a  large  proportion  of  their 
food.  They  are  nonsitters,  are  hardy  and  easily  reared,  but  do  not 
stand  confinement  well.  Their  flesh  is  of  a  deep  yellow  color  and  is 
of  fine  quality,  but  their  small  size  is  rather  against  them  for  market 
purposes,  except  for  broilers.  The  standard  weight  of  the  drake  is 
4%  pounds  and  of  the  duck  4  pounds. 

Gray  and  White  Call  Ducks. — They  are  bred  more  for  the  fancy 
than  for  the  profit  there  is  in  them  for  market,  and  are  bantams. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  Call  ducks,  the  Gray  Call  and  the  White 
Call,  and  it  is  only  a  choice  of  plumage  as  to  which  is  the  better  of 
the  two.  They  are  both  of  one  character  as  to  size,  shape,  and  habits, 
and  differ  only  as  regards  color.  The  Gray  Call  is  very  similar  in 
color  of  plumage  to  the  Rouen,  and  is  indeed  called  by  many  the 
Bantam  Rouen,  and  the  White  is  generally  called  the  Bantam  Pekin. 
Their  uses  are  only  for  the  showroom,  or  as  decoy  ducks  for  wild- 
duck  shooting.  For  the  latter  purposes  they  are  sometimes  crossed 
with  the  common  "puddle  duck"  or  with  the  wild  Mallard.  This 
latter  cross  is  considered  excellent,  the  progeny  being  distinguished 
for  tameness  and  domesticity. 

Description. — When  breeding  Call  ducks,  smallness  of  size  is  the 
first  consideration;  the  smaller  they  are  bred  the  better.  The  arts 
of  skillful  breeding  for  the  showroom  are  being  used  in  keeping  down 
the  size. 

Management  of  Ducks. — ^Duck  raising  has  been  developed  wdthin 
the  last  thirty  years  into  a  flourishing  industry.  Prior  to  that  time 
the  duck  was  not  considered  a  profitable  fowl  to  raise;  its  flesh  was 
never  prized  very  highly  by  the  masses.  Ducks  were  raised  without 
constraint  in  waterways,  feeding  mostly  on  fish  and  water  insects. 
This  food  gave  the  flesh  a  strong  fishy  flavor;  hence  it  was  not  par- 
ticularly sought  after,  save  by  the  few  who  were  partial  to  that  class 
of  diet.  The  duck  centers  of  Long  Island  and  New  England  were 
then  producing  a  limited  number  each  season,  and  it  was  with  diffi-* 
culty  that  these  were  sold  with  any  profit.  In  fact,  one  of  the  most 
prominent  duck  raisers  may  be  quoted  as  saying  that  he  was  obliged 
to  visit  the  city  markets  personally  and  tease  the  dealers  to  purchase 
his  birds,  in  order  to  secure  anything  like  satisfactory  prices.^ 

Artificial  incubation  and  brooding,  combined  with  judicious 
feeding,  have  been  instrumental  in  the  development  of  the  industry. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  607 

Machinery  has  enabled  the  duck  raiser  to  accomplish  his  ambition  of 
having  his  stock  in  the  markets  when  prices  are  the  best,  and  also 
of  raising  large  numbers  of  birds  in  a  limited  space  of  time.  The 
season  for  raising  ducks  is  about  six  months — from  February  to 
July,  inclusive. 

Duck  raising  is  to  be  recommended  to  farmers  as  a  profitable 
source  of  revenue;  and  by  careful  attention  to  the  work,  as  knowl- 
edge increases,  the  scope  of  the  industry  may  be  extended.  There 
are  numbers  of  farms  in  this  country  to-day  that  are  devoted  ex- 
clusively to  raising  ducks,  averaging  from  5,000  to  30,000  ducks  as 
an  annual  output.  An  idea  of  the  proportions  of  the  business  may 
be  had  from  the  fact  that  as  high  as  three  tons  of  feed  are  used  daily 
by  a  single  raiser  during  the  busy  season.  The  profits  are  the  very 
best,  and  good  incomes  may  be  made  when  once  the  business  is  thor- 
oughly mastered.  But  the  reader  should  not  jump  imprudently  to 
the  conclusion  that  these  results  can  be  easily  obtained.  Duck  rais- 
ing is  an  arduous  task ;  one  that  requires  an  apprenticeship  and  abso- 
lute knowledge  of  the  business  before  success  is  reached.  Those  who 
have  been  successful  in  raising  ducks/have  learned  the  business  much 
as  one  does  any  other  vocation.  Thje  beginner  should  start  modestly, 
and  increase  his  plant  as  his  knoydedge  of  the  work  increases.  TKe 
average  farmer  has  all  the  faciUiies  for  raising  a  goodly  number  of 
ducks,  and  may  with,  a  little  oujtlay  add  considerably  to  his  income. 

It  is  not  at  all  necessary  thdt^ucks  should  have  access  to  water 
to  be  raised  successfully,  for  they  grow  and  thrive  as  readily  without. 
There  are  successful  plants  w^here  thousands  of  ducks  are  raised  that 
have  no  water,  save  that  which  is  given  them  as  drink.  It  has  been 
a  matter  of  much  dispute  which  is  the  better  way.  Some  duck  raisers 
«se  water  and  allow  their  breeders  the  freedom  of  it;  some  allow 
their  growing  stock  intended  for  market  free  access  to  water  until 
they  are  eight  weeks  old,  when  they  are  penned  and  fattened  for 
market.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  raisers  who  have  no  water  on 
their  farms,  excepting  wells,  who  are  just  as  successful  and  raise  as 
many  birds  as  thase  who  have  the  water.  The  only  noticeable  dif- 
ference between  "upland"  and  "water"  ducks  is  that  the  latter  are 
of  prettier  and  cleaner  plumage  than  the  former. 

Buildings  for  Breeding  Ducks. — Houses  for  ducks  are  simple 
affairs.  They  are  built  plain  and  comfortable,  and  have  no  furnish- 
ings whatever.  A  duck  is  differently  constituted  from  a  hen,  and 
must  be  cared  for  under  different  conditions.  The  hen  needs  warmer 
houses  and  drier  surroundings  than  does  the  duck.  A  duck  doas  not 
mind  the  cold  if  she  can  keep  her  feet  warm.  Cold  feet  wnll  affect 
a  duck  as  a  frozen  comb  does  a  hen,  retarding  laying  and  inducing 
ailments.  The  feathers  of  a  duck  are  almost  impenetrable  and  will 
withstand  almost  any  degree  of  cold.  Again,  a  duck  can  not  stand 
the  amount  of  confinement  in  a  house  that  a  hen  can ;  she  is  more 
restless  in  disposition  and  is  given  to  exercise  in  a  greater  degree  than 
is  a  hen.  Indigestion  is  not  so  prevalent  with  ducks  as  with  chickens ; 
the  duck's  ceaseless  motion  aids  the  digestive  organs  and  keeps  her 
generally  in  good  health. 


608  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

How  Much  to  Feed. — The  amount  of  food  needed  each  day  for 
young  duck  varies  as  much  as  does  their  growth.  Their  growth  aver- 
ages a  half  pound  a  week ;  and  to  make  this  increase  of  weight  each 
week  requires  an  additional  quantity  of  food  over  the  preceding  one. 
The  rule  is,  feed  each  meal  what  they  will  eat  up  clean  with  a  relish, 
and  do  not  allow  them  to  linger  over  the  feed  trough.  It  is  better 
•they  should  have  not  enough  than  too  much,  as  they  will  be 
in  a  much  better  condition  to  relish  the  next  meal.  One  thing  is  con- 
sidered to  be  of  as  much  importance  as  the  feed,  and  that  is  removing 
the  feed  left  over  and  thoroughly  cleaning  the  troughs  after  each 
meal.    This  is  scrupulously  attended  to  by  successful  duck  raisers. 

One  raiser  gives,  as  a  generous  allowance  for  one  day's  ration 
for  one  hundred  laying  ducks,  the  following :  For  the  morning  meal, 
35  quarts  of  the  mash,  and  for  the  evening  meal  40  quarts,  making 
a  total  of  75  quarts  for  the  day's  portion,  or  three-fourths  of  a  quart 
to  each  duck  a  day.  Another  raiser  allows  400  quarts,  fed  in  halves, 
twice  a  day,  to  six  hundred  breeding  or  laying  ducks,  averaging  two- 
thirds  of  a  quart  to  each  duck  a  day. 

It  cost  from  6  to  12  cents  a  pound  to  raise  a  duck  for  market  at 
ten  weeks  of  age.  It  costs  from  $1.75  to  $2.50  each  to  keep  breed- 
ing ducks  a  year.  The  three  different  methods  of  feeding  ducks  are 
as  follows:  (1)  Feeding  ducks  for  market  (ten  weeks  old);  (2) 
feeding  young  ducks  to  be  kept  as  breeders;  (3)  feeding  old  ducks. 
The  first  method,  for  the  sake  of  convenience  and  to  explain  more 
fully  the  composition  of  the  rations,  is  subdivided  into  four  parts, 
as  follows: 

(1)  From  time  of  hatching  to  five  days  old  provide  the  follow- 
ing mixture :  Cracker  or  bread  crumbs  and  com  meal,  equal  parts 
by  measure ;  hard  boiled  eggs,  15  per  cent  of  the  total  bulk  of  crack- 
ers and  meal ;  sand,  5  per  cent  of  the  total  of  crackers  and  meal.  Mix 
with  water  or  milk,  and  feed  four  times  a  day. 

(2)  From  five  to  twenty  days  old,  the  following  mixture:  Wheat 
bran,  two  parts  by  measure;  corn  meal,  one  part;  rolled  oats,  50  per 
cent  of  this  bulk;  beef  scraps,  5  per  cent;  sand,  5  per  cent;  green 
food,  10  per  cent.  Mix  with  water  to  a  dry  crumbly  state  and  feed 
four  times  a  day. 

(3)  From  twenty  to  forty-two  days  old,  the  following  mixture: 
"Wheat  bran,  two  parts  by  measure ;  corn  meal,  one  part ;  beef  scraps, 
5  per  cent  of  this  bulk;  sand,  5  per  cent;  green  food,  10  per  cent. 
Mix  with  water  to  a  dry  crumbly  state  and  feed  four  times  a  day. 

(4)  From  forty-two  to  seventy  days  old,  the  following  mixture : 
Com  meal,  two  parts  by  measure;  wheat  bran,  one  part;  beef  scraps, 
10  per  cent  of  this  bulk;  coarse  sand  or  grit,  5  per  cent;  green  food, 
10  per  cent.  Mix  with  water  to  a  dry  crumbly  state  and  feed  fouu 
times  a  day.  The  hours  for  feeding  are  6  a.  m.,  10  a.  ra.,  2  p.  m., 
and  6  p.  m. 

"When  ducks  are  raised  for  breeders  they  are  fed  differently 
from  those  intended  for  market.  They  are  not  forced  so  much  as  are 
the  latter,  and  less  fattening  food  is  given  them.  The  corn  meal 
and  beef  scraps  are  reduced  to  one-half  the  quantity  used  in  the  above 


l!-*^ 


Greai  Horned  Owl. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  611 

rations.  The  following  is  an  excellent  ration:  Equal  parts  com 
meal,  wheat  bran,  green  food,  5  per  cent  of  beef  scraps,  and  5  per 
cent  coarse  sand  or  grit.  A  ration  for  breeding  (laying)  ducks  is 
recommended  as  follows :  Fifty  per  cent  by  measure,  corn  meal ;  15 
per  cent  wheat  bran ;  15  per  cent  green  foods  (cooked  vegetables,  such 
as  potatoes,  turnips,  etc.) ;  12  per  cent  beef  scraps,  and  8  per  cent 
coarse  sand  or  grit.  Mix  with  w^ater  to  a  dry  crumbly  state  and  feed 
twice  a  day,  morning  and  night.  After  the  breeding  season  is  over 
and  the  ducks  have  stopped  laying  they  are  changed  from  this  to 
the  equal-parts  ration,  as  given  above  for  ducklings  from  seven  to 
fifty-six  days  old. 

Oyster  Shells  and  Grit. — Grit  in  some  form  is  essential  to  ducks, 
and  should  be  kept  before  them  at  all  times.  Many  overlook  this 
fact,  and  do  not  seem  to  understand  that  it  is  of  as  much  value  to 
them  as  it  is  to  chickens. 

Incubation. — Of  the  natural  method  we  shall  treat  first:  Hens 
of  medium  size  of  the  American  class,  barred  Plymouth  Rocks  and 
Wyandottes,  are  considered  the  best  for  sitting.  Nine  duck  eggs  are 
about  the  right  number  to  place  under  a  hen  in  early  spring  weather, 
but  when  the  season  is  far  advanced  as  many  as  thirteen  are  used. 
The  hens  should  be  provided  with  large,  roomy  nests,  and  slatted 
fronts  that  can  be  removed  and  replaced  easily  when  the  hens  are 
fed  and  watered.  The  nesting  material  should  be  of  hay  or  straw, 
and  the  nest  should  be  slightly  concaved ;  in  the  bottom  place  a  little 
finely  cut  hay. 

Before  the  hen  is  put  on  the  eggs  she  should  be  thoroughly  dusted 
with  insecticides;  the  nest  also  should  have  a  good  dusting  of  the 
same.  Both  hen  and  nest  should  undergo  a  thorough  dusting  sev- 
eral times  during  the  process  of  hatching  as  a  safeguard  against  lice. 
When  the  ducklings  are  hatched  they  should  also  have  their  share 
of  the  insecticides  before  they  are  given  to  the  hen. 

For  artificial  incubation,  have  a  room  with  a  temperature  as 
nearly  uniform  as  possible.  Balance  the  heat  in  the  machines,  or, 
in  other  w^ords,  see  that  the  heat  is  uniform  at  both  ends,  and,  in  fact, 
all  over  them.  See  that  each  is  running  steadily  before  placing  the 
eggs  in  it,  as  there  is  a  great  deal  in  starting  right.  The  machines 
eliould  be  run  at  a  temperature  of  102°  for  the  first  three  weeks,  and 
103  the  last  week.  The  eggs  should  be  turned  twice  each  day  at 
regular  periods.  Introduce  a  pan  of  water  from  the  fifteenth  to  the 
twenty-second  day,  no  matter  what  the  location  of  the  machine, 
whether  in  a  damp  cellar  or  in  a  dry  room  overhead,  in  a  moist  at- 
mosphere near  the  seashore  or  in  a  dry  one  at  an  altitude  in  the 
country.  The  temperature  may  go  as  high  as  104°  just  previous  to 
and  while  hatching  without  injury. 

Considerable  weight  has  been  put  upon  the  ventilation  question 
in  incubators  by  manufacturers  and  operators,  but  it  has  been  found 
that  when  the  egg  chamber  is  roomy,  and  the  eggs  are  taken  out  and 
cooled  twice  each  day,  it  is  not  of  so  much  consequence.  There  is 
no  doubt  but  that  there  must  be  some  ventilation  in  the  egg  chamber, 
but  from  the  experience  and  observation  of  the  writer  the  value  of  the 


612  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

subject  has  been  overestimated  by  many.  Some  machines  have  top 
ventilation,  some  bottom,  and  others  both  top  and  bottom,  and  there 
is  seemingly  no  marked  difference  in  the  hatching. 

When  the  ducklings  are  hatching,  the  broken  egg  shells  should 
be  removed  once  in  every  six  or  eight  hours,  so  that  they  will  not  slip 
over  the  pipped  eg^,  as  it  would  be  sure  death  to  the  imprisoned 
ones.  Occasionally  a  little  bird  is  unable  to  free  itself  from  the  shell 
and  needs  help ;  the  expert  can  readily  detect  when  this  is  necessary. 
The  one  point  to  note  in  this  connection  is  this :  The  egg  just  be- 
fore hatching  radiates  a  great  deal  of  heat,  while  the  duckling,  when 
first  out,  being  not  unlike  a  little  sponge,  absorbs  it,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  rapid  evaporation  which  takes  place  generates  cold;  so 
that  when  the  ducklings  are  out  the  machine  should  be  gauged  one 
degree  higher. 

When  the  ducklings  are  all  out  and  dried  off,  the  machine  will 
run  at  least  two  degrees  lower  than  when  they  were  in  the  egg.  Plenty 
of  ventilation  is  needed  in  the  machines  while  hatching.  Keep  the 
ducklings  in  the  machine  at  least  twenty-four  hours  after  hatching, 
when  they  will  be  strong  enough  to  be  removed  to  the  brooder.  The 
heat  in  the  brooder  should  be  started  twenty-four  hours  previous  to 
use,  so  that  it  will  be  perfectly  heated  and  ready  for  the  ducklings 
when  they  are  taken  away  from  the  machine. — (Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  64: 
N.  Y.  B.  259.) 

GEESE. 

There  are  seven  standard  varieties  of  geese,  as  follows:  Gray 
Toulouse,  White  Embden,  Gray  African,  Brown  Chinese,  White  Chi- 
nese, Gray  Wild,  and  Colored  Egyptian. 

Gray  Toulouse  Geese. — They  are  named  for  the  city  in  France 
of  that  name,  where  they  are  extensively  bred.  In  this  country  they 
are  bred  in  large  numbers  by  farmers  and  are  fairly  well  thought  of 
for  market  purposes.  Their  flesh  is  a  trifle  too  coarse  and  flabby, 
when  compared  with  some  other  geese,  to  be  prized  very  highly  for 
table  purposes.  They  are  termed  a  Christmas  goose,  as,  being  later 
in  maturing  than  the  others,  they  are  just  about  right  at  the  holiday 
time.    They  are  fairly  good  layers,  averaging  about  40  eggs  a  season. 

Description. — Toulouse  geese  are  more  compact  in  shape  than 
other  geese,  and  are  preferred  by  many  for  this  reason.  The  body  of 
the  Toulouse  goose  is  moderate  in  length,  broad,  and  very  deep  and 
compact,  the  more  compact  the  better;  and  in  birds  in  good  condi- 
tion the  belly  almost  touches  the  ground.  In  color  of  plumage  they 
are  a  dull  gray.  The  head  is  gray  and  the  neck  dark  blue-gray, 
which  shades  to  a  lighter  gray  as  it  approaches  the  back ;  the  back  is 
of  dark  gray,  while  the  breast  is  light  gray.  The  body  plumage  is 
light  gray,  which  grows  lighter  and  becomes  white  on  the  belly ;  the 
white  extends  back  to  and  around  the  tail,  covering  the  fluffy  parts. 
The  standard  weight  of  the  adult  gander  is  20  pounds;  adult  goose, 
18  pounds;  young  gander,  18  pounds;  and  young  goose,  15  pounds. 

White  Embden  Geese. — They  are  considered  very  practical  birds 
for  farmers,  and  pay  well  for  their  keeping.  They  are  nice  looking, 
of  large  size,  tall  and  erect  carriage,  and  snow-white  plumage.    They 


POULTRY  KEEPING  613 

originally  came  from  Embden,  in  Westphalia,  and  have  been  bred  in 
this  country  for  many  years. 

Description. — The  Embdens  are  not  so  prolific  as  the  Brown  Chi- 
nese or  Toulouse,  20  eggs  in  a  season  being  a  good  average  for  them. 
Their  eggs  are  very  large,  white,  and  have  a  very  thick,  rough  shell. 
In  carriage  they  are  very  tall  and  erect,  and  have  fine  square  bodies. 

Weight. — The  standard  weight  of  the  adult  gander  is  20  pounds; 
adult  goose,  18  pounds;  young  gander,  18  pounds;  and  young  goose, 
16  pounds. 

Gray  African  Geese. — They  are  by  many  raisers  considered  the 
most  profitable  of  all  geese  to  keep.  They  grow  the  heaviest  in  the 
shortest  space  of  time,  and  are  ready  for  market  in  ten  weeks,  weigh- 
ing at  that  age  between  8  and  10  pounds.  They  are  very  much  like 
the  Pekin  duck  in  this  respect,  and  as  compared  with  other  geese 
give  the  most  satisfactory  returns  for  the  least  labor  and  time  spent 
in  growing  them.  They  are,  according  to  standard  weights,  as 
heavy  as  the  Toulouse  and  Embden,  but  specimens  are  not  uncom- 
mon that  exceed  these  weights  by  several  pounds.  They  are  first- 
class  layers  and  average  about  40  eggs  in  a  season.  For  table  pur- 
poses they  are  esteemed  very  highly,  their  flesh  being  fine  and 
nicely  flavored. 

Description. — These  geese  have  a  large  head,  with  a  large  knob, 
and  a  heavy  dewlap  under  the  throat.  These  and  the  Chinese  geese 
are  different  from  the  others  in  the  head,  and  are  the  only  two 
breeds  that  have  the  knob  on  the  head.  The  standard  weight  of 
the  adult  gander  is  20  pounds ;  adult  goose,  18  pounds ;  young  gan- 
der, 16  pounds,  and  young  goose,  14  pounds. 

Brown  and  White  Chinese  Geese. — ^They  average  in  weight 
from  6  to  7  pounds  lighter  than  those  previously  named.  Appar- 
ently their  want  of  size  has  prevented  them  from  becoming  favorites 
with  those  who  raise  large  numbers  annually,  but  with  those  who 
keep  a  limited  number  they  are  found  to  be  very  practical.  What 
they  lack  in  size  they  gain  in  egg  production,  being  the  most  prolific 
of  all  breeds  of  geese,  averaging  from  50  to  60  eggs  a  year.  In  size, 
aptitude  to  fatten,  and  ease  of  management  they  appear  in  no  re- 
spect inferior  to  other  geese,  while  the  quality  of  flesh  is  decidedly 
superior. 

Description. — They  are  exceedingly  graceful  in  appearance, 
quite  hardy,  and  the  young  mature  early.  There  are  two  varieties 
of  Chinese  geese — the  Brown  and  the  White.  They  havQ  medium- 
sized  heads,  with  large  knob  at  base  of  a  medium-length  bill,  and 
long,  gracefully  arched  necks.  The  color  of  the  head  of  the  Brown 
Chinese  geese  is  brown ;  knob  dark  brown  or  black ;  neck  light  brown 
or  grayish  brown,  with  a  dull  yellowish-brown  stripe  on  the  back  of 
the  neck  from  the  head  down  to  the  body.  The  back  is  dark  brown. 
The  standard  weight  of  the  adult  gander  is  12  pounds ;  adult  goose, 
10  pounds;  young  gander,  10  pounds,  and  young  goose,  8  pounds. 

Management  of  Geese. — Goose  raising  is  not  so  extensively  en- 
gaged in  as  duck  raising,  the  conditions  under  which  they  can  be 
successfully  raised  being  almost  entirely  different  from  those  neces- 


614  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

sary  for  successful  duck  raising.  The  duck,  being  smaller,  can  be 
raised  in  a  more  limited  space  than  can  the  goose,  the  latter  needing 
free  range  and  water,  while  the  former  has  been  proved  to  do  equally 
well  without  water. 

While  the  goose  can  not  profitably  be  raised  in  as  large  numbers 
as  the  duck,  still  it  can  not  justly  be  termed  unprofitable.  There 
are  many  places  on  a  farm  that  are  worthless  for  cultivation  that 
could  be  utilized  with  excellent  results  for  goose  raising.  Fields 
that  have  streams,  branches,  or  unused  springs  on  them  could  be 
turned  to  good  advantage  by  making  them  into  goose  pastures. 
Many  farmers  are  profiting  by  this  and  adding  to  their  incomes  an- 
nually. The  care  and  attention  necessary  for  raising  geese  are  very 
small  when  compared  with  the  returns,  and  the  cost  of  food  is  also 
proportionately  small  in  comparison  with  the  cost  of  food  used  for 
other  birds  bred  for  market.  A  goose  on  range  will  gather  the 
largest  portion  of  its  food,  consisting  of  grasses,  insects,  and  other 
animal  and  vegetable  matter  to  be  found  in  the  fields  and  brooks. 

The  simplest  kinds  of  houses  are  used  for  shelter ;  these  should 
be  built  after  the  plans  of  those  given  for  ducks,  but  should  be  pro- 
portionately of  larger  size  to  accommodate  comfortably  the  num- 
ber of  birds  to  be  kept.  Geese  are  long-lived  birds,  some  having 
been  known  to  attain  the  age  of  40  years,  while  birds  15  and  20 
years  of  age  are  not  uncommon.  They  retain  their  laying  and 
hatching  qualities  through  life.  Ganders  should  not  be  kept  for 
breeding  after  3  years  of  age;  young  ganders  are  more  active  and 
insure  greater  fertility  of  the  eggs  than  old  ones  do;  besides,  gan- 
ders become  more  quarrelsome  as  age  advances. 

The  feathers  of  geese  are  an  important  source  of  revenue  and 
find  a  ready  sale  in  the  markets.  A  goose  will  average  about  1  pound 
of  feathers  a  year.  The  feathers  should  be  plucked  when  there  is 
no  blood  in  the  ends  of  the  quills;  this  can  be  readily  ascertained, 
as  they  will  then  leave  the  flesh  without  hard  pulling.  Almost  all 
breeds  of  geese  are  good  sitters  and  attentive  mothers,  and  if  left  to 
themselves  will  make  their  nests,  much  as  when  wild,  and  hatch  a 
large  percentage  of  their  eggs.  But  hens  are  now  more  frequently 
used  for  hatching  goose  eggs;  as  by  taking  the  eggs  from  the  goose 
when  laid  and  giving  them  to  hens  to  hatch,  the  goose  will  lay  a 
greater  number  of  eggs  than  if  she  were  permitted  to  sit. 

All  breeds  of  geese,  except  perhaps  the  Egyptian,  are  to  be 
recommended  to  farmers  who  keep  a  limited  number  in  addition  to 
other  poultry  and  allow  them  the  freedom  of  the  farm;  but  when 
goose  raising  is  to  be  more  extensively  engaged  in,  the  African 
goose  is  to  be  especially  recommended.  It  is  the  quickest  to  mature, 
most  prolific,  and  the  easiest  to  handle  of  all  the  varieties. — (F. 
B.  64.) 

Mating  and  Setting. — In  breeding  African  geese  mate  two 
geese  to  one  gander,  and  it  will  be  still  better  if  pairs  are  used  to 
secure  better  fertility  of  the  eggs.  Those  who  contemplate  raising 
geese  should  secure  their  stock  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  birds  may  be- 
come accustomed  to  the  place  before  the  breeding  season  begins. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  615 

The  breeding  stock  should  be  at  least  two  years  old,  and  fully  ma- 
tured birds.  When  stock  is  purchased  in  the  fall,  they  should  be 
turned  out  in  a  pasture,  and  no  other  food  than  what  they  gather 
themselves  will  be  needed  until  the  grass  goes  down.  Their  rations 
should  then  consist  of  equal  parts,  by  measure,  of  bran,  middlings, 
and  corn  meal,  with  5  per  cent  of  this  bulk  of  beef  scraps.  They 
should  be  given  a  light  feed  of  this  ration  in  the  morning  and  at 
night  they  should  be  fed  cracked  com.  Ten  per  cent  of  the  bulk 
of  the  daily  ration  should  be  green  foods,  steamed  clover,  and  cooked 
vegetables. 

The  breeding  season  begins  about  February  1,  though  some 
geese  will  begin  laying  as  early  as  December,  then  stop,  and  begin 
again  the  first  of  February.  They  make  their  own  nests  from  the 
straw  and  litter  on  the  floor  of  their  houses,  and  will  lay  from  12  to 
20  eggs  before  becoming  broody.  As  soon  as  the  goose  shows  an 
inclination  to  sit,  remove  her  and  place  her  in  a  dark  box  or  small 
coop,  and  keep  her  there  for  two  or  three  days  with  water  for  drink, 
but  no  food.  Then  she  may  be  placed  back  in  the  yards  and  she 
will  begin  another  laying  of  eggs.  The  first  and  second  layings  of 
eggs  should  be  set  under  hens.  After  the  goose  lays  the  second 
laying  she  should  be  confined  again,  when  she  will  lay  a  third  lay- 
ing. When  she  has  laid  the  third  laying,  she  should  be  permitted 
to  sit  on  them  instead  of  giving  them  to  hens.  A  goose  will  lay 
from  10  to  15  eggs  in  each  of  the  second  and  third  layings. 

It  is  recommended  that  after  the  eggs  have  been  sat  upon  for 
twenty-five  days  they  be  taken  from  the  nest  and  placed  for  about 
one  minute  in  water  heated  to  a  temperature  of  104°.  Thirty  days 
are  required  for  incubation.  After  the  eggs  have  hatched  leave  the 
hen  and  goslings  in  the  nest  for  twenty-four  hours;  after  the  young 
have  become  thoroughly  dry  remove  hen  and  brood  and  pen  them 
in  a  large,  roomy  coop  for  four  or  five  days.  When  the  goslings 
have  reached  thLs  age — four  or  five  days — they  are  perfectly  able  to 
take  care  of  themselves.  The  hen  should  then  be  taken  from  the 
goslings,  which  should  be  allowed  freedom  to  roam  at  will,  but 
they  should  always  be  cooped  up  at  night 

Feeding  and  Dressing  for  Market. — ^The  first  feed  for  goslings 
is  grass,  fed  on  sod;  a  small  allow^ance  of  com  meal,  slightly  mois- 
tened, is  also  given  them.  Sand  and  charcoal  are  sometimes  mixed 
with  the  corn  meal.  They  are  fed  on  the  above  food  three  times  a 
day  for  a  couple  of  days,  when  they  are  given  a  ration  composed  of 
equal  parts,  by  measure,  of  bran,  middlings,  and  steamed  cut  clover 
or  cooked  vegetables.  This  feed  is  given  them  morning,  noon,  and 
night  until  ihej  are  8  weeks  old,  when  they  are  penned  to  be  fat- 
t€ned  for  market  at  10  weeks  old. 

To  fatten  young  geese,  place  them;  in  a  pen,  not  too  large,  so 
that  they  will  not  exercise  too  much,  and  feed  three  times  a  day  all 
they  will  eat  up  dean  of  the  following :  Com  meal  mixed  to  a  dry, 
cnimbly  st^te,  and  beef  scraps  amounting  to  20  per  cent  of  the  bulk 
of  the  corn  meal.  While  fattening  young  geese  they  should  be  kept 
as  quiet  as  possible;  no  excitement  whatever  should  disturb  them. 


616  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

When  feeding  approach  them  quietly,  and  do  not  irritate  them  in 
the  least  or  they  will  not  fatten,  but  will  "throw  out"  or  grow  an- 
other crop  of  feathers.  At  10  weeks  of  age,  or  when  the  tips  of  the 
wings  reach  the  tail,  they  are  ready  for  market  and  should  weigh 
between  8  and  10  pounds. 

When  young  goslings  are  to  be  dressed  for  market,  they  are 
killed  by  cutting  them  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  severing  the  artery, 
or  by  stunning  them  by  hitting  them  a  sharp,  quick  blow  on  the 
head.  The  picker  uses  a  box  in  front  of  him  about  the  height  of  the 
knees,  holding  the  bird  with  the  left  hand  and  clasping  the  feet  and 
wings  together;  he  places  the  head  of  the  bird  against  the  box  and 
holds  it  in  place  with  the  knee.  Pick  the  feathers  from  the  body  of 
the  bird,  then  dampen  the  right  hand  and  brush  the  body  to  re- 
move the  down.  Leave  about  two  inches  of  feathers  on  the  neck, 
and  also  leave  feathers  on  the  win^  at  the  first  joint.  Lay  the 
wings  against  the  body  of  the  birds  and  tie  a  string  around  to  hold 
in  position.  Place  the  birds,  when  picked,  in  cold  water  for  an 
hour  or  so  to  plump  them ;  if  they  are  in  the  water  too  long  they  are 
liable  to  bleach  and  become  water-soaked.  They  are  then  iced  up 
in  barrels  ready  to  ship  to  market.  Young  geese  should  be  marketed 
in  October.  It  is  best  to  market  all  possible  before  cold  weather  sets 
in.  It  is  much  harder  to  dress  a  gosling  in  cold  weather.  The 
feathers  set  tighter,  and  in  picking  them  the  flesh  is  torn. — (Dep. 
Agr.  F.  B.  64.) 

GUINEA  FOWL. 

The  guinea  fowl,  sometimes  called  guinea  keels,-  as  the  name 
implies,  are  probably  natives  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  They 
were  raised  as  table  produce  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 
They  are  also  well  known  as  game  produce  in  England,  w^here  large 
flocks  are  kept  in  game  preserves.  In  the  United  States  few  breed- 
ers raise  them  in  large  numbers,  although  a  few  are  raised  on  each 
of  many  farms  w^here  poultry  is  kept.  Some  people  object  to  them 
on  account  of  their  rather  harsh  cry,  which  sometimes  may  be  an- 
noying, and  also  to  their  wandering  and  somewhat  quarrelsome  hab- 
its. Their  pugnacious  disposition  sometimes  leads  them  into  trouble 
with  other  poultry,  but  also  causes  them  to  resist  attacks  of  hawks 
and  other  natural  enemies. 

The  guinea  fowl  is  inclined  to  stray  and  to  steal  their  nests  in 
out  of  the  way  places,  and  in  this  respect  perhaps  show  their  w^ild 
instincts  more  than  do  other  breeds  of  fowls. 

Varieties. — Few  varieties  of  the  guinea  fowl  are  raised ;  the  so- 
called  "pearl"  variety  is  by  far  the  most  common.  They  have  a 
steel,  purplish-gray  plumage,  regularly  dotted  over  or  "pearled" 
with  white.  The  sexes  resemble  each  other  very  closely;  the  males, 
however,  may  generally  be  distinguished  by  their  comb  and  wattles. 
The  cries  of  the  two  sexes  differ ;  that  of  the  male  is  simply  a  shriek, 
while  the  female  has  a  peculiar  call  often  thought  to  resemble 
"buckwheat." 

Habits. — ^These  domesticated  fowls  retain  many  of  their  wild 
traits.    If  permitted,  they  wander  over  long  distances  and  flv  almost 


POULTRY  KEEPING  617 

as  well  as  wild  birds.  They  prefer  roosting  high  in  trees.  They 
make  their  nests  on  the  ground,  which  often  consists  of  little  more 
than  a  slight  depression.  As  a  rule  the  nests  are  secluded  and 
usuall}'  are  some  distance  from  dwellings.  The  breeding  season  be- 
gins about  the  same  as  that  of  wild  birds,  that  is  in  April  or  May. 
Breeders  usually  expect  upwards  of  50  or  60  eggs  a  year  from  each 
hen,  and  sometimes  secure  even  more  than  a  hundred.  Guinea 
hens  make  poor  sitters,  as  they  are  restless  and  are  inclined  to  range 
when  they  should  be  on  the  nests ;  when  they  do  set,  however,  they 
are  likely  to  leave  the  nests  as  soon  as  a  few  chicks  are  hatched,  and 
they  go  off  with  them  and  frequently  leave  many  eggs  that  would 
hatch  in  a  few  more  hours  of  incubation.  Guinea  chicks  are  hardly 
more  than  half  as  large  as  chickens.  They  grow  rapidly,  however, 
but  like  young  turkeys  are  sensitive  to  cold  and  dampness. 

Feeding. — Wheat,  corn,  oats  and  buckwheat  are  recommended 
as  suitable  grains  for  guineas,  in  fact,  as  A\ath  other  classes  of  poul- 
try, a  mixture  proves  more  satisfactory  than  any  single  grain.  Little 
guinea  chicks  need  feeding  almost  immediately  after  hatching. 

Marketing. — In  Europe  guinea  fowls  are  considered  very  de- 
licious table  birds  and  they  are  also  prized  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States,  especially  in  the  South,  and  are  much  relished  by 
those  who  have  discriminating  tastes.  The  demand  for  them  in  the 
markets  is  increasing  considerably.  In  support  of  that  statement 
may  be  said  that  a  fashionable  hotel  in  New  York  uses  about  a  thou- 
sand a  month  during  the  late  winter  and  spring  months.  When 
well  cooked  the  birds  are  attractive  in  appearance  and  the  flesh,  par- 
ticularlv  of  young  birds,  is  tender  and  of  especially  fine  flavor. — 
(Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  234.) 

SQUAB  RAISING. 

In  selecting  the  site  for  the  home  of  pigeons  as  much  care  and 
judgment  should  be  exercised  as  in  choosing  the  location  for  one's 
own  home.  An  unhealthy  location  for  man  would  most  likely  prove 
unhealthy  for  the  birds.  The  spot  selected  should  be  well  drained, 
should  face  the  south  or  east,  if  possible,  should  be  free  from  ob- 
structions which  shut  out  the  rays  of  the  morning  sun  and  be  shel- 
tered either  by  trees  or  buildings  from  the  north  and  west  winds. 
Such  a  place  with  a  shallow  stream  of  pure  nmning  water  will  make 
an  ideal  site  and  will  require  a  minimum  of  expense  and  work  in 
caring  for  the  stock. 

Size  and  Capacity  of  House. — Some  successful  breeders  prefer 
single  houses  holding  not  more  than  50  pairs  of  birds,  but  five  of 
these  houses  will  cost  considerably  more  to  build  than  one  house  of 
five  sections  accommodating  the  same  number  of  birds  in  each  sec- 
tion. So  the  larger  house  will  be  found  the  most  economical  both 
as  to  construction  and  care,  providing  a  large  number  of  birds  are 
to  be  maintained.  A  building  12  feet  square  and  9  feet  high  to  the 
peak  of  the  roof  will  be  found  ample  for  50  pairs  of  pigeons.  It  is 
not  thought  advisable  to  keep  more  than  50  pairs  in  one  house  or 
in  one  section.  The  hou.se  for  rearing  squabs  should  be  well  lighted. 
One  of  sufficient  size  to  acconimodate  50  pairs  should  have  at  least 


618  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

two  6-light  sashes  on  both  the  south  and  north  sides  of  the  building. 
These  windows  should  be  made  to  slide  so  that  they  may  be  opened 
to  any  extent  desired.  Of  course,  they  should  be  covered  with  wire 
netting  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  birds. 

Materials  and  Construction. — The  building  should  be  placed 
on  walls  of  cement,  of  masonry,  or  on  piers.  It  is  thought  best  to 
have  the  floor  made  of  wood  rather  than  of  cement.  Matched  floors 
should  be  used.  The  side  walls  and  roof  should  be  made  weather- 
proof and  so  constructed  that  the  building  will  be  practically  free 
from  draft. 

Nest  Boxes. — ^Nesting  places  are  made  of  one  inch  boards  12 
inches  wide  so  constructed  that  they  form  tiers  of  large  pigeon  holes 
on  the  side  walls;  each  pigeon  hole  being  about  12  inches  deep,  12 
inches  wide  and  9  or  10  inches  high.  Each  of  these  will  supply  a 
nesting  place  for  each  pair  of  birds.  Of  course,  there  should  be  a 
number  more  nesting  places  than  there  are  pairs  of  birds  to  occupy 
them. 

The  Fly. — Connected  with  the  house  there  should  be  a  covered 
fly  or  loft  where  the  birds  may  take  proper  exercise  on  the  wing 
in  the  open  air  and  sun-light.  This  is  constructed  of  wire  netting 
and  so  arranged  that  the  birds  may  exercise  whenever  they  desire 
to  do  so.  For  the  accommodation  of  50  pairs  a  fly  or  loft  30  feet 
long  and  12  feet  wide  and  8  feet  high  will  be  found  quite  sufficient. 
This  can  easily  be  made  by  the  use  of  long  posts,  narrow  hemlock 
boards  and  wire  netting.  If  the  netting  has  a  sufficient  fine  mesh 
to  exclude  the  English  sparrow  considerable  annoyance  will  be 
avoided.  Narrow  hemlock  boards  should  be  used  to  connect  the 
posts  at  the  top  as  well  as  at  the  bottom ;  so  that  the  netting  when 
once  put  in  place  will  remain  taut  and  comparatively  free  from 
sagging.  ,    .  . 

Varieties  of  Pigeons. — The  best  variety  of  pigeon  to  keep  for 
squab  raising  is  the  "straight"  Homer.  They  are  fine,  large,  healthy 
birds,  good  workers,  are  the  best  of  feeders  and  have  a  quiet  dis- 
position and  when  properly  mated  their  eggs  are  seldom  infertile. 
The  Dragoon  is  much  esteemed  by  some,  particularly  to  cross  with 
the  Homer.  "Straight"  Dragoon  squabs  are  usually  five  weeks  in 
growing  to  a  sufficient  size  for  the  market,  while  "straight"  Homer 
squabs  are  ready  for  the  market  in  four  weeks  and  sometimes  less. 
The  Runt  is  a  giant  among  pigeons  and  is  highly  spoken  of  by 
some  breeders  because  the  squabs  are  so  large. 

Breeding. — In  the  selection  of  breeding  stock  the  beginner 
should  consult  some  one  having  experience  and  critical  knowledge 
and,  if  possible,  secure  his  active  assistance. 

Feeds  and  Feeding. — While  it  is  tnie  that  some  breeders  have 
had  fair  success  for  a  while  by  feeding  only  cracked  corn  and  wheat, 
under  continued  use  of  these  two  grains  alone  they  fail  to  produce 
as  good  squabs  as  could  be  secured  with  a  greater  variety  of  grain. 
In  their  free  state  pigeons  select  a  variety  of  grains,  hence  it  be- 
comes important  that  the  breeder  exercise  good  judgment  in  select- 
ing the  kinds  he  sets  before  thejn,    The  six  principal  feeds  though 


POULTRY  KEEPING  619 

are  cracked  com,  Canadian  peas,  wheat,  German  millet,  Kafir  com 
and  hemp. 

Cost  of  Feeding. — The  cost  of  feeding  should  not  exceed  from 
one-eighth  to  one-fifth  of  a  cent  a  day  for  each  bird  or  about  .52 
cents  a  year. 

Water. — A  generous  supply  of  fresh  pure  water  for  drinking 
purposes  should  be  given  every  day.  In  addition  a  pigeon  should 
have  a  supply  of  water  in  which  to  bathe.  Shallow  pans  about 
three  inches  deep  and  20  feet  or  30  feet  square  make  suitable  bath- 
tubs. 

Killing  and  Dressing. — The  details  of  killing  and  dressing  and 
marketing  are  quite  similar  to  those  of  broilers,  green  ducks,  and 
other  fancy -classes  of  young  fowls. — (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  177.) 

OSTRICH  FARMING. 

This  industry  in  the  United  States  is  only  in  its  infancy,  as  it 
has  only  been  thirty  years  since  the  first  American  ostrich  farm 
was  started.  The  pioneer  breeders  in  this  country  were  obliged  to 
get  most  of  their  knowledge  from  their  own  experience.  The  larger 
part  of  the  ostriches  now  in  the  United  States  are  the  progeny  of  a 
single  pair  owned  in  Arizona  in  1891. 

Where  alfalfa  pasture  has  been  available  the  birds  bred  in 
America  have  grown  larger  than  those  first  imported.  A  full  grown, 
fat  ostrich  Avould  weigh  from  375  to  450  pounds;  he  will  stand  8 
feet  high,  but  can  easily  reach  to  a  height  of  10  or  11  feet.  Ostriches 
thrive  best  in  a  wium  dry  climate,  but  can  be  grown  in  many  of  the 
Southern  States  and  Territories  of  this  country.  Salt  River  Valley 
of  Arizona  is  thought  by  many  to  be  the  best  location  in  the  United 
States  for  ostrich  farming. 

Eggs  and  Incubation. — Ostriches  come  to  maturity  when  about 
four  years  of  age.  The  female  matures  from  six  months  to  a  year 
before  the  male;  she  will,  however,  seldom  lay  fertile  eggs  until 
throe  and  a  half  years  old.  After  she  commences  to  lay,  in  about 
thirty  days  she  will  have  laid  from  twelve  to  sixteen  eggs  and  will 
be  ready  to  commence  incubation  in  about  thirty  days.  Both  nat- 
ural and  artificial  methods  of  incubation  have  proven  satisfactory. 
The  period  of  incubation  is  about  forty-two  days. 

Care  and  Feeding  of  Chicks. — A  chick  should  never  be  allowed 
to  become  damp  or  cold  and  should  not  be  fed  for  the  first,  three 
or  four  days,  but  may  be  allowed  to  pick  up  sand  and  gravel.  Dry 
feed  is  preferable  for  the  first  week.  Cracked  wheat  and  moistened 
bran  are  excellent.  Sour  feed,  however,  should  never  be  given. 
After  they  are  a  week  old,  fine  cut  green  alfalfa  may  be  given. 

Plucking. — The  ostrich  is  first  plucked  when  six  months  old, 
and  should  be  plucked  about  every  eight  months  thereafter  during 
its  life-time.  The  only  feathers  removed  are  those  of  the  wing  and 
the  tail.  The  process  of  plucking  consists  in  cutting  the  tail  feath- 
ers and  one  row  of  the  largest  quill  feathers  in  the  wing  with  ])nni- 
ing  shears,  and  drawing  by  hand  the  remaining  two  or  three  rows 
in  the  wing.  The  value  of  American  feathers  depends  on  the  Lon- 
don market,  although  they  bring  about  15  per  cent  more  than  Lon- 


620  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

don  prices.  The  prime  feathers  sell  from  $100  to  $200  per  pound ; 
it  takes  about  90  of  these  feathers  to  weigh  a  pound. 

Handling  and  Feeding  Ostriches. — The  lands  used  for  ostrich 
farms  in  Arizona  are  worth  from  $40  to  $125  per  acre.  The  land 
value  depends  largely  on  the  location  and  water  rights.  The  cost 
of  bringing  the  water  used  for  irrigation  to  the  land  is  an  important 
factor. 

Fencing. — The  usual  way  to  fence  an  ostrich  farm'  is  to  use  a 
woven  wire  for  the  outside  fences  about  5^^  feet  high,  with  meshes 
small  enough  to  keep  out  wolves  and  dogs. 

Flesh  and  Eggs  as  Food. — The  value  of  the  ostrich  depends  on 
its  production  of  feathers  for  ordinary  purposes;  the  flesh,  how- 
ever, is  said  to  be  much  relished  by  those  who  have  eaten  it.  The 
eggs  are  fine  for  making  omelets;  one  egg  will  make  as  much  ome- 
let as  two  and  a  half  dozen  hen  eggs.  One  ostrich  has  been  known 
to  produce  over  300  pounds  of  egg  food  in  a  year. 

Value  of  Ostriches. — The  value  of  the  ostrich  has  only  begun 
to  be  appreciated.  American  ostrich  farmers  seldom  care  to  part 
with  their  birds,  as  does  the  growers  of  other  domestic  animals. 
Chicks  six  months  old  are  often  estimated  to  be  worth  $100  each. 
Birds  three  years  of  age  are  worth  from  $300  to  $350 ;  while  birds 
four  years  old,  the  age  at  which  they  pair,  are  worth  $800  or  over 
per  pair. 

Profits  of  Ostrich  Farming. — The  question,  "Does  ostrich  farm- 
ing pay?"  is  often  asked.  When  an  acre  of  alfalfa  will  furnish  a 
home  for  four  birds,  with  food  enough  to  maintain  them,  and  when 
an  ostrich  will  yield  annually  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  feathers 
with  an  average  value  of  $20  per  pound,  and  from  36  to  90  eggs 
averaging  3%  pounds  to  the  egg,  it  may  be  left  for  each  reader  to 
decide  for  himself  as  to  the  profit  of  the  industry. —  (Y.  B.  1905.) 

CAPONS   AND   CAPONIZING, 

Much  the  larger  part  of  this  industry  is  confined  to  that  por- 
tion of  the  United  States  east  of  Philadelphia,  though  increasing 
numbeis  of  capons  are  being  raised  in  the  North  Central  States. 
During  the  winter  months  capon  is  regularly  quoted  in  the  markets 
of  the  larger  eastern  cities.  Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey  are  the 
great  centers  for  the  growing  of  capons,  while  Boston,  New  York, 
and  Philadelphia  are  the  important  markets. 

What  Is  a  Capon  f — A  capon  is  an  altered  or  castrated  male 
chicken,  bearing  the  same  relation  to  a  cockerel  that  a  steer  does  to 
a  bull,  a  barrow  to  a  boar,  or  a  wether  to  a  ram.  As  with  other  male 
animals  so  altered,  the  disposition  of  the  capon  differs  materially 
from  that  of  the  cockerel.  He  no  longer  shows  any  disposition  to 
fight,  is  much  more  quiet  and  sluggish,  and  is  more  docile  and  easy 
to  keep  within  bounds.  The  true  capon  never  crows.  Along  with 
this  change  in  disposition  there  is  a  change  in  appearance.  The 
comb  and  wattles  cease  growing,  which  causes  the  head  to  appear 
small.  The  hackle  and  saddle  feathers  develop  beautifully.  In- 
deed, these  feathers  and  the  undeveloped  comb  and  wattles  serve  to 


POULTRY  KEEPING  621 

identify  the  capon  and  in  consequence  should  never  be  removed 
when  the  bird  is  dressed  for  the  market. 

As  a  result  of  the  more  peaceful  disposition  of  the  capon  he  con- 
tinues to  grow  and  his  body  develops  more  uniformly  and  to  a  some- 
what greater  size  than  is  the  case  with  a  cockerel  of  the  same  age. 
There  are  two  reasons,  then,  why  it  is  better  to  caponize  surplus 
cockerels  than  to  raise  them  for  market  as  such:  (1)  There  is  an 
increase  in  weight,  and  (2)  the  price  per  pound  is  materially  in- 
creased. 

Selection  of  Breeds. — In  selecting  the  breed  best  suited  for 
caponizing,  several  factors  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  Large 
capons  bring  the  best  prices.  Consequently  the  breed  should  be 
large.  It  does  not  pay  to  caponize  small  fowls.  Yellow  legs  and 
skin,  as  in  other  classes  of  poultry,  are  most  popular.  The  Plym- 
outh Rocks,  Light  Brahmas,  Cochins,  Indian  Games,  Langshans, 
and  Wyandottes  are  all  recommended  by  different  producers,  as 
are  also  various  crosses  of  these.  The  Brahmas  and  Cochins  possess 
good  size.  By  some  the  Brahmas  are  claimed  to  be  difficult  to  oper- 
ate upon ;  by  others  this  is  denied.  The  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Wy- 
andottes are  somewhat  smaller,  but  sell  readily  and  possess  the  ad- 
vantage of  yellow  skin  and  eggs.  The  Langshan  is  large  and  is  easily 
operated  upon.  The  Indian  Game  is  probably  most  useful  as  a  cross 
upon  some  one  of  the  other  breeds,  thereby  improving  the  breast 
meat  without  materially  reducing  the  size  of  the  fowl. 

Time  to  Caponize. — In  so  far  as  the  effects  of  the  operation  and 
the  rapidity  and  ease  of  healing  are  concerned,  the  time  of  year 
when  the  operation  is  performed  is  of  little  importance.  The  capons 
seem  to  recover  and  do  well  at  any  time.  Certain  other  considera- 
tions, however,  do  influence  the  time.  The  age  and  size  of  the  cock- 
erel are  very  important.  As  soon  as  the  cockerels  weigh  2  to  3 
pounds,  or  when  2  to  4  months  old,  they  should  be  operated  upon. 
The  lower  age  and  weight  limits  apply  particularly  to  the  American 
breeds,  while  the  higher  apply  to  the  Asiatics.  If  smaller  than  this, 
their  bodies  do  not  give  room  enough  to  work  handily.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  should  never  be  over  6  months  old,  as  by  this  time 
the  testicles  have  developed  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  spermatic 
arteries  carry  greater  amounts  of  blood,  and  the  danger  of  pricking 
these  arteries  and  causing  the  fowl  to  bleed  to  death  is  greatly  in- 
creased.—  (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  452.) 

Caponizing  Instruments. — The  manufacturers  of  caponizing 
instruments  place  them  on  the  market  in  the  complete  sets  that  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  beginner.  They  also  furnish  with  these 
sets  of  instruments  brief  directions  for  operating. 

Marketing  Poultry  and  Poultry  Products. — A  large  part  of  the 
profit  in  poultry  keeping  often  depends  on  the  marketing  of  the 
products,  and  the  producer  should  study  the  market  demands  as  to 
how,  where,  and  when  to  dispose  of  the  products  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. An  attractive  appearance  is  of  prime  importance,  and  the 
producer  should  study  tne  details  of  killing,  dressing,  and  packing 
in  order  to  arrange  the  products  in  the  best  possible  manner.    The 


622  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

requirements  for  dressing  and  packing  vary  somewhat  in  different 
markets,  and  the  producer  should  learn  any  special  requirements 
of  the  market  to  which  he  intends  shipping. 

Killing,  Dressing,  and  Packing  Poultry. — The  birds  should  be 
kept  without  feed  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours  before  kill- 
ing, unless  they  are  to  be  drawn,  in  which  case  they  should  have  no 
feed  for  at  least  ten  hours  before  killing.  In  either  case  they  should 
have  no  water  to  drink  for  at  least  eight  hours  before  killing.  When 
ready  to  kill,  suspend  the  fowl  by  the  legs  and,  using  a  knife,  cut 
the  vein  at  the  back  of  the  throat  through  the  mouth.  As  soon  as 
this  vein  is  cut  run  the  point  of  the  knife  through  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  into  the  brain,  which  causes  the  bird  to  lose  all  sense  of  feel- 
ing. Instead  of  piercing  the  brain  the  fowl  can  be  paralyzed  by  a 
blow  on  the  head. 

Dry  Picking. — In  most  markets  dry-picked  birds  are  preferi*ed. 
Immediately  after  killing,  while  the  bird  is  still  bleeding,  the  picker 
should  remove  the  feathers,  being  careful  not  to  tear  the  skin.  If 
the  picker  waits  until  the  bird  is  partially  cold,  the  feathers  will  be 
removed  with  difficulty.  As  soon  as  picked  the  fowls  should  be 
hung  in  a  cool  place  until  thoroughly  cold.  If  the  weather  is  warm 
and  fowls  are  to  be  packed  in  ice,  they  should  be  placed  in  a  tank  of 
ice  water  and  left  until  all  the  animal  heat  has  left  the  body. 

Scalding. — When  birds  are  scalded  before  removing  the  feath- 
ers they  are  immersed  in  hot  water,  which  should  be  a  little  below 
the  boiling  point,  as  soon  as  they  are  through  bleeding.  The  birds 
should  be  immersed  three  or  four  times  and  then  picked  clean,  care 
being  taken  not  to  break  the  skin.  The  fowl  should  next  be 
"plumped"  by  dipping  it  in  nearly  boiling  hot  water  for  eight  or 
ten  seconds  and  then  placing  it  in  cold  water,  where  it  should  re- 
main for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  Be  careful  not  to  overscald,  as 
this  will  cause  the  outer  surface  of  the  skin  to  rub  off.  If  the  fowls 
are  to  be  shipped  dry  they  should  be  hung  up  until  the  skin  be- 
comes thoroughly  dry.  If  they  are  to  be  packed  in  ice  theymay  be 
left  in  the  cold  water  for  several  hours  or  until  they  are  to  be 
packed. 

Drawing. — When  the  poultry  is  to  be  drawn  this  should  bo 
done  before  the  bird  is  cooled.  A  slit  should  be  made  from  near 
the  end  of  the  keel  bone  toward  the  vent,  large  enough  to  admit  the 
fingers.  Then  cut  carefully  around  the  vent  and  pull  out  the  intes- 
tines, leaving  in  everything  else  unless  the  market  requirements  are 
otherwise. 

Packing. — ^When  the  birds  have  been  thoroughly  cooled  they 
are  ready  for  packing.  Packages  for  dressed  poultry  vary  greatly, 
but  they  should  be  neat  and  clean  and  small  enough  to  be  easily 
handled.  The  inside  of  the  box  or  barrel  should  be  lined  with  clean, 
unprinted  paper.  Pack  the  birds  solidly  so  that  they  will  not  shift 
in  the  package,  but  l>e  careful  not  to  bruise  them.  For  delivery  to 
retail  customers  pasteboard  boxes  of  sufficient  size  to  hold  one  or  two 
birds  are  very  satisfactory.     When  poultry  is  to  be  packed  in  ice, 


POULTRY  KEEPING  623 

barrels  are  generally  used,  packing  them  with  alternate  layers  of 
birds  and  ice,  the  latter  forming  the  top  and  bottom  layers. 

Shipping  Live  Poultry. — Poultry  of  all  kinds  can  be  shipped 
alive,  and  will  often  net  the  shipper  as  much  as  when  dressed.  Good 
live  fowls  will  usually  bring  more  than  the  same  fowls  poorly  dressed. 
For  shipping  live  poultry  to  market  well  constructed  slatted  crates 
are  desirable,  as  these  crates  provide  for  ventilation.  This  is  im- 
portant, for  in  crowded  express  cars  the  crates  are  frequently  piled 
on  top  of  one  another.  Over-crowding  is  to  be  avoided,  and  if  large 
coops  are  used  they  should  bo  equipped  with  partitions  to  prevent 
the  birds  being  thrown  together  at  one  end  when  the  crate  is  tipped 
in  handling.  If  possible  place  only  one  variety  in  a  coop  or  in  one 
division  of  a  coop. — (Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  287.) 

Bad  Habits,  Egg  Eating. — This  habit  sometimes  becomes  a  seri- 
ous vice,  fowls  becoming  very  fond  of  eggs  when  they  have  learned  to 
cat  them,  and  it  often  spreads  from  fowl  to  fowl.  It  usually  begins 
through  accident  by  eggs  being  broken  or  frozen.  Be  careful  to  see 
that  this  does  not  happen.  See  that  the  nests  are  properly  supplied 
Avith  straw  or  other  nesting  material  and  have  them  darkened,  so  that 
if  an  egg  is  accidentally  broken  the  fowls  will  not  be  likely  to  dis- 
cover it.  Supply  plenty  of  lime  in  the  form  of  oyster  shells,  bone,  or 
similar  substances  to  insure  a  firm  shell.  As  soon  as  it  is  discovered 
that  a  fowl  has  formed  the  habit  the  fowl  should  be  removed,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  vice.  Once  formed,  it  is  difficult  to  eradi- 
cate, and  the  safest  remedy  is  the  death  penalty. 

Feather  Eating. — ^Fowls  sometimes  pluck  feathers  from  them- 
selves and  from  each  other,  which  is  often  caused  by  too  close  confine- 
ment, by  the  presence  of  insect  pests,  or  by  improper  feeding.  When 
some  of  the  lowls  of  a  flock  have  formed  the  habit  slightly,  a  wide 
range  with  a  change  of  diet,  including  a  plentiful  supply  of  animal 
feed,  and  freedom  from  insect  pests,  will  usually  correct  the  evil. 
Above  all  see  that  the  fowls  have  plenty  of  inducement  to  exercise. 
If  the  habit  becomes  well  formed  it  is  very  troublesome  and  may 
necessitate  the  killing  of  some  of  the  fowls  in  order  to  stop  it. — (Agr. 
Dep.  F.  B.  287.) 

Clfiftses  of  Deteriorated  Eggs. — Heated  eggs  ocair  most  com- 
monly during  the  summer  months.  Whenever  a  fertile  egg  is  sub- 
jected to  proper  conditions  of  heat,  whether  it  be  under  a  hen  or  in 
the  hot  sun  on  a  railroad  station  platform,  the  embryo  development 
proceeds.  Light  floats  are  those  in  which  there  is  only  a  slight  de- 
velopment. Heavy  floats  show  a  greater  development  usually  suffi- 
cient to  be  noticed  on  breaking.  Blood  rings  are  shown  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  ring  of  blood  next  to  the  shell  membrane. 

Held  or  Shrunken  Eggs. — The  contents  of  a  fresh-laid  egg  com- 
pletely fill  it,  but  as  the  egg  cools  the  contents  shrink  slightly,  caus- 
ing a  small  bubble  or  air  cell  to  appear  at  the  large  end.  As  the  egg 
groA^-s  older  the  water  is  continually  evaporating  from  the  white 
through  the  shell  membrane  and  the  shell,  and  this  causes  the  air 
cell  in  the  large  end  of  the  egg  to  increase  in  size.  Such  an  egg  is 
characterized  as  held,  or  shrunken.    Shrunken  eggs  are  most  com- 


624  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

mon  during  the  fall  and  early  winter  when  the  price  of  eg^  is  rising. 
At  this  time  both  the  farmer  and  the  storekeeper  are  often  guilty  of 
holding  eggs  in  the  hope  that  the  price  will  have  advanced  by  the 
time  they  are  ready  to  sell.  Needless  to  say,  they  largely  defeat 
themselves,  for  buyei-s  have  learned  to  anticipate  this  condition,  and 
consequently  depress  the  price  below  what  it  would  otherwise  be. 

Rots. — A  number  of  different  kinds  of  rots  are  recognized  by 
the  trade,  but  the  two  most  common  classes  are  those  known  as  black 
or  mixed  rots  and  as  spot  rots  or  spots.  The  black  rot  is  often  caused 
by  bacterial  growth.  These  eggs  appear  dark  or  black  before  the 
candle  and  are  characterized  on  breaking  by  a  most  offensive  odor. 
In  the  case  of  spot  rots,  the  bacterial  growth  has  remained  localized 
and  shows  as  a  spot  or  patch  next  the  shell  and  usually  attached  to  it. 
These  are  easily  detected  on  candling.  Spots  are  also  often  caused  by 
the  development  of  molds. 

Dirty  Eggs. — Many  eggs  are  soiled  and  dirty.  These  are  caused 
by  dirty  nests,  thus  allowing  the  eggs  to  be  soiled  by  droppings,  by 
dirt  from  the  feet  of  the  fowls,  particularly  during  rainy  weather, 
and  by  smearing  with  the  contents  of  broken  or  cracked  eggs. 

Broken  Eggs. — Many  eggs  are  cracked  or  broken  before  reach- 
ing the  packing  house.  Those  cracked  only  slightly,  so  that  the  egg 
contents  do  not  leak  out,  are  known  as  "checks."  Those  in  which  the 
egg  contents  are  leaking  or  have  partially  leaked  away  are  known  as 
"leakers."  Broken  or  "checked"  eggs  depreciate  rapidly  and  must, 
therefore,  be  separated  out  and  sold  for  immediate  consumption  at  a 
reduced  price  or  they  must  be  dried  or  broken  out  in  cans  and  frozen. 

Other  Deteriorated  Eggs. — As  eggs  are  very  prone  to  take  on 
the  taste  and  odor  of  their  surroundings,  a  considerable  number  de- 
teriorate in  this  respect.  If  stored  in  damp  cellars,  they  are  likely  to 
■develop  a  musty  flavor  which  is  practically  impossible  to  detect  with- 
out tasting.  Other  flavors  caused  by  storing  witli  vegetables,  such  as 
onions,  are  common. 

Requisites  for  the  Production  of  Good  Eggs. — As  requisites  for 
the  production  of  good  eggs  and  marketing  them  in  good  condition 
the  following  may  be  mentioned:  1.  Hens  that  produce  not  only 
a  goodly  number  of  eggs  but  eggs  of  moderately  large  size  (weighing 
2  ounces  each  on  an  average) .  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Rhode 
Island  Reds,  Orpingtons,  and  Leghorns  or  Minorcas  that  are  used 
on  egg  farms  are  varieties  that  may  be  expected  to  do  this.  2.  Good 
housing,  regular  feeding  and  watering,  and,  above  all,  clean,  dry 
nests.  3.  Daily  gathering  of  eggs,  and,  when  the  temperature  is 
above  80°,  gathering  twice  a  day.  4.  The  confining  of  all  broody 
hens  as  soon  as  discovered.  5.  The  rejection  as  doubtful  of  all  eggs 
found  in  a  nest  that  was  not  visited  the  previous  day.  Such  eggs 
should  be  used  at  home,  where  each  may  be  broken  separately.  6. 
The  placing  of  all  summer  eggs,  as  soon  as  gathered,  in  the  coolest 
place  available.  7.  The  prevention  at  all  times  of  moisture  in  any 
form  coming  in  contact  with  the  eggshells.  8.  The  disposal  of  young 
cockerels  before  they  begin  to  annoy  the  hens.  Also  the  selling  or 
confining  of  old  male  birds  from  the  time  hatching  is  over  until  cool 


POULTRY  KEEPING  625 

weather  in  fall.  9.  The  using  of  cracked  and  dirty  as  well  as  small 
eggs  at  home.  Such  eggs,  if  consumed  when  fresh,  are  perfectly 
wholesome,  but  when  marketed  are  discriminated  against  and  are 
likely  to  become  an  entire  loss.  10.  The  marketing  of  all  eggs  at 
least  once  a  week,  and  oftener  when  convenience  allows.  11.  Keep- 
ing eggs  as  cool  and  dry  as  possible  while  on  the  way  to  town  and 
while  in  country  stores.  12.  Keeping  eggs  away  from  musty  cellars 
or  bad  odors.  13.  The  use  of  strong,  clean  cases  and  good  fillers. 
14.  The  shipping  of  eggs  to  the  final  market  at  least  once  a  week 
and  as  much  oftener  as  possible. 

General  Summary. — The  loss  in  this  country  due  to  the  actual 
spoiling  of  eggs  constitutes  an  enormous  waste,  which  could  in  a 
large  measure  be  saved  were  eggs  given  reasonable  care  from  the 
time  of  laying  until  they  reach  the  consumer. 

There  are  two  main  reasons  why  such  care  is  not  being  given : 
(1)  Lack  of  realization  of  the  importance  of  the  egg  crop  and  ignor- 
ance of  the  correct  method  of  caring  for  the  product;  (2)  because 
with  our  present  system  the  individual  farmer,  and  in  the  West  the 
individual  storekeeper  as  well,  are  not  financially  rewarded  for  their 
greater  pains  nor  held  accountable  for  gross  carelessness,  which  may 
amount  to  actual  dishonesty. 

The  ideal  condition  of  the  egg  trade  is  to  bring  the  intelligent 
dealer  who  wants  quality  and  will  pay  for  it  into  close  touch  with 
the  producer.  Every  factor  in  the  egg  trade  that  prevents  this  is 
detrimental  to  the  progress  of  this  important  branch  of  intensive 
agriculture. 

The  greatest  handicap  to  the  egg  trade  is  the  general  store,  with 
its  custom  of  bartering  merchandise  for  eggs.  The  storekeeper 
reckons  his  profits  on  goods  as  more  than  his  loss  on  eggs.  He  does 
not  try  to  enforce  improvement  upon  his  patrons  by  buying  on  a 
quality  basis,  and  by  the  advantage  his  peculiar  position  gives  him 
he  keeps  other  egg  buyers  from  doing  so.  The  cure  for  this  evil 
consists  in  teaching  the  farmer  and  the  merchant  that  the  present 
method  of  trading  is  upon  a  false  basis,  which  is  of  no  real  advantage 
to  either,  but  is  in  reality  a  great  disadvantage  to  both  in  that  it 
causes  an  actual  loss  of  wealth  which  must  be  borne  by  the  commu- 
nity. When  such  an  understanding  is  established  the  community  is 
ready  for  some  plan  of  buying  eggs  that  will  pay  the  producer  in 
accordance  with  the  actual  worth  of  the  product.  This  done,  and  a 
market  found  where  the  improved  goods  will  be  recognized  and  paid 
for,  the  future  of  the  egg  and  poultry  industry  in  that  community 
is  simply  a  matter  of  patience  and  perseverance. — (Dep.  Agr.  Bu. 
An.  Ind.  Cir.  140.) 

Selection  and  Care  of  the  Egos  to  be  Preserved.— Keep  the 
whole  flock  as  near  a  perfect  state  of  health  as  possible.  Give  enough 
shell-forming  food  to  the  hens  so  that  the  shells  will  be  strong  and 
uniform  in  thickness.  Make  proper  nesting  places  and  keep  them 
clean,  so  that  the  eggs  may  not  be  infected  while  in  the  nests.  Gather 
the  eggs  each  day.  Keep  the  gathered  eggs  in  a  dry  cool  room  or 
cellar  where  the  sun's  rays  do  not  fall  directly  upon  them.    Use  only 


626  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

the  clean  eggs  and  place  them  in  the  preservative  within  twenty-four 
hours  aft€r  the  time  they  are  laid.  Preserve  only  April,  May,  and 
early  June  eggs. 

The  Use  of  Water  Glass. — Of  the  liquid  preservatives,  water 
glass  (sodium  silicate)  has  been  very  generally  and  very  successfully 
used.  It  is  reliable,  comparatively  cheap,  and  is  easily  prepared. 
The  water  glass  can  be  bought  at  most  drug  stores  for  one  dollar  to 
one  dollar  and  a  quarter  a  gallon.  This  is  comparatively  cheap,  for  a 
gallon  of  water  glass  will  make  t€n  gallons  of  preserving  fluid. 

Preserving  and  Storing  of  Eggs. — A  cellar  is  a  good  place  to 
keep  the  eggs  though  any  darkened  room  where  the  temperature  does 
not  go  over  60°  F.  will  do.  A  stone  jar  is  preferable  to  other  recepta- 
cles for  it  can  be  sealed  and  cleaned  more  thoroughly  than  most 
receptacles.  Those  using  barrels  which  have  previously  contained 
other  liquids  run  a  great  risk  in  using  these  for  the  preservation  of 
eggs. 

Use  Boiled  Water. — A  five-gallon  receptacle  will  hold  about  15 
dozen  eggs.  The  preserving  fluid  itself  should  be  made  from  clean 
water  that  has  been  boiled  and  allowed  to  cool.  To  every  nine  quarts 
of  water  add  one  quart  of  water  glass,  stirring  thoroughly  to  insure 
a  proper  mixture  of  the  two.  A  great  deal  of  care  should  be 
taken  in  mixing  the  water  glass  and  the  water,  and  the  more 
thoroughly  this  is  done  the  better  the  chance  of  preserving  the 
eggs.  Some  have  found  that  an  egg  beater  was  very  useful  in  aiding 
the  mixing.  If  properly  mixed  the  water  glass  seals  the  egg  and  with 
the  temperature  comparatively  low  the  egg  is  preserved. 

When  the  eggs  are  to  be  preserved  in  several  receptacles,  the 
water  and  water  glass  should  be  mixed  in  each  receptacle 
separately,  for  if  they  are  mixed  in  one  receptacle  and  poured  into 
several,  there  is  the  liability  of  getting  different  percentages  of  water 
glass  in  each  receptacle,  with  the  result  that  some  eggs  are  likely  to 
spoil.  Do  not  try  to  preserve  cracked  eggs.  Into  this  fluid  place  the 
eggs,  examining  each  egg  to  see  that  it  is  clean  and  is  not  cracked.  A 
good  method  is  to  tap  two  eggs  together  gently  before  putting  them 
into  the  water  glass.  If  they  are  not  cracked  they  will  give  a  true 
ring,  while  if  one  of  them  is  cracked  the  sound  will  be  entirely  differ- 
ent and  the  cracked  egg  can  be  discarded.  Almost  every  one  has 
noticed  the  difference  in  the  sound  of  the  cracked  and  the  uncracked 
egg.  Keep  the  eggs  well  covered  with  the  solution  by  adding  a  small 
quantity  of  boiled  water  when  necessary. 

If  several  receptacles  are  used  in  which  to  preserve  the  eggs,  it 
is  a  good  i)lan  to  mark  the  receptacle  bearing  the  April  eggs  and 
those  containing  the  May  and  June  eggs.  These  receptacles  should 
be  covered  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  the  water  from  the  solution. 
Where  the  receptacles  are  not  covered  the  solution  turns  milky  or 
changes  to  a  thick,  white  pasty  mass  making  it  more  difficult  to  take 
out  the  eggs.  This  does  not  however,  necessarily  detract  any  from 
the  preservative  qualities.  Do  not  allow  the  sun[s  rays  to  fall  directly 
on  the  receptacles  and  keep  all  eggs  submerged  in  the  solution.  The 
preservation  should  never  be  stirred  after  the  eggs  are  once  placed 


POULTRY  KEEPING  629 

therein.  It  is  advantageous  to  begin  to  use  the  water  glass  eggs  for 
cooking  purposes  soon  after  the  price  of  eggs  has  reached  the  original 
price  plus  the  price  of  preserving,  usually  not  more  than  two  or  three 
cents,  and  to  use  them  the  remainder  of  the  year  until  the  eggs  reach 
that  price  the  following  spring. 

In  this  way  the  maximum  saving  will  be  made  although  it  will 
necessitate  preserving  more  eggs.  Too  many  people  wait  until  eggs 
get  to  be  thirty-five  cents  a  dozen  before  they  use  the  water  glass  eggs. 
In  this  way  they  save  only  a  part  of  what  might  have  been  saved  had 
they  preserved  more  eggs  and  begun  using  them  earlier.  The  shrink- 
age should  be  less  than  one  per  cent  if  the  eggs  are  good  and  properly 
handled.  The  preservative  should  not  be  used  for  more  than  one 
year. 


PART  VI 

OTHER  ANIMALS. 

BIRDS  IN  THEIE  RELATION  TO  AGRICULTURE. 

BIRDS  play  an  important  part  in  relation  to  agriculture.  This 
has  long  been  known.  There  seems  to  be  a  tendency  to  dwell 
on  the  harm  they  do  rather  than  the  good.  Whether  the  bird 
is  injurious  or  beneficial  depends  almost  entirely  upon  what  it 
eats.  Because  the  harm  that  a  bird  does  is  often  more  evident  than  the 
good  it  does,  it  is  frequently  classed  by  farmers  among  the  injurious 
birds  to  agriculture,  when  really  it  is  decidedly  beneficial.  As  in- 
sects constitute  a  large  part  of  the  diet  of  our  common  birds  they 
often  become  destroyers  of  noxious  insects,  which  is  too  often  not 
appreciated. 

As  objects  of  human  care  and  interest  birds  occupy  a  place 
filled  by  no  other  living  things,  and  the  various  movements  to  pro- 
tect and  foster  them  would  be  fully  justified  were  there  no  returns 
other  than  esthetic.  Only  the  thoughtless  and  the  ignorant  still  hold 
that  the  graceful  forms  and  beautiful  plumage  of  these  masterpieces 
of  nature  serve  their  highest  purpose  when  worn  on  a  hat  for  a  brief 
season,  to  be  then  cast  aside  and  forgotten,  the  plumage  dimmed  and 
faded,  the  beautiful  songs  quenched  forever. 

While  by  no  means  insensible  to  the  higher  value  of  birds,  the 
farmer  who  is  asked  to  aid  in  measures  for  their  protection  is  entitled 
to  inquire  as  to  the  practical  purpose  they  subserve  and  how  far  they 
may  be  expected  to  return  his  outlay  of  time,  trouble,  and  expense. 

Since  most  birds  eat  insects  and  since  many  eat  practically 
nothing  else,  it  is  their  insect-eating  habits  that  chiefly  invite  in- 
quiry, for  so  active  and  persistent  are  birds  in  the  pursuit  of  insects 
that  they  constitute  their  most  important  enemies. 

When  birds  are  permitted  to  labor  undisturbed  they  thoroughly 
police  both  earth  and  air.  The  thrushes,  sparrows,  larks,  and  wTens 
search  the  surface  of  the  earth  for  insects  and  their  larvae  or  hunt 
among  the  leaves  and  peer  under  logs  and  refuse  for  them.  The  war- 
blers, vireos,  creepers,  and  nuthatches  with  their  microscopic  eyes 
scan  every  part  of  the  tree  or  shrub — trunk,  branches,  and  leaves — 
and  few  hidden  creatures  escape  them.  The  woodpeckers,  not  con- 
tent with  carefully  scrutinizing  the  bark  and  limbs  of  trees,  dig  into 
decayed  and  worm-eaten  wood  and  drag  forth  the  burrowing  larvae, 
which  in  their  hidden  retreats  are  safe  from  other  enemies.  The 
flycatchers,  aided  by  the  warblers,  are  ever  on  the  alert  to  snap  up 
insects  when  flying  among  trees  and  branches;  w^hile  the  swallows 
and  nighthaw^ks  skim  over  the  pastures  and  patrol  the  air  high  above 

630 


OTHER  ANIMALS  631 

the  tree  tops  for  such  of  the  enemy  as  have  escaped  pursuit  below. 
Thus  each  fa,mily  plays  its  part  in  the  never-ending  warfare,  and  the 
number  of  insects  annually  consumed  by  the  combined  hosta  is 
simply  incalculable.  It  is  well  that  this  is  so,  for  so  vast  is  the  num- 
ber of  insects  and  so  great  is  the  quantity  of  vegetation  required  for 
their  subsistence  that  the  existence  of  every  green  thing  would  be 
threatened  were  it  not  for  birds  and  other  agents  specially  designed 
to  keep  them  in  check. 

While  birds  are  not  numerous  in  the  sense  that  insects  are,  they 
exist  in  fair  numbers  everywhere — or  would  were  it  not  for  the  inter- 
ference of  man — and  so  rapid  is  the  digestion  of  birds  and  so  perfect 
their  assimilative  powers  that,  to  satisfy  the  appetite  of  even  a  small 
bird,  great  numbers  of  insects  are  needed.  Much  of  this  food  ia 
hidden  and  must  be  searched  for;  much  of  it  is  active  and  must  be 
vigorously  pureued.  Hence  only  bv  the  expenditure  of  much  time 
and  labor  do  birds  procure  their  daily  food.  With  birds  the  struggle 
for  existence  is  peculiarly  a  struggle  for  subsistence;  shelter  is  ob- 
tained with  comparative  ease,  and  if  climatic  conditions  are  not  to 
their  liking  they  migrate  to  other  regions. 

When  by  reason  of  favorable  conditions  insects  have  multiplied 
and  become  unusually  abundant,  birds  eat  much  more  than  at  ordi- 
nary times ;  hence  the  importance  of  their  services  during  insect  in- 
vasions. It  is  not,  however,  at  such  periods  that  their  services  are 
most  valuable.  It  is  their  persistent  activity  in  destroying  insect* 
every  day,  at  all  seasons,  and  in  every  stage  of  growth — the  long, 
steady  pull  rather  than  the  spasmodic  effort — that  tends  to  prevent 
insect  irruptions  and  to  keep  the  balance  true. 

Few  birds  are  wholly  beneficial,  and  there  are  very  few  among 
the  harmful  ones  that  have  no  redeeming  traits — that  do  not,  Occa- 
sionally at  least,  do  good.  Most  birds  most  of  the  time  are  beneficial ; 
a  few  birds  most  of  the  time  are  injurious.  Certain  species  may  be 
beneficial  in  one  region  and  harmful  in  others,  or  perform  useful 
services  at  one  season  and  be  injurious  at  another.  Instead,  there- 
fore, of  being  simple,  as  at  first  sight  they  may  appear,  the  relations 
of  birds  to  man  are  complex. 

INSECTIVOROUS   BIRDS  AND  THEIR  FOOD   HABITS. 

Hawks  and  Oivls. — The  strong  beaks  and  sharp  talons  of  the 
hawks  and  owls  at  first  sight  might  be  thought  designed  for  more 
serious  work  than  the  destruction  of  insects,  and  yet  many  of  the 
birds  of  prey  make  insects  an  important  part  of  their  food.  The 
little  sparrow  hawk  lives  largely  upon  grasshoppers  and  crickets,  and 
some,  even  of  the  larger  species,  as  the  Swainson  hawk  of  the  West- 
em  States,  in  summer  time  live  almost  exclusively  upon  them.  It  is 
very  fortunate  that  so  many  birds — the  hawks  among  thorn — are 
fond  of  grasshoppers,  since  these  insects  multiply  so  fast  and  are  so 
very  destructive  to  vegetation  that  but  for  the  check  on  their  in- 
crease by  birds  the  cost  to  the  farmer  of  fighting  them  would  be 
much  greater  than  it  is. 

Important  as  is  the  work  of  some  of  the  hawks  in  destroying 
noxious  insects,  this  is  by  no  means  the  chief  service  the  group  ren- 


632  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

ders  man.  Within  our  boundaries  are  some  50  species  of  hawks  and 
35  species  of  owls.  With  the  exception  of  perhaps  half  a  dozen 
hawks,  which  subsist  mainly  upon  birds,  and  the  great  horned  owl, 
hawks  and  owls  are  to  be  classed  as  beneficial.  It  is  not  to  be  denied 
that  occasionally  the  larger  species  carry  off  a  chicken  and  kill  some 
game,  but  such  acts  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  Mice  and 
other  small  rodents  constitute  the  chief  food  of  such  of  the  species 
as  are  not  largely  insectivorous,  and  it  is  by  the  destruction  of  these 
pests  of  the  farmer  that  hawks  and  owls  earn  protection. 

Of  late  years  the  acreage  under  cultivation  in  the  United  States 
has  increased  rapidly  and  the  value  of  the  crops  raised  has  augmented 
by  leaps  and  bounds.  With  increased  acreage  under  cultivation  the 
number  of  rodents  has  multiplied  correspondingly,  because  of  the 
abundance  of  nutritious  food  and  also  because  their  natural  foes  have 
been  destroyed  by  man.  The  services  of  hawks  and  owls  were  never 
so  much  needed  as  now,  and  these  faithful  helpers  of  man  are  likely 
to  be  needed  still  more  in  the  future;  yet  thousands  of  hawks  and 
owls  are  yearly  slaughtered  because  the  part  they  play  in  nature's 
scheme  is  misunderstood  or  ignored.  Unquestionably  individual 
hawks  that  have  learned  the  way  to  the  poultry  yard  should  be  sum- 
marily dealt  with,  but  because  occasional  individuals  of  two  or  three 
species  destroy  chickens  it  is  manifestly  unfair  to  take  vengeance  on 
the  whole  tribe.  The  very  name  "hen  hawk"  is  a  misnomer  so  far  as 
the  birds  to  which  it  is  chiefly  applied  are  concerned.  Moreover,  it  is 
made  the  excuse  by  the  farmer's  boy  and  the  sportsman  for  killing 
every  hawk,  large  and  small,  that  flies.  Thousands  of  these  useful 
birds  are  killed  annually  by  the  thoughtless  for  no  better  reason  than 
that,  when  sitting  motionless,  they  offer  an  easy  target  for  the  small- 
bore rifle,  or,  flying,  present  a  tempting  mark  for  the  shotgun.  So 
far  has  popular  misapprehension  in  regard  to  these  birds  gone  that 
again  and  again  States  and  counties  have  offered  bounties  for  their 
heads,  thus  depleting  treasuries,  and  inviting  heavy  losses  to  the 
farmer  through  the  increased  numbers  of  insects  and  rodents,  which 
it  is  the  function  of  these  birds  to  hold  in  check. 

Wood  Warblers. — America  is  peculiarly  fortunate  in  possessing 
this  beautiful  group,  in  some  respects  unlike  the  birds  of  any  other 
land,  and  excelled  by  none  in  grace  of  form,  sprightly  motions,  and 
beauty  of  plumage.  The  family  is  large  and  numbers  of  the  species 
included  in  it  visit  every  part  of  our  domain  at  some  season  or  other. 
While  some  live  on  or  near  the  ground  and  share  with  the  thrushes 
the  task  of  hunting  for  ground-frequenting  insects,  the  great  ma- 
jority haunt  the  trees  and  shrubbery,  and  spend  their  time  gleaning 
an  insect  harvest  from  foliage  and  twigs.  Eggs,  larvae,  and  adult 
insects  alike  are  welcome,  and  when  flying  insects  are  dislodged  from 
their  hiding  places  the  warblers  successfully  essay  the  role  of  fly- 
catchers and  snap  them  up  on  the  wing.  No  insects  are  too  minute 
to  escape  their  prying  eyes,  and  they  are  particularly  successful  in 
discovering  and  devouring  plant  lice,  immense  numbers  of  which 
infest  our  fruit  and  shade  trees.    Finally,  it  may  be  said  of  the  war- 


OTHER  ANIMALS  633 

biers  that  they  are  truly  insectivorous,  as  they  eat  very  little  vege- 
table food,  and  the  little  they  do  eat  has  no  special  economic  value. 

Thrushes. — The  thrushes  and  their  near  allies,  the  bluebirds, 
are  two  groups  of  insectivorous  birds,  all  the  members  of  which  are 
fond  of  fruit.  All  sorts  of  wild  berries  are  highly  esteemed  by  them, 
and  no  one  will  deny  that  they  are  quite  within  their  rights  in  appro- 
priating them.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  most  prominent  mem- 
ber of  the  group — and  in  some  respects  the  most  highly  esteemed — 
has  developed  an  uncontrollable  appetite  for  cherries,  strawberries, 
and  other  cultivated  fruits  which  often  renders  him  a  nuisance  to  the 
grower  of  small  fruits.  The  fruit  grower  can  hardly  be  expected  to 
accept  the  confiding  habits  and  the  sweet  song  of  the  robin  as  full 
payment  for  a  crop  of  cherries  upon  which  depends  a  considerable 
part  of  his  own  livelihood  and  that  of  his  family.  In  connection 
with  the  depredations  of  the  robin,  it  is  confidently  believed  that 
mulberry,  wild  cherry,  and  other  fruit-bearing  trees  of  little  or  no 
commercial  value  can  be  planted  near  orchard  so  as  to  protect  the 
valuable  cherry  crop  and  so  save  the  robin  from  the  orchardist's  just 
resentment. 

The  smaller  members  of  the  thrush  family,  the  wood  thrush, 
hermit  thrush,  and  others,  are  highly  insectivorous,  and  are  to  be 
credited  with  nothing  but  good.  Moreover  their  melody  raises  them 
to  the  highest  rank  among  American  songsters. 

Titmice. — The  titmice,  like  the  warblers,  are  tree  frequenters, 
and  the  insects  they  pursue  are  of  the  same  general  character  as 
those  eaten  by  their  more  nervous  and  sprightly  cousins.  Instead  of 
hurrying  from  tree  to  tree,  and  from  one  branch  to  another  like  the 
warblers,  the  titmice  conduct  a  comparatively  slow  and  painstaking 
search  and  go  over  their  sylvan  hunting  grounds  much  more  care- 
fully. Another  and  a  far  more  important  fact  to  their  credit  is  that, 
like  the  nuthatches,  they  are  practically  non-migratory,  and  instead 
of  scurrying  off  to  the  sunny  Tropics  on  the  first  hint  of  cold 
weather,  as  do  most  of  the  warblers,  they  usually  winter  where  they 
summer.  Thus  the  farmer  enjoys  the  benefit  of  their  services  the 
year  round,  and  hence  has  twice  the  incentive  to  protect  them  that  he 
has  in  the  case  of  the  migratory  species. 

Swallows. — The  swallows  are  among  the  most  insectivorous  of 
birds,  and  it  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the  extent  of  their  services  to 
agriculture.  They  are  flycatchers  pre-eminently,  and  Nature  has  been 
at  the  utmost  pains  to  qualify  them  for  the  delicate  task  she  has  set 
for  them — the  capture  of  small  insects  moving  with  rapid  and  uncer- 
tain flight  through  the  air.  Endowed  with  the  power  of  swift  and 
enduring  flight,  swallows  cleave  the  air  without  apparent  effort, 
turning  this  way  and  that,  now  falling,  now  rising,  following  the 
movements  of  their  prey.  The  list  of  species  is  not  lengthy,  six  only 
in  the  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  but  one  more  west  of  that 
river,  but  not  one  of  the  number  could  be  spared  without  loss  to  the 
farmer.  Valuable  at  all  times  and  at  all  places  favored  by  their 
prasence,  swallows  have  a  peculiar  value  to  the  southern  cotton 
planter,  for  they  prey  upon  the  cotton  boll  weevil  as  it  flies  over  the 


634  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

fields  on  its  errand  of  destruction.  The  more  that  swallows  can  be  in- 
duced to  nest  in  the  cotton  States,  and  the  more  they  can  be  increased 
in  the  North,  so  as  to  add  to  the  number  that  migrate  through  the 
South,  the  better  will  it  be  for  the  cotton  planter,  and  incidentally  for 
the  whole  country.  Especially  important  is  it  that  swallows  be  pro- 
tected from  the  assaults  of  the  English  sparrow,  which  covets  their 
nesting  sites.  Not  only  do  these  pests  drive  away  swallows  from  their 
nests,  but  they  even  throw  out  their  eggs  and  kill  the  helpless  young. 

VEGETARIAN  BIRDS  AND  THEIR  FOOD   HABITS. 

It  is  not  possible  strictly  to  divide  small  birds  by  their  diet  into 
vegetarian  ana  insectivorous  kinds,  for  while  many  birds  live  largely 
upon  vegetable  substances — some  almost  exclusively — there  are  very 
few  that  do  not,  at  least  occasionally,  eat  insects  (all  of  them  feed 
their  young  upon  insects)  ;  and,  it  may  be  added,  there  are  not  many 
insect-eating  birds  that  do  not,  at  least  occasionally,  vary  their  diet 
by  berries  or  other  vegetable  substances.  Pigeons  perhaps  are  more 
exclusively  vegetarian  than  other  birds,  the  common  turtle  dove,  for 
instance,  apparently  never  eating  insects  except  when  they  happen  to 
be  contained  in  seeds  or  other  vegetable  food  in  the  form  of  eggs  or 
larvae.  For  present  purposes,  however,  those  birds  may  be  considered 
vegetarian  which  live  chiefly  and  most  of  the  year  upon  vegetable 
food. 

It  is  among  this  group  naturally  that  we  look  for  enemies  of  the 
farmer,  for  cultivated  grains  and  fruits  are  often  so  much  more  ac- 
cessible than  the  wild  varieties  that  it  would  be  strange  indeed  if 
birds  had  not  discovered  their  good  qualities  and  promptly  availed 
themselves  of  their  opportunities. 

The  Mourning  Dove. — The  mourning  dove  is  found  throughout 
the  United  States,  though  not  abundantly  in  New  England.  The 
food  of  the  dove  consists  largely  of  the  seeds  of  weeds  together  with 
that  of  some  grain.  The  principal  and  almost  constant  diet  is  that 
of  the  seeds  of  weeds,  which  are  eaten  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The 
dove  does  not  eat  insect  or  animal  food  so  far  as  is  known. 

The  Cuckoo. — There  are  two  quite  dis);inct  species  in  the  United 
States,  yet  they  differ  greatly  in  food  habits.  Their  food  consists  al- 
most wholly  of  insects,  quite  largely  in  the  larval  form.  From  the 
examination  of  a  large  number  of  stomachs  of  these  birds  practically 
no  beneficial  insects  have  been  found.  It  is  therefore  safe  to  say  that 
these  birds  are  beneficial  to  agriculture  in  its  various  branches. 

The  Woodpecker. — Practically  without  exception  the  food  of 
woodpeckers  consists  of  injurious  insects.  They  feed  largely  on 
'wx)od-boring  larvae,  and  on  this  account  become  great  friends  of  the 
orchardists  and  nurserymen.  An  examination  of  many  stomachs  of 
woodpeckers  showed  that  the  contents  consisted  almost  wholly  of 
noxious  insects.  Some  of  the  large  woodpeckers,  like  the  flicker  and 
redheaded  woodpecker,  sometimes  feed  on  grasshoppers  and  crickets. 

The  Nighthawk. — ^The  nighthawk,  or  bull-bat,  is  wholly  an  in- 
sect-eating bird;  their  food,  which  consists  of  insects  taken  on  the 
wing,  consists  largely  of  flying  ants,  grasshoppers,  chinch  bugs,  va- 


OTHER  ANIMALS  635 

rious  kindd  of  moths,  mosquitoes,  etc.  From  the  food  habits  of  the 
iiighthawk  it  is  evident  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  useful  birds. 

The  Kingbird. — The  kingbird  is  essentially  a  lover  of  the  or- 
chard. Its  antipathy  for  hawks  and  crows  is  well  known,  and  for 
this  reason  it  often  becomes  a  protector  of  the  poultry  yard.  Song 
birds  that  nest  near  the  kingbird  are  protected  in  a  similar  manner. 
The  food  habits  of  this  bird  are  largely  insectivorous;  it  is  a  true  fly- 
catcher and  takes  a  large  part  of  its  food  on  the  wing.  The  chief 
complaint  against  this  bird  is  that  it  preys  upon  honey-bees,  although 
the  examination  of  many  stomachs  of  these  birds  did  not  show  that 
honey-bees  made  up  any  considerable  part  of  its  diet.  About  90  per 
cent  of  the  food  consists  of  injurious  species  of  insects. 

The  Phcebe. — This  bird  subsists  almost  exclusively  upon  in- 
sects, most  of  which  are  caught  upon  the  wing.  In  their  season  grass- 
hoppers are  eaten  to  a  considerable  extent,  while  wasps  of  various 
species,  many  species  of  flies  that  annoy  cattle  are  eaten  regularly. 
There  is  hardly  a  more  useful  species  about  the  farm  than  the  phoebe. 
It  should  receive  every  encouragement. 

The  Crow. — There  are  few  birds  so  well  known  as  the  common 
crow.  Unlike  most  other  species  it  does  not  seem  to  decrease  in 
number  as  the  country  becomes  more  densely  populated.  The  crow 
is  commonly  regarded  as  a  thief.  It  is  well  known  that  he  pulls  up 
sprouting  corn,  destroys  chickens,  robs  nests  of  small  birds  and  also 
feeds  on  frogs,  toads  and  some  smaJl  snakes  that  do  good  by  eating 
insects.  Notwithstanding  all  of  these  charges  against  this  bird,  the 
examination  of  a  large  number  of  stomachs  shows  that  the  insects 
which  he  consumes  makes  amends  for  the  injury  which  he  does.  The 
insect  diet  of  this  bird  is  nearly  all  of  a  noxious  character.  The  crow 
is  no  exception  to  the  rule  that  most  birds  subsist  to  a  large  extent 
upon  grasshoppers  in  the  month  of  August.  Crows  eat  fruit  to  some 
extent,  but  the  damage  which  they  do  to  cultivated  fruits  is  not  se- 
rious. In  the  more  thickly  settled  parts  of  the  country  the  crow 
probably  does  more  good  than  harm.  In  some  States  this  bird  is  pro- 
tected by  law. 

The  Meadowlark. — The  meadowlark  is  a  common  and  well 
known  bird,  occurring  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  the  Great  Plains. 
While  it  is  a  bird  of  the  plains,  yet  it  is  found  in  considerable  num- 
bers in  the  meadow  and  mowing  lands  of  the  Eastern  States.  As 
this  is  distinctly  a  ground  bird,  its  food  consists  largely  of  insects. 
Grasshoppers,  beetles  and  various  kinds  of  caterpillars  make  up  a 
large  part  of  this  food.  The  dreaded  cut-worm  is  readily  eaten  by 
this  bird.  Briefly  stated,  it  may  be  said  that  more  than  half  of  the 
meadowlark's  food  consists  of  harmful  insects.  Its  vegetable  food 
consists  almost  wholly  of  noxious  weeds  or  waste  grain. 

The  Catbird. — The  catbird  is  a  lover  of  thick  foliage  and  usually 
makes  its  home  in  some  tangle  of  bushes,  vines  or  trees.  It  is  found 
throughout  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountain.s.  A  large 
part  of  tlie  food  of  these  birds  consists  of  insects.  Ants,  beetles,  cater- 
pillars and  grasshoppers  constitute  a  considerable  part  of  this  diet. 
Although  the  catbird  sometimes  does  considerable  harm  by  destroy- 


636  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

ing  fruit,  it  is  not  considered  injurious,  but  on  the  contrary  in  most 
parts  of  the  country  does  far  more  good  than  harm. 

The  Robin. — The  robin  is  found  throughout  the  United  States, 
although  the  robin  of  the  far  West  is  sHghtly  different  from  that  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley  and  farther  East.  The  food  habits  of  the 
robin  sometimes  causes  apprehension  to  the  fruit  grower,  for  it  is 
fond  of  cherries  and  other  small  fruits.  A  large  part  of  the  food  of 
this  bird  consists  of  animal  matter,  principally  insects.  Grass- 
hoppers, caterpillars,  snails  and  earthworms  form  a  considerable  part 
of  its  diet.  Without  doubt  the  robin  is  a  valuable  friend  of  the  agri- 
culturists, although  he  sometimes  makes  annoying  inroads  on  some 
choice  fruits. —  (Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  54.) 

Blackbirds. — Blackbirds  also,  of  which  there  are  several  species, 
at  times  and  in  certain  districts  destroy  grain.  On  the  other  hand, 
blackbirds  consume  insects  in  a  wholesale  way,  and  so  incline  the 
balance  strongly  in  their  favor. 

Orioles. — Orioles  eat  insects  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  vege- 
table food  and  are  noted  for  their  fondness  for  caterpillars.  That 
the  good  done  by  orioles  far  outweighs  the  harm  can  not  be  doubted, 
especially  since  it  has  been  ascertained  that  in  the  cotton  fields  orioles 
are  persistent  and  successful  enemies  of  the  cotton  boll  weevil,  and 
eagerly  search  the  bolls  for  them,  thus  invading  the  very  heart  of 
the  enemy's  citadel. 

Bobolink. — The  bobolink,  though  in  summer  a  deserved  favor- 
ite at  the  North  and  there  chiefly  insectivorous,  in  autumn  is  respon- 
sible for  damages  to  the  southern  rice  patches  that  annually  aggre- 
gate many  thousands  of  dollars.  The  bobolink  is  thus  almost  in  a 
class  by  itself,  earning  deserved  protection  in  summer  at  the  North 
by  reason  of  its  beautiful  song  and  its  insect-eating  habits,  while  in- 
curring the  severest  penalties  at  the  South  in  the  fall  for  serious 
depredations  on  the  rice  crop.  No  fair-minded  critic  can  condemn 
the  southern  planter  who  protects  his  own  by  means  of  powder  and 
shot.  The  extermination  of  the  bobolink  is  not  possible  nor  is  it 
desirable,  at  least  from  the  standpoint  of  those  who  cherish  the  bird 
in  its  northern  home,  but  a  material  reduction  of  its  numbers  would 
probably  effect  a  cure  and  satisfy  the  rice  planters  by  making  the 
bird  practically  harmless. 

Blue  Jay. — The  blue  jay  is  another  of  our  pronounced  vege- 
tarians whose  fare,  taking  the  whole  year  round,  is  largely  composed 
of  insects ;  and  were  judgment  to  be  pronounced  merely  as  between 
the  good  it  does  by  destroying  insects  and  the  harm  it  inflicts  by  eat- 
ing corn  and  fruit,  the  verdict  would  be  in  favor  of  the  bird.  A 
fact,  however,  recently  brought  to  light  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
blue  jay  is  essaying  a  new  role.  As  is  well  known,  the  brown-tail 
moth  was  introduced  in  this  country  a  few  years  ago,  and  in  the  New 
England  States  has  already  inflicted  serious  injury.  It  will  be  for- 
tunate for  tlie  country  at  large  if  the  ravages  of  the  insect  can  be 
limited  to  the  States  already  infested.  Contrary  to  the  habits  of  our 
native  moths  the  eggs  of  this  foreign  intruder  hatch  in  the  fall,  and 
the  young  safely  winter  in  their  nests  in  the  trees,  to  issue  in  the 


OTHER  ANIMALS  637 

spring  and  begin  their  devastations  on  the  opening  foliage.  Recent- 
ly it  has  been  learned  that  hundreds  and  thousands  of  these  nests  are 
torn  open  in  mnter  and  the  young  eaten,  and  the  blue  jay  has  ac- 
tually been  seen  doing  this.  The  blue  jay  will  earn  the  title  of  bene- 
factor indeed  should  he  be  able  to  contribute  materially  toward  a 
reduction  of  this  pest,  which  not  only  threatens  destruction  alike  to 
village  shade  trees  and  country  forest,  but  seriously  afflicts  humanity 
by  poisoning  the  flesh  with  its  barbed  hairs,  which  are  scattered 
broadcast  by  the  wind. 

Grouse  and  Quail. — Grouse  and  quail  are  largely  vegetarian, 
though  the  several  species  have  enviable  records  as  successful  hunters 
of  insects.  The  habit  of  eating  the  buds  of  fruit  trees  in  spring  is 
sometimes  cited  against  our  ruffed  grouse  as  a  serious  fault,  out 
usually  trees  are  not  harmed  by  the  process. 

The  value  of  all  the  members  of  the  grouse  family,  as  of  water- 
fowl and  waders,  for  food  is  great  and  is  constantly  increasing  as  the 
birds  diminish  in  numbers.  Quail  have  always  been  favorite  objects 
of  pursuit  by  sportsmen,  and  by  preserving  the  quail  on  a  large  farm, 
or  on  a  number  of  adjoining  farms,  and  asking  a  fair  fee  from  sports- 
men for  the  privilege  of  shooting,  a  considerable  revenue  may  be 
derived,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  game  on  a  large  tract  of,  say, 
several  hundred  acres  may  be  made  to  yield  a  revenue  as  large  as  that 
from  a  good-sized  poultry  yard,  or  even  larger.  However,  perhaps 
the  most  valuable  service  to  the  farmer  rendered  by  bobwhite  is  the 
destruction  of  the  seeds  of  weeds,  although  the  total  number  of  in- 
sects eaten  in  a  year  by  a  covey  on  the  larm  is  enormous,  and  it  is 
questionable  if  the  value  of  game  birds  to  the  farmer,  especially  the 
quail,  as  weed  and  insect  destroyers  be  not  greater  than  their  value  as 
a  source  of  revenue  from  sportsmen  or  as  food.  It  is  pretty  safe  to 
assert  that,  except  where  grouse  and  quail  are  so  numerous  that  a  cer- 
tain percentage  of  the  increase  can  be  spared,  the  farmer  can  not  af- 
ford to  sacrifice  them  to  sport  or  to  the  market. 

Sparrow  Family. — The  finch,  or  sparrow,  family  is  very  im- 
portant to  the  agriculturist.  The  group  is  large,  and  in  North  Amer- 
ica comprises  more  than  a  seventh  of  all  the  birds.  Most  of  them  are 
small  and  plainly  colored;  some  are  gregarious,  and  most  are  mi- 
gratory, leaving  the  United  States  in  winter.  Their  chief  value  to 
the  farmer  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  them  are  indefatigable 
in  their  search  for  seeds  of  weeds,  which  indeed  constitute  a  large 
part  of  their  fare  the  year  round.  Practically  all  of  the  food  of  at 
least  one  of  them — the  tree  sparrow — consists  of  seed.  If  we  es- 
timate that  a  single  tree  sparrow  eats  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  weed 
seed  daily — and  stomach  examinations  by  Professor  Beal  show  that 
this  is  a  fair  estimate — this  species  in  a  State  the  size  of  Iowa  con- 
sumes more  than  800  tons  of  seed  annually.  And  there  are  many 
other  sparrows  whose  appetite  for  weed  seed  falls  little  short  of  that  of 
the  tree  sparrow. 

As  every  farmer  knows,  the  cost  of  farming  is  largely  aug- 
mented by  the  expense  of  fighting  weeds,  the  seeds  of  many  of  which, 
especially  of  certain  noxious  kinds,  are  very  numerous  and  are  ca- 


638  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

pable  of  germinating  after  being  long  buried  in  the  soil.  As  weeds 
have  been  estimated  annually  to  damage  crop  land  on  the  average 
about  a  dollar  per  acre,  and  as  the  lands  under  crop  in  the  United 
States  in  1899  were  290,000,000  acres,  the  good  work  accomplished 
by  the  sparrows  is  of  very  great  value  to  the  farmer.  "Without  their 
aid  the  cost  of  fighting  weeds  would  be  vastly  increased,  and  no 
doubt  in  places  profitable  agriculture  would  be  almost  impossible. 

Some  of  the  sparrow  tribe,  as  the  purple  finch  and  grosbeak,  are 
fond  of  buds,  and  in  spring  may  be  frequently  seen  in  apple,  cherry, 
peach,  and  other  trees,  greedily  eating  the  buds  or  the  stamens  of  the 
blossoms.  No  doubt  a  certain  percentage  of  fruit  is  lost  through  the 
agency  of  these  birds,  but  budding  by  birds  in  itself,  if  not  carried 
too  far,  is  by  no  means  objectionable ;  and  neither  of  the  birds  men- 
tioned, nor  any  native  bird  that  shares  the  habit,  is  numerous 
enough  (except  in  California)  or  sufficiently  confirmed  in  the  habit 
to  seriously  reduce  the  fruit  crop.  Indeed  budding  by  hand  to  pre- 
vent overbearing  and  to  improve  the  size  and  quality  of  fruit  is  a 
common  practice,  and  it  is  probable  that,  as  stated  above,  in  most 
cases  no  actual  loss  of  profit  follows  budding  by  our  native  birds. 
Whether  so  or  not,  the  purple  finch  destroys  many  insects,  cater- 
pillars among  them,  and  hence  earns  favor  in  the  eyes  of  the  farmer; 
while  a  still  stronger  case  may  be  made  out  for  the  rose-breasted 
grosbeak,  which  is  a  most  determined  foe  of  the  Colorado  beetle,  and 
probably  destroys  more  of  these  dreaded  insects  than  does  any  other 
bird — possibly  than  do  all  other  birds  combined.  The  insects  eaten 
by  the  old  birds,  however,  are  but  a  tithe  of  the  number  they  feed  to 
their  young,  for  nestlings  thrive  best  and  grow  faster  on  a  diet  com- 
posed almost  exclusively  of  insects. 

Until  the  English  sparrow  was  introduced  it  would  have  been 
safe  to  say  that  all  the  sparrows  were  friends  of  the  farmer  and  de- 
served protection  at  his  hands.  Unlike  our  native  species,  however, 
this  bird  has  bad  habits  far  outweighing  any  possible  good  that  it 
does,  even  if  the  most  liberal  estimate  be  made  of  the  comparatively 
small  number  of  insects  that  it  destroys  or  the  weed  seed  it  eats.  It  is 
a  conspicuous  member  of  the  seed-eating  group,  as  its  structure  abun- 
dantly proves,  and  this  well-known  fact  should  have  prevented  its 
introduction  into  the  United  States  to  perform  the  service  of  an  insect 
eater.  By  preference  the  hird  is  a  scavenger  of  the  city  streets.  Out- 
side the  city  the  bird's  fondness  for  seeds  does  not  stop  with  weed  seed. 
The  smaller  grains  are  liable  to  attack  at  all  stages  of  groAvth,  from 
sowing  time  to  harvest,  and  the  total  damage  to  the  grain  crop  of  the 
country  inflicted  by  this  pest  at  the  present  time  amounts  to  many 
thousands  of  dollars  annually. 

This  sparrow,  like  some  of  our  native  spedes,  is  fond^of  the  buds 
of  fruit  trees.  Where  it  exists  in  small  numbers  the  injury  it  does 
in  this  way,  like  that  of  our  own  sparrows,  is  too  small  to  count  much 
against  it ;  but  the  bird  is  very  prolific  and  in  many  suburban  towns 
its  colonies  are  so  large  that  the  resulting  damage  it  inflicts  upon 
fruit  trees  in  spring  is  very  great.    It  is  fond  also  of  all  the  small 


OTHER  ANIMALS  639 

fruits,  and  in  some  regions  the  damage  to  fruit  as  the  resuit  of  ita 
attacks  is  considerable. 

There  is  yet  another  field  for  the  exercise  of  this  pest's  pernicious 
activity.  Its  aggressive  and  meddlesome  disposition  and  its  habit  of 
acting  in  concert  enables  it  to  overpower  and  drive  away  many  of  our 
native  birds,  which  before  its  advent  were  as  numerous  about  dwell- 
ings as  they  were  welcome. 

The  house  wren,  the  bluebird,  the  phoebe,  and  certain  swallowa 
are  the  chief  sufferers  from  the  aggressive  warfare  waged  by  the 
sparrow.  Even  that  excellent  fighter,  the  purple  martin,  is  unable  to 
long  resist  the  persistent  attacks  of  a  united  colony  of  sparrows,  since, 
when  unable  to  overcome  the  martin  in  open  warfare,  the  sparrows 
enter  the  nests  during  the  absence  of  the  owners,  kill  the  helplesa 
young,  and  pitch  out  the  eggs.  The  result  is  that  not  only  are  the 
above-named  species  and  other  small  birds  driven  away  from  the 
localities  they  used  to  inhabit,  but  their  numbers  have  steadily  dimin- 
ished and  must  continue  to  do  so  because  of  their  inability  to  find 
other  suitable  breeding  places.  Thus  the  sparrow  has  usurped  the 
places  about  our  homes  by  right  belonging  to  our  own  birds,  and  ita 
increase  has  been  at  the  expense  of  native  American  species,  with  the 
result  that  a  number  of  highly  important  useful  species  have  been  re- 
placed over  large  areas  by  a  single  destructive  one.  Not  only  should 
all  aid  and  comfort  bo  withheld  from  this  foreign  invader,  but  a  con- 
certed effort  should  be  made  to  reduce  its  numbers  and  to  exter- 
minate it  wherever  and  whenever  possible. 

Cranes  and  Herons. — Some  of  our  birds  are  neither  insect  eaters 
nor  vegetable  eaters.  Some  of  the  hawks,  and  owls,  as  is  well  known, 
live  chiefly  upon  flesh,  while  the  cranes,  herons,  storks,  and  king- 
fishers live  largely  upon  fish,  crustaceans,  and  frogs.  By  eating  small 
fish  which  are  the  fry  of  valuable  kinds  or  serve  as  their  food,  these 
birds  do  more  or  less  harm,  as  the  fish  breeder,  whose  ponds  are  in- 
vaded, knows  well  enough.  So  also  their  habit  of  eating  frogs  is  in- 
jurious. 

But  while  thus  injurious  to  some  extent  in  certain  localities 
where  their  pernicious  activity  may  necessitate  reprisals,  cranes  and 
herons  do  good  service  in  the  destruction  of  small  rodents,  especially 
meadow  mice  and  pocket  gophers.  As  in  other  cases  the  relation  of 
these  birds  to  the  community  varies  according  to  circumstances,  and 
they  are  to  be  dealt  with  accordingly,  bearing  in  mind,  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  good  to  the  community  as  a  whole  and  not  solely  individucil 
interests. 

IMPORTANCE   OF   BIRDS   AS   DESTROYERS  OP   INSECTS. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  benefits  the  farmer 
derives  from  birds  far  outweigh  the  occasional  damage  they  do.  Not- 
withstanding this,  the  public,  as  a  rule,  is  much  more  alive  to  the 
depredations  of  birds  than  to  the  bencfit^<  that  axxrue  from  them. 
Nor  is  this  surprising,  since  tlie  disastrous  effects  of  a  raid  on  sprout- 
ing corn  by  crows,  or  upon  ripening  cherries  by  robins  and  cedar 
birds,  are  too  apparent  to  be  overlooked,  and  the  resulting  loss  can  be 
estimated  in  dollars  and  cents.    Not  so  the  benefits.     Occasionally, 


640  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

it  is  true,  the  effects  of  a  combined  attack  of  birds  upon  caterpillars, 
cankerworms,  or  other  insects  which  are  present  in  unusual  numbers 
or  have  played  havoc  with  the  foliage,  are  too  evident  wholly  to  es- 
cape attention;  but  more  often  birds  work  unnoticed,  and  the  good 
they  do  is  not  at  once  obvious  to  the  busy  farmer.  There  are  few 
visible  tokens  of  the  process  by  which  the  crop  of  hay  or  green  feed 
has  been  saved  from  the  cutworms  by  crows,  or  the  potato  crop  res- 
cued from  the  Colorado  beetle  by  the  grosbeaks.  The  birds  have 
done  their  work  quietly  but  none  the  less  effectively.  They  have 
saved,  or  greatly  assisted  in  saving,  the  farmer's  crop,  and  nobody  is 
the  wiser,  save  the  few  who  make  it  the  business  of  their  lives  to  study 
the  habits  of  birds. 

The  time  has  long  passed  when  the  practical  farmer  can  afford 
to  ignore  the  relation  of  birds  to  agriculture.  Larger  and  larger  areas 
are  being  devoted  to  tillage  every  year,  and  the  amount  of  capital  in- 
vested in  agricultural  pursuits  in  the  United  States  is  constantly  in- 
creasing. Irrigation,  until  recently  almost  unpracticed  in  the  United 
States,  is  fast  assuming  national  importance.  The  whole  world  is 
being  laid  under  contribution  for  new  fruits,  forage  plants,  and 
crops  for  the  benefit  of  the  American  farmer,  in  order  that  by  his 
superior  energy  and  foresight  he  may  not  only  feed  our  own  people 
but  create  a  surplus  of  American  products  for  consumption  in  less 
favored  lands. 

Along  with  these  new  introductions  and  as  a  necessary  result  of 
international  commerce,  new  pests  have  been  introduced.  Here,  un- 
der a  favorable  climate  and  new  conditions,  they  multiply  till  they 
inflict  great  damage.  The  Hessian  fly,  San  Jose  scale,  and  codling 
moth  are  examples  in  point. 

Such  pests  usually  go  unnoticed  until  the  damage  they  do  forces 
them  on  the  attention  of  a  community,  when  usually  they  are  so 
numerous  and  widespread  that  their  extermination  is  impossible. 
Once  introduced  into  the  country  they  are  here  to  stay,  and  the  vast 
sums  already  spent  in  efforts  to  stay  the  ravages  of  such  pests  em- 
phasize the  importance  of  utilizing  to  the  utmost  all  the  allies  nature 
places  at  our  disposal. 

As  a  means  of  checking  these  introduced  insect  pests,  as  well  as 
native  ones,  birds  are  of  vast  importance.  Yet  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that,  when  once  the  productive  powers  of  insects  have  had  full 
play  and  an  invasion  occurs,  the  farmer  can  not  suddenly  augment 
the  number  of  birds  and  summon  the  winged  hosts  to  his  aid.  Birds 
reproduce  but  slowly,  and  in  the  natural  course  of  events  often  suffer 
immense  losses  during  their  migrations,  by  climatic  extremes  and 
through  the  assaults  of  birds  of  prey  and  predaceous  mammals. 
Hence  a  marked  increase  in  the  number  of  birds,  either  as  a  class 
or  in  the  case  of  a  given  species,  must  come  slowly  and  as  a  result  of 
favoring  conditions  extending  over  a  term  of  years.  Moreover,  as 
stated  above,  birds  alone  are  inadequate  to  cope  with  sudden  insect 
irruptions.  It  is  their  province  rather  by  incessant  watchfulness  and 
constant  warfare  to  prevent  over-production  of  insect  life  rather  than 
to  reduce  excess,  although  in  the  latter  regard  their  aid  is  important. 


OTHER  ANIMALS  641 

It  is  the  part  of  prudence,  therefore,  to  protect  useful  birds  at  all 
times,  and  so  to  augment  their  numbers  that  they  may  constantly 
play  their  respective  parts  in  the  police  system  ordained  by  nature 
and  be  read}^  when  emergency  arises,  to  wage  active  and  aggressive 
warfare  against  sudden  invasions  of  insect  enemies. 

PROTECTION  OF  BIRDS  FROM  MAN. 

Most  of  our  States  have  laws  which,  if  fully  enforced,  would  go 
far  to  secure  adequate  protection  for  birds.  The  wholesale  destruc- 
tion of  our  songsters  and  insectivoroiis  birds  for  millinery  purposes 
has  been  largely  stopped,  although  even  now  in  some  States  the 
statutes  are  frequently  violated  by  unprincipled  bird  hunters  for  the 
sake  of  gain.  But  laws,  w^hile  wholesome  and  necessary,  are  not  so 
effective  for  the  protection  of  birds  as  is  an  enlightened  public  senti- 
ment. In  a  country  like  our  own,  where  education  is  general,  a 
knowledge  of  the  part  birds  play  in  the  economy  of  nature  is  more 
effective  for  their  protection  than  are  any  laws,  however  well  ad- 
ministered. Instruction  of  this  kind  should  be  given  to  every  school 
child  in  the  land,  and  it  is  gratifying  to  note  that  the  importance  of 
this  practical  side  of  nature  study  is  fast  being  recognized  by  educa- 
tors. When  the  value  of  birds  is  universally  known  and  they  are 
evers^where  cherished  as  friends,  protective  laws  will  be  compara- 
tively unimportant. 

In  this  connection  brief  allusion  may  be  made  to  a  class  of  im- 
migrants to  our  shores  who  are  ignorant  both  of  our  laws  and  of  the 
need  for  enforcing  them,  and  who  look  ui)on  birds,  large  and  small, 
only  as  food.  Cheap  guns  and  ammunition  in  the  hands  of  these 
newcomers  furnish  means  for  the  indiscriminate  slaughter  of  birds 
for  the  pot,  and  public  sentiment  is  either  not  recognized  or  is  ig- 
nored. Nothing  but  strict  laws,  rigidly  and  impartially  enforced, 
can  save  our  birds  from  these  pot  hunters. 

MEANS  OF  ATTRACTING  BIRDS  TO  THE  FARM. 

There  are  many  ways  of  attracting  birds  to  the  farm  and  about 
the  farmhouse.  A  convenient  drinking  and  bathing  place  near  the 
house  is  one  of  the  most  effective  lures  for  birds  known,  as  well  as  one 
of  the  cheapest.  For  wrens,  swallows,  bluebirds,  chickadees,  and 
other  kinds,  which  build  in  cavities  of  trees,  boxes  mav  be  put  up, 
care  being  taken  to  protect  them  as  far  as  possible  from  tne  aggressive 
English  sparrow.  Above  all  should  the  farmer  pay  attention  to  the 
cats  on  his  farm.  It  is  only  recently  that  the  extent  of  the  depreda- 
tions of  the  house  cat  on  wild  life,  especially  on  birds,  has  been  recog- 
nized. Many  who  have  studied  the  matter  believe  that  taking  the 
year  round  cats  are  responsible  for  the  death  of  more  birds,  especially 
young  ones,  than  all  wild  animals  put  together.  ^  This  may  or  may 
not  prove  to  be  an  exaggeration,  but  unquestionably  cats  every- 
where, especially  on  the  farm,  destroy  vast  numbers  of  birds.  Even 
the  well-fed  and  well-hoiLsed  pet  is  responsible  for  many  valuable 
lives,  but  the  greater  number  are  destroyed  by  strays  which  mistaken 
kindness  has  turned  adrift,  when  not  wanted  in  the  hoiL'^e,  to  live  as 
best  they  may.  An  adequate  remedy  against  the  bird-catching  cat 
is  neither  easy  to  suggest  nor  to  apply,  but  at  least  the  farmer,  who 


642  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

rightfully  counts  the  birds  of  his  farm  as  his  friends,  should  be  ex- 
pected to  destroy  the  stray  cats  that  infest  the  country  in  summer, 
and,  so  far  as  possible,  to  see  to  it  that  the  natural  instincts  of  his  own 
house  pets  are  suppressed  by  ample  feeding  and  reasonable  restraint. 

MEANS  OF  PROTECTING  CROPS  FROM  BIRDS. 

There  are  various  devices  by  means  of  which  the  farmer  may 
protect  his  crops  from  the  attacks  of  birds,  reserving  the  use  of  the 
gun  as  a  last  resort  when  all  other  methods  have  failed.  Scarecrows, 
a  dead  crow  hung  on  a  pole,  a  white  cord  stretched  around  a  field,  the 
drilling  of  seed,  and  the  tarring  of  seed  corn  are  some  of  the  old  and 
approved  methods  of  preventing  losses  by  crows  and  blackbirds. 
To  be  effective,  no  one  of  these  should  be  employed  exclusively  or  too 
long  at  a  time  in  the  same  locality,  since  long  contact  with  man  has 
taught  the  crow  a  number  of  things.  Fruit  trees  when  few  in  num- 
bers may  be  protected  by  netting.  The  planting  of  wild  fruit  trees, 
or  those  possessed  of  little  commercial  value,  for  the  protection  of 
orchards  has  not  received  the  attention  in  this  country  that  it  de- 
serves. 

Even  when  such  protective  devices  fail  the  farmer  is  not  driven 
to  the  wholesale  destruction  of  birds.  For  it  is  being  more  and  more 
recognized  that  there  is  much  individuality  among  birds,  and  that 
generally  the  aggressors  in  a  certain  locality  are  a  comparatively  few 
individuals.  If  the  lives  of  a  few  destructive  hawks,  crows,  or  robins 
are  taken,  after  other  means  have  been  tried  and  failed,  it  is  often 
enough  to  protect  the  poultry  yard  or  the  crop. 

farmers'  gain  from  protecting  BIRDS. 

The  brief  survey  of  the  subject  possible  here  only  imperfectly 
sets  forth  the  nature  and  importance  of  the  service  of  birds  to  agri- 
culture. Nevertheless  it  must  appear  that  to  the  question  "Does  it 
pay  the  farmer  to  protect  birds?"  only  one  answer  is  possible.  Even 
from  the  point  of  view  of  an  investment  for  profit  the  time  and  ex- 
pense necessary  for  their  care  and  protection  are  richly  repaid.  There 
IS  the  added  consideration  that  without  the  music  and  companionship 
of  birds  the  world  would  be  the  poorer.  Anything  that  adds  to  the 
attractiveness  of  the  farm  and  increases  the  interest  of  farm  life  is 
worthy  of  cultivation,  even  if  no  actual  return  is  received  in  dollars 
and  cents.  Happily  the  farmer  who  protects  birds  secures  a  double 
return — increased  profit  from  his  crops  and  increased  pleasure  of 
living. — (Dep.  Agr.  Year  Book  1907.) 

PHEASANT  RAISING  IN  THE  STATES  AND  CANADA. 

Within  recent  years  a  new  industry,  the  raising  of  pheasants, 
has  begun  to  engage  attention  in  the  United  States,  and  propagating 
ventures,  ranging  from  the  single  pen  with  one  or  two  paii"s  of  birds 
to  the  pheasantry  of  many  acres  and  thousands  of  birds,  are  scattered 
throughout  the  country.  Some  of  these  experiments  have  been  con- 
ducted by  the  States  through  their  game  officials ;  others  by  associa- 
tions and  individuals. 

Species  of  Pheasants. — A  few  words  as  to  different  kinds  of 
pheasants  are  essential  to  a  proper  understanding  of  the  subject  of 


OTHER  ANIMALS  643 

pheasant  propagation.  The  ringneck  pheasant  (Phasiantis  torqua- 
tus),  usually  imported  from  China,  its  natural  home,  has  a  broad 
white  ring  about  the  neck.  It  is  variously  called  ringneck  pheasant, 
Chinese  pheasant,  China  pheasant,  China  torquatus  pheasant,  Chi- 
nese ringneck,  Mongolian  pheasant,  Denny  pheasant,  and  Oregon 
pheasant.  The  English  pheasant  (Phasianus  colchicus)  has  no  nng 
about  the  neck.  It  is  imported  from  Europe,  but  in  comparatively 
bmall  numbers,  and  is  known  as  the  English  pheasant,  dark-necked 
pheasant,  and  Hungarian  pheasant.  The  English  ringneck  pheasant 
(Phasianus  colchicus  X  torquatus),  a  hybrid  between  the  English 
and  ringneck  pheasants,  has  been  brought  from  Europe  in  large 
numbers.  It  is  generally  correctly  named,  but  is  sometimes  desig- 
nated as  English  pheasant,  ringneck  pheasant,  and  even  Mongolian 
pheasant.  It  often  has  more  or  less  of  the  blood  of  the  versicolor 
pheasant  of  Japan  (Phasianus  versicolor) .  In  England  both  the 
English  pheasant  and  the  English  ringneck  are  referred  to  a^  the 
common  pheasant.  The  Mongolian  pheasant  (Phasianus  Mongoli- 
cus) ,  which  has  a  more  or  less  complete  white  ring  about  the  neck, 
but  in  other  respects  resembles  the  English  pheasant  more  than  it 
does  the  ringneck,  is  the  rarest  of  the  four  kinds  in  American  pre- 
een'cs  and  aviaries.  It  is  a  native  of  the  region  about  Lake  Balkash, 
Central  Asia.  The  silver  pheasant  (Gennssus  nycthemerus)  is  often 
seen  in  parks  and  aviaries,  but  the  numerous  other  members  of  the 
genus,  usually  called  kaleeges  (or  kalijes),  are  not  often  imported 
into  this  country.  The  home  of  the  genus  is  the  Indo-Chinese  coun- 
tries and  the  lower  ranges  of  the  Himalayas.  The  eared  pheasants 
(Crossoptilon),  large,  dull-colored  birds  of  the  higher  ranges  of 
central  and  eastern  Asia,  are  known  in  American  aviaries  mainly 
through  the  Manchurian  pheasant.  Two  of  the  best  known  and  most 
commonly  imported  pheasants  are  the  golden  and  Lady  Amherst, 
both  of  the  genus  Chrysolophus,  originally  from  the  mountains 
of  eastern  Thibet  and  western  and  southern  China.  Both  are 
favorite  aviarj'-  birds,  and  the  golden  pheasant  has  been  liberated  in 
various  game  covers  in  America  and  Europe,  but  with  indifferent 
success. 

United  States. — Effort*  to  acclimatize  pheasants  in  the  United 
States  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  though  earlier  than  is 
popularly  supposed.  More  than  a  hundred  years  ago,  Richard 
Bache,  an  Englishman  who  married  the  only  daughter  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  imported  from  England  both  pheasants  and  partridges, 
which  he  liberated  on  his  estate  in  New  Jersey,  on  the  Delaware 
River  near  where  the  town  of  Beverly  now  stands.  But  although  he 
pro\aded  both  shelter  and  food  for  them,  the  birds  had  all  disap 
peared  by  the  following  spring.  A  second  attempt  was  made  early  in 
the  nineteenth  century  by  the  owner  of  a  New  Jersey  estate  situated 
between  the  Hackensack  meadoAvs  and  the  Passaic  River,  opposite 
Belle\nlle.  A  park  was  fenced  and  stocked  >vith  deer  and  English 
pheasants,  but  despite  feeding  and  careful  protection  these  birds  like- 
wise disappeared  during  the  winter.  These  initial  importations  were 
followed  by  similar  attempts  to  stock  private  preserves,  but  met  ^^-ith 


644  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

like  failure.  About  thirty  years  ago,  however,  a  successful  effort  was 
made  to  introduce  the  ringneck  pheasant  into  Oregon,  and  since  then 
acclimatization  experiments  have  followed  broader  lines  and  have 
assumed  greater  importance.  It  will  be  convenient  to  consider  these 
later  ventures  by  states. 

Pheasants  in  Fields  and  Covert. — The  failure  of  many  efforts  to 
add  pheasants  to  our  fauna  is  largely  due  to  insufficient  knowledge  of 
their  habits  and  the  character  of  their  normal  environment.  It  is 
useless  to  undertake  to  acclimatize  a  bird  in  a  region  differing  widely 
in  climatic  and  other  physical  conditions  from  those  to  which  it  has 
been  accustomed.  Thus,  an  attempt  to  introduce  into  one  of  the 
prairie  States  the  common  blood  pheasant  (Ithaginis  cruentus), 
which  inhabits  the  Himalayas  at  from  10,000  to  14,000  feet  eleva- 
tion, would  result  in  failure. 

It  must  be  remembered,  also,  that  introduced  birds  have  to  adapt 
themselves  to  a  new  flora  and  fauna,  and  that  this  is  often  a  slow 
process  and  frequently  fails.  If  liberated  in  the  wilds,  they  must  be 
provided  with  reserve  food  and  shelter  until  able  to  care  for  them- 
selves, which  may  take  several  years.  In  Oregon  the  ringnecks  put 
out  came  at  first  regularly  to  farmyards  to  feed  with  the  domestic 
fowls;  and  English  ringnecks  liberated  on  Grand  Island,  Michigan, 
were  driven  back  by  severe  weather  to  the  pens  from  which  they  had 
been  allowed  to  escape  a  few  months  before. 

If  pheasants  are  imported  for  stocking  preserves,  suitable  coverts 
should  be  prepared  for  them.  In  tlieir  native  country  pheasants 
frequent  the  margins  of  woods,  coming  into  open  tracts  in  search  of 
food  and  retreating  into  thick  undergrowth  when  alarmed.  An  ideal 
pheasant  country  is  one  containing  small  groves  with  underbrush 
and  high  grass  between  the  trees,  thorny  hedges,  berry-growing 
shrubs,  water  overgrown  with  reeds,  and  occasional  pastures,  mea- 
dows, and  cultivated  grainfields.  Bleak  mountains,  dry  sandy  wastes, 
and  thick  woods  are  not  frequented  by  pheasants  normally;  nor  do 
they  seek  pines,  except  for  protection.  A  small  grove  of  mixed  ever- 
green and  deciduous  trees  on  the  southern  slope  of  a  hill  furnishes 
favorable  shelter. 

On  the  preserve  additional  shelter  should  be  provided  in  winter. 
Rude  huts  or  even  stacks  of  straw  will  serve.  Suitable  food  should 
be  planted — such  as  buckwheat,  millet,  corn,  cabbages,  and  turnips. 
Stacks  of  unthreshed  grain  or  of  beans  may  be  placed  about  the 
preserve. 

When  shooting  is  permitted,  it  is  not  wise  to  shoot  only  the 
cocks.  If  all  the  hens  are  spared,  they  will  increase  out  of  proper 
proportion,  to  the  detriment  of  both  quantity  and  quality  of  the  prog- 
eny. Very  old  cocks  and  hens  should  be  destroyed.  Old  cocks  are 
inferior  for  breeding  purposes,  and  old  hens  will  frequently  beat  off 
2-  and  3-year-old  hens  and  prevent  their  mating. 

METHODS  OF  PROPAGATION. 

Obtaining  Stock. — A  pheasantry  may  be  started  with  mature 
birds  or  with  eggs,  the  latter  to  be  hatched  by  barnyard  fowls.  Many 
are  tempted  to  begin  with  eggs  because  of  smaller  cost,  but  the  uncer- 


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OTHER  ANIMALS  647 

tainties  attendant  on  hatching  the  eggs  and  raismg  the  young  are 
such  that  it  is  probably  cheaper  to  secure  full-grown  birds  at  the  out- 
set. If  eggs  are  to  be  tried,  thej^  should  be  ordered  in  January  or 
February,  to  be  delivered  in  April  or  May.  They  should  be  placed 
under  the  hen  as  soon  as  possible. 

Pheasants  may  be  obtained  from  reputable  dealers,  of  which 
there  are  a  score  or  more  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  or  they 
may  be  imported  from  Europe  or  Asia,  If  stock  be  imported,  trouble 
may  be  saved  by  securing  it  through  experienced  and  reliable  bird 
importers,  who  are  familiar  with  the  business.  A  pen  should  be  pro- 
vided and  supplied  with  food  and  water.  On  the  arrival  of  the  birds 
the  crate  should  be  placed  in  the  pen,  an  opening  should  be  made  in 
the  crate  (preferably  in  the  evening)  sufficient  to  allow  the  birds  to 
escape  one  at  a  time,  and  the  attendant  should  withdraw,  leaving  the 
birds  to  find  their  way  out  alone.  For  the  first  few  days  they  should 
be  disturbed  as  little  as  possible. 

Prices. — The  prices  of  pheasants  vary  with  the  season.  They 
are  lowest  at  the  close  of  the  breeding  season  and  increase  gradually 
until  the  next.  They  vary  also  according  to  the  dealer;  but  so  many 
things  are  to  be  considered,  such  as  purity  of  stock,  freedom  from 
disease,  care  in  shipment,  and  other  details,  that  the  lowest  prices  do 
not  always  mean  the  cheapest  birds.  English  ringneck  pheasants  are 
least  expensive — about  $5  a  pair.  English  pheasants  and  ringnecks 
(the  pure-blooded  birds)  cost  a  little  more;  Reeves  and  versicolor 
pheasants,  about  $18  a  pair;  and  Mongolian,  $40.  Of  the  more 
common  aviar}^  birds  golden  and  silver  pheasants  are  the  cheapest, 
at  about  $12  per  pair;  next  in  price  are  the  Lady  Amherst  and 
Reeves,  which  retail  at  about  $18  or  $20  a  pair,  while  others  range 
from  this  price  up  to  $150  or  $200  a  pair.  These  prices  are  only  ap- 
proximate, and  ser\'e  merely  to  give  an  idea  of  the  relative  values  of 
the  birds  mentioned. 

Pens. — Any  well-drained  ground  is  suitable  for  pheasant  pens, 
but  a  gentle  slope  of  sandy  loam,  comparatively  cool  in  midsummer, 
furnishes  ideal  conditions.  Clay  is  the  poorest  soil  for  the  purpose, 
as  it  is  likely  to  foster  diseases.  The  pens  should  be  provided  with 
plenty  of  both  sunshine  and  shade.  They  should  be  constructed  of 
chicken  wire,  like  ordinary  poultry  runs.  Each  pen  should  cover  at 
least  100  square  feet,  more  if  possible;  contracted  quarters  induce 
disease  and  afford  their  timid  occupants  too  little  protection  from 
alarms.  The  pen  should  be  from  6  to  8  feet  high,  and  should  be 
inclosed  above  with  wire.  If  the  pheasants  are  likely  to  be  disturbed 
much,  cord  netting  should  be  stretched  6  inches  or  more  below  the 
top  wire,  to  prevent  the  birds  from  injuring  themselves  by  flying 
violently  against  the  top,  as  they  are  apt  to  do  when  frightened. 

The  pens  and  sheds  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  There 
is  no  more  fruitful  source  of  disease  among  pheasants  than  unclean- 
liness.  As  has  been  aptly  said,  the  pheasant  pen  should  be  kept  as 
neat  and  clean  as  the  front  dooryard.  Nevertheless  chips  and  tvsnga 
may  be  scattered  about  to  attract  insects,  and  boughs  for  shelter 
should  not  be  omitted.    Each  pen  should  be  thoroughly  spaded  and 


648  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

limed  every  two  or  three  years.  Cover  should  be  provided  for  the 
birds.  The  pens  may  be  sown  with  clover,  timothy,  and  other  grass 
early  enough  to  furnish  ample  cover  by  the  time  the  birds  are  turned 
in.  Small  evergreens  may  be  grown  inside  with  decided  advantage 
or  cut  branches  of  evergreen  or  deciduous  trees  may  be  placed  within. 
If  growing  grass  or  clover  can  not  bo  conveniently  provided  in  the 
pen,  a  piece  of  sod  should  be  placed  there  occasionally.  The  birds 
enjoy  tearing  sod  to  pieces  for  the  seeds,  insects,  and  grass  it  contains. 

Food. — Pheasants  are  small  feeders,  and  there  is  greater  danger 
of  overfeeding  than  underfeeding.  Overfeeding  is  productive  of  dis- 
ease. In  order  to  guard  against  it,  the  attendant  should  at  first 
sprinkle  a  little  food  on  the  ground,  wait  for  that  to  be  eaten,  and 
then  repeat  until  the  birds  lose  their  eagerness,  when  feeding  should 
be  discontinued.  The  proper  quantity  of  food  for  each  pen  may 
thus  soon  be  ascertained.  Pheasants  are  omnivorous,  and  as  variety 
is  advantageous,  almost  any  edible  substance  may  be  fed — grain  of 
all  kinds,  finely  chopped  meat,  cooked  cereals,  table  scraps,  boiled 
potatoes,  boiled  rice,  apples,  turnips,  rose  hips,  the  tubers  of  Jeru- 
salem artichokes,  and  finely  chopped  green  food,  as  lettuce,  grass, 
cabbage,  onion  tops,  garlic,  and  chick  weed.  Green  food  is  important 
and  should  be  constantly  supplied,  even  if  it  must  be  raised  under 
glass.  All  green  food  must  be  chopped  fine,  as  othenvise  the  birds 
are  likely  to  become  crop  bound.  Ground  bone  is  excellent.  Seeds 
of  varioiis  weeds,  when  obtainable,  may  be  furnished;  hay  seed  also 
is  good. 

Care  in  Winter. — ^Many  species  of  pheasants  are  able  to  with- 
stand cold.  Even  when  the  mercury  is  below  zero,  they  generally 
prefer  to  roost  in  the  open  runs,  and  they  seem  to  be  little  discom- 
moded by  snow.  Nevertheless,  it  is  well  to  afford  them  some  shelter 
from  severe  storms  and  from  excessive  dampness ;  and  some  species 
normally  inhabiting  warm  regions  require  housing  in  cold  weather. 
Scrupulous  cleanliness  must  be  maintained  throughout  the  winter, 
as  at  other  seasons,  and  dust  baths  must  be  provided  at  all  times. 
It  is  necessary  to  remember  also  that  grit  or  fine  gravel  is  essential 
to  the  proper  digestion  of  food  by  pheasants.  In  winter  it  is  not 
usually  necessary  to  separate  the  cocks  from  each  other  or  from  the 
hens.— (Agr.  Dep.  F.  B.  390.) 

HONEY  BEES. 

Bee  keeping  for  pleasure  and  profit  is  carried  on  by  many 
thousands  of  people  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  As  a  rule  it 
is  not  the  sole  occupation.  There  are,  however,  many  places  where 
an  experienced  bee  keeper  can  gain  a  good  livelihood  by  devoting 
his  entire  time  and  attention  to  this  work.  Generally  it  is  unwise  to 
undertake  extensive  bee  keeping  without  considerable  previous  ex- 
perience on  a  small  scale,  since  there  are  many  minor  details  that 
should  be  thoroughly  understood  before  one  could  really  expect  to 
be  successful  in  the  work.  Bee  keeping  is  extremely  fascinating  to 
some  people  as  a  pastime,  furnishing  outdoor  exercise  as  well  as  in- 
timacy with  an  insect  whose  life  habits  have  formed  an  absorbing 
study  from  earliest  times.    It  is  only  fair,  however,  to  say  that  when 


OTHER  ANIMALS  649 

we  consider  a  new  industry  we  frequently  learn  only  of  the  bright 
side  of  the  work,  and  consequently  we  should  make  as  thorough  a 
study  as  possible  of  the  trials  and  discouragements  as  well  as  the 
pleasures  and  successes. 

Where  financial  profit  is  derived,  bee  keeping  requires  careful 
and  persistent  work.  Few  lines  of  outdoor  work  require  more  study 
to  insure  success.  In  years  when  the  available  nectar  is  limited  sur- 
plus honey  is  secured  only  by  judicious  management,  and  oftentimes 
it  is  somewhat  difficult  for  the  bee  keeper  to  so  manage  that  his  entire 
apiary  may  be  preserved.  Above  all  it  should  be  empjhasized  that 
the  only  way  to  make  bee  keeping  a  profitable  business  is  to  produce 
as  largely  as  possible  a  first  class  article.  While  the  bee  keeper  can- 
not control  what  the  bees  bring  to  the  hive  to  any  great  extent, 
by  proper  manipulations  he  can  cause  them  to  produce  fancy  combed 
honey,  or  if  extracted  honey  is  produced,  he  can  prepare  it  for  the 
fancy  trade. 

Location  of  Apiary. — In  choosing  the  location  in  which  to  keep 
bees  on  an  extensive  scale,  it  is  essential  that  the  resources  of  the 
country  be  known.  It  will  not  be  found  advantageous  to  keep  bees 
in  localities  where  plants  do  not  yield  nectar  in  large  quantities. 
The  location  of  the  hives  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance ;  as 
a  rule  it  is  better  that  they  be  so  placed  that  they  will  not  face  the 
prevailing  wind.  In  the  northern  states  a  southern  slope  is  desir- 
able. It  is  also  advisable  that  hives  be  so  placed  that  the  early  morn- 
ing sun  -mil  shine  directly  on  them  so  that  the  bees  become  active 
early  in  the  day,  and  thus  gain  an  advantage  by  getting  the  first 
supply  of  nectar.  They  should  also  be  so  placed  that  the  bees  will 
not  prove  a  nuisance  to  passers-by  or  disturb  live  stock.  It  is  quite 
essential  that  the  grass  be  kept  closely  cut  and  be  kept  free  from 
weeds,  especially  about  the  entrance  to  the  hives. 

Size  of  Apiary. — As  a  rule  it  is  not  considered  best  to  keep  more 
than  one  hundred  colonies  in  one  apiary.  Large  apiaries  should  be 
at  least  three  miles  apart.  It  is  difficult  to  learn  how  many  colonies 
any  given  locality  will  sustain  without  actual  trial.  However,  the 
judgment  of  an  experienced  person  would  be  a  fairly  safe  guide, 
after  the  study  of  the  honey  producing  plants  had  been  made. 

Generally  it  is  best  to  have  each  hive  on  a  separate  stand.  The 
entrance  should  be  lower  than  any  other  part  of  the  hive.  The 
stands  may  be  made  of  wood,  brick,  tile  or  concrete,  or  for  that  mat- 
ter, of  any  other  convenient  material  that  will  answer  the  purpose. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  raise  the  hive  more  than  a  few  inches  from  the 
ground. 

Habits  of  Bees. — The  successful  manipulation  of  bees  depends 
entirely  on  a  knowledge  of  their  habits.  The  amateur  bee  keeper 
therefore  should  familiarize  himself  with  the  habits  of  bees  as  this 
knowledge  will  greatly  add  to  the  pleasure  of  bee  keeping  as  well  as 
to  increase  the  profits.  A  colony  of  bees  normally  consists  of  one 
queen,  the  mother  of  the  colony,  and  thousands  of  sexually  unde- 
veloped animals  called  workers  that  normally  build  the  comb,  gather 
the  storage,  keep  the  hive  clean,  and  in  fact  do  all  the  work.    During 


650  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

part  of  the  year  there  are  also  some  hundreds  of  males  called  drones. 
These  are  often  removed  or  greatl^^  restricted  in  numbers  by  the  bee 
keeper.    These  three  types  are  easily  recognized  by  a  novice. 

Handling  Bees. — Bees  should  be  handled  so  that  they  will  be 
little  disturbed  in  their  work;  as  much  as  possible  stings  should  be 
avoided  during  manipulation.  This  is  true  not  so  much  because  they 
are  painful  to  the  receiver,  but  because  the  odor  or  poison  which  gets 
in  makes  them  more  irritable  and  difficult  to  manage.  Superfluous 
quick  movements  tend  to  irritate  the  bees  and  the  hives  should  never 
be  jarred  or  disturbed  any  more  than  is  necessary.  The  best  time 
to  handle  bees  is  during  the  middle  of  warm  days,  particularly  dur- 
ing the  time  of  honey  flow.  Do  not  handle  them  at  night  or  on  cold, 
wet  days,  unless  absolutely  necessary.  In  handling  bees  for  the  ex- 
amination of  the  comb,  inspection  of  the  brood  cells,  etc.,  it  is  usually 
best  to  be  provided  with  a  smoker  by  means  of  which  a  few  puffs  of 
smoke  may  be  directed  into  the  hive  at  the  pleasure  of  the  attendant. 
This  causes  the  bees  to  fill  themselves  with  honey  and  makes  han- 
dling much  easier.  The  art  of  handling  bees  is  easily  learned  and 
can  hardly  fail  to  become  a  source  of  pleasure  to  those  who  have  con- 
veniences for  keeping  bees  and  can  devote  some  time  to  their  manage- 
ment. 

On  many  farms  the  production  of  honey  for  the  home  table 
is  the  primary  object,  although  it  often  happens  that  more  is  pro- 
duced than  is  required  at  home  which  may  be  sold  to  good  advantage. 

The  Production  of  Honey. — The  obtaining  of  honey  from  bees 
is  generally  the  primary  object  of  their  culture.  Bees  gather  nectar 
to  make  into  honey  for  their  own  use  as  food,  but  generally  store 
more  than  they  need,  and  this  surplus  the  bee  keeper  takes  away.  By 
managing  colonies  early  in  the  spring  as  previously  described  the  sur- 
plus may  be  considerably  increased.  The  secret  of  maximum  crops 
IS  to  "Keep  all  colonies  strong." 

Honey  is  gathered  in  the  form  of  nectar  secreted  by  various 
flowers,  is  transformed  by  the  bees,  and  stored  in  the  comb.  Bees 
also  often  gather  a  sweet  liquid  called  "honeydew,"  produced  by 
various  scale  insects  and  plant-lice,  but  the  honeydew  honey  made 
from  it  is  quite  unlike  floral  honey  in  flavor  and  composition  and 
should  not  be  sold  for  honey.  It  is  usually  unpalatable  and  should 
never  be  used  as  winter  food  for  bees,  since  it  usually  causes  dysen- 
tery. When  nectar  or  honeydew  has  been  thickened  by  evapo- 
ration and  othen\ase  changed,  the  honey  is  sealed  in  the  cells  with 
cappings  of  beeswax. 

It  is  not  profitable  to  cultivate  any  plant  solely  for  the  nectar 
which  it  will  produce,  but  various  plants,  such  as  clovers,  alfalfa,  and 
buckwheat,  are  valuable  for  other  purposes  and  are  at  the  same  time 
excellent  honey  plants ;  their  cultivation  is  therefore  a  benefit  to  the 
bee  keeper.  It  is  often  profitable  to  sow  some  plant  on  waste  land ; 
sweet  clovers  are  often  used  in  this  way.  The  majority  of  honey-pro- 
ducing plants  are  wild,  and  the  bee  keeper  must  largely  accept  the 
locality  as  he  finds  it  and  manage  his  apiary  so  as  to  get  the  largest 
possible  amount  of  the  available  nectar.    Since  bees  often  fly  as  far 


OTHER  ANIMALS  651 

es  2  or  3  miles  to  obtain  nectar,  it  is  obvious  that  the  bee  keeper  can 
rarely  influence  the  nectar  supply  appreciably.  Before  deciding 
what  kind  of  honey  to  produce  the  bee  keeper  should  have  a  clear 
knowledge  of  the  honey  resources  of  his  locality  and  of  the  demands 
of  the  market  in  which  he  will  sell  his  crop. 

Extracted  Honey. — This  is  honey  which  has  been  removed  from 
the  combs  where  the  bees  stored  it.  While  it  is  possible  to  adulterate 
extracted  honey  by  the  addition  of  cheap  syrups,  this  is  rarely  done. 
If  the  main  honey  flow  is  slow  or  the  honey  dark  it  will  probably  be 
best  to  extract  the  honey  from  the  comb  if  it  is  to  be  sold. 

Comb  Honey. — A  honey  for  the  fancy  trade.  It  must  be  made 
rapidly  and  in  districts  where  white  clover  abound  or  there  is  an 
abundance  of  basswood  trees  (Filia  americana). — (Dep.  Agr.  F.  B. 
447.) 

Honey  Vinegar. — ^When  a  barrel  of  honey  vinegar  is  to  be  made 
for  family  use  or  by  the  small  producer  the  following  formula  may 
be  useful : 

Strained  honey 40  to  45  lbs. 

Water 30  gallons. 

Ammonium  chloride 4  oz. 

Potassium  bicarbonate 2  oz. 

Sodium  phosphate 2  oz. 

One-quarter  cake  of  dry  yeast  softened  in  lukewarm  water. 

The  chemicals  for  making  thirty  gallons  will  cost  about  25 
cents  in  a  small  way,  but  on  a  large  scale  not  more  than  10  cents. 
Somewhat  larger  amounts  of  potassium  bicarbonate  and  sodium  phos- 
phate, would  give  better  results,  but  the  amounts  are  here  cut  to  the 
minimum  to  bring  the  cast  low  enough  to  make  it  profitable. 

In  from  three  to  four  weeks  all  visible  fermentation  will  have 
ceased  and  the  yeast  settled  out.  Now  rack  oflF  the  \dne,  add  ten  gal- 
lons of  good  vinegar,  and  let  stand  undisturbed  in  a  place  having  as 
nearly  as  possible  an  even  temperature  of  from  75  to  80  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  The  acetic  fermentation  may  be  started  by  floating 
mother  or  the  scum  from  an  older  cask  on  the  surface  of  the  mix- 
ture by  means  of  thin  cork  shavings.  Carried  out  in  this  way 
and  at  a  suitable  temperature  (temperatures  over  85  degrees  Fahren- 
heit will  retard  the  process  and  cause  loss  of  both  alcohol  and  acid) 
a  good  honey  vinegar  can  bo  produced  in  from  four  to  six  months. — 
(Arizona  B.) 

THE  AMERICAN  TOAD, 

It  is  well  known  that  insects  of  one  kind  or  another  destroy, 
more  or  less,  nearly  all  kinds  of  agricultural  crops.  While  man  has 
learned  how  to  combat  many  of  these  pests  by  administering  vari- 
ous poisons  and  repellants,  yet  nature's  remedy  is  still  relied  upon, 
in  a  large  degree,  to  maintain  a  somewhat  even  or  stable  balance. 
That  is,  one  cla^ss  of  animal  or  insect  life  to  feed  upon  another. 
As  insect  destroyers,  birds,  small  predaceous  animals  and  toads  play 
an  important  part.  The  common  toad,  nocturnal  and  nuiet  of 
habit,  renders  valuable  service  to  gardeners  and  farmers  through- 


652  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

out  the  growing  season  or  during  the  period  of  destructive  insect 
Hfe. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  toad  does  not  breed  until  the  fourth 
year.  As  the  breeding  season  approaches  they  migrate  to  ponds 
where  the  eggs  are  laid,  usually  in  March,  April,  or  May,  according 
to  latitude.  Mating  is  commenced  as  soon  as  the  water  is  reached 
or  even  before.  The  tiny  black  eggs  with  their  gelatinous  covering 
are  laid  in  ropes;  this  covering  swells  and  forms  a  large  mass.  In 
two  weeks  or  sooner  the  eggs  hatch  and  the  tadpoles  grow  rapidly 
until  June  or  July,  when  legs  appear  and  the  tail  is  absorbed.  As 
many  as  7,000  to  12,000  eggs  have  been  removed  from  a  single 
female. 

The  toad  has  a  strong  home  instinct  and  lives  year  after  year 
in  the  same  locality.  The  toad  is  not  poisonous,  but  sometimes 
when  attacked  emits  through  the  skin  an  acrid  fluid  that  is  poison- 
ous or  disagreeable  to  some  animals,  notably  to  dogs.  Toads  are 
voracious  feeders  and  consume  large  numbers  of  insects.  Earth- 
worms, snails,  sowbugs,  thousand-legged  worms,  spiders,  grasshop- 
pers, crickets,  ants,  beetles,  cutworms,  tent  caterpillars,  etc.,  mostly 
injurious  insects,  form  their  chief  food. — (Dep,  Agr.  F.  B.  196.) 

BATS. 

Bats  are  common  almost  everywhere  in  the  United  States, 
except  possibly  in  the  very  dryest  regions,  within  reach  of  water. 
Owing  to  the  nocturnal  flight  of  bats  their  habits  are  not  well 
Understood,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  all  species  are  not  only  harm- 
less but  highly  beneficial.  They  feed  entirely  on  insects  caught  on 
the  wing.  Bats  shot  in  the  evening  after  they  have  been  flying  for 
twenty  minutes  will  usually  be  found  so  gorged  that  it  does  not 
seem  possible  that  their  stomachs  can  hold  more.  If  their  diges- 
tion is  as  rapid  as  that  of  other  insectivorous  mammals,  the  number 
of  insects  consumed  in  a  night  by  a  single  bat  must  be  enormous. 
The  great  deposits  of  bat  guano  found  in  caves  and  under  roosting 
places  represent  in  some  cases  hundreds  of  tons  of  insect  remains. 
—(Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  835.) 

SILK   CULTURE. 

Attempts  at  silk  culture  were  made  in  Pennsylvania  and  New 
Jei^ey  as  early  as  1771.  Many  other  attempts  have  been  made,  but 
none  of  them  have  proven  financially  successful.  Government  aid 
has  been  given  by  way  of  distributing  mulberry  trees  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  silk  worm  eggs,  but  even  this  assistance  was  not  suffi- 
cient to  place  the  enterprise  on  a  paying  basis.  From  experiments 
tried  in  the  United  States,  the  cost  of  labor  has  been  quite  out  of 
proportion  with  the  returns  from  the  sale  of  cocoons  or  reeled  silk. 
While  this  country  imports  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  silk  an- 
nually, largely  from  Japan,  yet  chiefly  on  account  of  the  high 
price  of  labor,  silk  culture  in  this  country  has  not  been  made 
profitable.— (Y.  B.  1903.) 

VIRGINIA   DEER    (ODOCOILEUS    VIRGINIANUS) . 

The  Virginia  or  whitetail  deer  is  the  common  deer  of  the 
United  States.    It  is  distributed  over  most  of  the  country  and  19 


The  Common  Toad,  a  Practical  "  Bug  Catcher  "  and  Therefore  a  Useful  Friend. 
Encourage  His  Presence  in  Your  Garden. 


OTHER  ANIMALS  653 

adapted  to  widely  varying  conditions.  It  has  not  been  bred  in 
inclosures  for  commercial  purposes  to  any  great  extent,  although 
breeders  are  beginning  to  realize  that  they  may  be  made  profitable 
under  proper  management.  The  deer  are  polygamous  like  elk, 
breeding  in  November;  period  of  gestation  about  seven  months. 
The  first  coat  of  the  fawn  is  spotted.  In  the  wild  state  they  are 
chiefly  browsing,  in  captivity  they  eat  almost  all  kinds  of  forage 
and  vegetables.  A  good  supply  of  running  water  should  be  pro- 
vided.   The  animals  should  also  have  access  to  rock  salt. 

The  remarks  about  castrating  elk  apply  equally  as  well  to  deer. 
A  number  of  vigorous  bucks  however  must  be  kept  with  any  con- 
siderable herd  of  does.  Frequent  changes  of  blood,  by  introducing 
new  bucks,  should  be  practiced  to  avoid  too  much  in-breeding. — 
(Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  330.) 

SILVER  FOX    (VULPES  FULVUS). 

The  name  silver  fox  is  commonly  applied  to  the  dark  phases 
of  the  ordinary  red  fox.  Variously  called  silver,  silver-gray,  silver- 
black.  It  should  not  be  confused  with  the  gray  fox  or  the  tree  fox 
of  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States.  The  prices  usually  paid 
for  fox  skins  vary  greatly.  The  red  fox  selling  for  a  few  dollars 
each,  and  those  of  the  silver  fox  for  bringing  from  ten  to  fifty  times  as 
much.  Foxes  have  been  maintained  in  zoological  gardens  for 
many  years,  but  not  until  recent  years  has  silver  fox  farming  been 
attempted.  Some  attempts  have  proven  failures,  while  others  have 
attained  quite  marked  success. 

The  natural  habitat  of  the  red  and  silver  foxes  includes  the 
greater  part  of  North  America.  The  most  successful  fox  farms 
consist  of  quite  restricted  areas  inclosed  TNath  high  woven  wire 
fences,  quite  near  dwellings  where  close  personal  attention  can  be 
given.  Foxes  breed  only  once  a  year,  the  mating  season  includes 
the  months  of  February  and  March.  The  period  of  gestation  is 
about  51  days.  The  number  bom  in  a  litter  varies  from  two  to 
eight,  the  average  number  born  to  adults  being  five.  The  sexes 
are  usually  kept  separate,  except  during  the  breeding  season.  The 
young  are  separated  when  weaned. 

Fox  raisers  estimate  the  cost  for  food  when  everything  is  pur- 
chased at  about  one  cent  per  day  per  fox.  So  far  as  known,  fatal 
diseases  are  unknown  among  foxes.  It  seems  probable  that  under 
proper  management  fox  raismg  will  be  developed  into  a  profitable 
industr^^— (Agr.  Dept.  F.  B.  328.) 

WAPITI  OR  ROCKY   MOUNTAIN   ELK    (CERVUS  CANADENSIS). 

The  Wapiti  include  two  related  species  and  are  generally 
known  as  the  Elk ;  and  is  next  to  the  moose  the  largest  of  our  deer. 
It  was  once  abundant  over  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States.  At 
present  their  range  is  very  limited.  Only  comparatively  small  herds 
exist  outside  of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park.  Wapiti  are  found, 
however,  in  Colorado,  Montana,  Idaho,  Oregon,  Northern  California, 
"Washington  and  in  Canada. 

The  Elk  is  a  browsing  and  grazing  animal;  sometimes  it  will 
subsist  wholly  on  pasture.    It  is  extremely  polygamous.    The  bulls 


654  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

shed  their  antlers  in  March,  or  April,  new  ones  attain  full  size  in 
about  three  months.  The  female  does  not  usually  breed  until  the 
third  year.  Period  of  gestation  about  81/2  months.  Only  one  calf 
produced  at  a  time.  While  the  Elk  is  not  prolific,  yet  it  is  very 
hardy.  The  flesh  of  Elk  is  superior  in  flavor  to  most  venison, 
though  somewhat  coarse  in  texture.  In  well  appointed  deer  parks, 
elk  increase  fully  as  rapidly  as  cattle.  Fully  90%  of  the  females 
produce  healthy  young.  An  adult  male  weighs  from  700  to  1,000 
pounds,  females  from  600  to  800  pounds. 

Management  of  Elk  in  Inclosures. — In  choosing  a  range  for 
Elk,  the  natural  food  supply  is  important.  Rough  lands  covered 
with  grasses,  bushes  and  trees,  well  watered  with  clear  streams,  and 
having  some  forested  area,  are  adapted  to  their  needs.  Elk  will 
browse  and  pasture  when  snows  are  not  deep.  Hay  and  corn  fod- 
der make  excellent  forage.    Oats  and  corn  make  a  good  grain  feed. 

Elk  are  not  so  nervous  as  other  deer,  hence  a  low  fence  will 
keep  them;  ordinarily  a  five  foot  fence  is  sufficient. 

Elk  may  be  obtained  for  stocking  preserves  at  a  reasonable 
price;  from  $20  to  $75  apiece  will  usually  purchase  satisfac- 
tory animals.  In  inclosures  the  males  sometimes  become  vicious; 
when  this  occurs  they  should  be  castrated  and  thus  be  saved  to 
produce  the  finest  venison. — (Dep.  Agr.  F.  B.  330.) 

MOSQUITOES, 

For  many  centuries  humanity  has  endured  the  annoyance  of 
mosquitoes  without  making  any  intelligent  effort  to  prevent  it  ex- 
cept in  the  use  of  smudges,  preparations  applied  to  the  skin,  and 
in  removal  from  localities  of  abundance.  And  it  is  only  within 
comparatively  recent  years  that  widespread  community  work 
against  mosquitoes  has  been  undertaken,  this  having  resulted  al- 
most directly  from  the  discoveries  concerning  the  carriage  of  dis- 
ease by  these  insects. 

As  obvious  a  procedure  as  it  might  seem  to  be,  the  abolition  of 
mosquito-breeding  places  is  a  comparatively  new  idea.  The  treat- 
ment of  breeding  places  with  oil  to  destroy  the  larval  forms  is, 
however,  by  no  means  recent.  As  early  as  1812  the  writer  of  a 
work  published  in  London  entitled  "Omniana  or  Horae  Otiosiores" 
suggested  that  by  pouring  oil  upon  water  the  number  of  mosqui- 
toes may  be  diminished.  It  is  stated  that  in  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  kerosene  was  used  in  France  in  this  way,  while 
in  the  French  quarter  in  New  Orleans  oil  was  placed  in  water 
tanks  before  the  civil  war,  the  idea  having  possibly  come  from 
France  to  New  Orleans  or  vice  versa. 

Practically  beginning  with  1901,  there  has  been  a  rather  rapid 
increase  in  antimosquito  work  by  individuals  and  communities,  but 
this  work  has  not  progressed  with  anything  like  the  rapidity  de- 
manded by  the  distressing  conditions  of  many  localities  and  in 
fact  of  great  areas.  Yet  it  is  probably  accurate  to  state  that  more 
effective  work  of  this  kind  has  been  done  in  the  United  Statas 
than  in  any  other  country.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  greater 
prevalence  of  mosquitoes  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other 


OTHER  ANIMALS  655 

highly  civilized  country,  but  the  well-known  practical  character 
of  the  American  people  is  also  an  element. 

The  Breeding  Place  of  Mosquitoes. — ^The  post-embryonic  de- 
velopment of  the  mosquito,  that  is,  the  interval  between  the  egg 
state  and  the  adult  winged  fonn,  occurs  entirely  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  water.  The  young  during  this  portion  of  their  life-cycle 
are  true  aquatic  insects  with  one  exception,  they  do  not  breathe 
the  air  dissolved  in  the  water  as  do  fish,  but  by  a  special  structure, 
a  respiratory  siphon,  breathe  the  free  air  above  the  surface  of  the 
water;  deprived  of  this  they  perish.  By  nature  of  their  structure 
the  young  of  mosquitoes  can  develop  only  in  water  and  then  only 
under  certain  conditions.  As  a  rule  mosquitoes  breed  in  small  col- 
lections of  standing  fresh  water.  Specimens  are  sometimes  found 
in  streams  and  some  species  are  known  to  breed  in  salt  or  brackish 
water.  For  all  economic  purposes  the  statement  is  correct  that 
mosquitoes  breed  only  in  water,  usually  stagnant  fresh  water.  Do 
away  with  tliesc  places  and  it  becomes  impossible  for  mosquitoes  to 
breed. 

Life  History  of  Mosquitoes. — The  determination  of  methods 
for  destroying  an  injurious  insect  implies  a  careful  study  of  its 
life-history  in  order  to  find  the  vulnerable  point  in  the  life-cycle 
of  the  pest.  All  insects  undergo  during  their  developmental  period 
remarkable  changes  in  form,  structure  and  habits.  One  can  cer- 
tainly detect  no  resemblance  between  the  wriggling  larva  of  the 
mosquito  in  the  water  and  the  adult  winged  insect  m  the  air.  In 
tlie  higher  animals  there  are  no  distinct  periods  or  stages  of  devel- 
opment. The  young  on  hatching  from  the  egg  or  at  birth  resem- 
ble the  parent  with  the  exception  that  they  are  smaller  in  size  and 
undeveloped,  but  as  growth  continues  they  gradually  acquire  the 
size  and  characteristics  of  tlie  adult.  The  life  history  of  insects,  on 
the  other  hand,  is,  generally  speaking,  divided  into  three  distinct 
stages  after  hatching  from  the  egg;  the  young  or  larva,  the  grow- 
ing stage  in  the  life  of  the  insect ;  the  pupa,  a  period  of  development 
during  which  a  wonderful  change  or  transformation  in  the  form, 
structure  and  habits  occurs;  and  the  adult  or  winged  insect,  the 
fonn  we  usually  recognize. 

The  eggs  of  the  common  mosquito,  Culex,  are  deposited  on 
the  surface  of  standing  water.  Under  the  right  conditions  of  tem- 
perature they  hatch  in  about  twenty-four  hours.  The  larvae  de- 
velop to  their  full  size  in  the  course  of  eight  to  fourteen  days  dur- 
ing which  time  they  moult  or  cast  off  their  outer  covering  several 
times  to  provide  for  increase  in  size.  The  development  of  the 
lanae  depends  on  the  temperature  of  the  water  and  the  food  sup- 
ply. Their  food  consists  of  the  plant  and  animal  matter,  often 
microscopical  in  size,  common  to  standing  water.  The  pupa  of  the 
mosquito  is  also  aquatic,  normally  resting  inactive  at  the  surface. 
This  is  the  period  during  which  the  mosquito  transforms  from 
an  aquatic  insect  to  one  of  the  air.  The  young  or  growing  stage 
has  passed.  The  pupa  takes  no  food  and  moves  only  when  dis- 
turbed as  a  matter  of  protection.    The  pupal  stage  is  much  shorter 


656  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

than  the  larval.  In  two  or  three  days  the  pupa  transforms  to  the 
adult  mosquito  and  becomes  the  notorious  household  pest,  the 
entire  life-cycle  being  a  matter  of  eleven  to  eighteen  days. 

The  only  remedy  for  adult  mosquitoes  is  protection  by  screen- 
ing, or  the  burning  of  insect  powder.  These  remedies  bring  only 
temporary  relief  and  do  not  remove  the  source  of  the  nuisance. 
The  importance,  then,  of  not  allowing  mosquitoes  to  develop  be- 
yond the  pupal  or  final  aquatic  stage  is  evident.  No  praetical 
method  of  destroying  adult  mosquitoes  is  known. 

The  length  of  the  life  of  adult  mosquitoes  varies.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  get  insects  to  repeat  correctly  in  confinement  what  their  life- 
history  and  habits  would  be  under  natural  conditions;  therefore 
the  length  of  the  life  of  the  adult  cannot  be  determined  by  experi- 
ment. As  a  rule  the  males  of  insects  do  not  live  any  great  length 
of  time  after  maturity,  and  the  females  die  soon  after  depositing 
their  eggs.  In  a  tropical  country,  like  Hawaii,  where  no  difficulty 
is  encountered  by  the  gravid  female  in  securing  favorable  breeding 
places  throughout  the  year,  the  length  of  the  adult  life  is  probably 
at  the  most  only  a  matter  of  several  weeks.  In  cold  countries  the 
male  mosquitoes  are  known  to  die  in  the  early  winter  and  the 
females  hibernate  during  the  cold  season,  a  period  of  several 
months,  until  suitable  conditions  for  egg-laying  prevail. 

Migrations  of  Mosquitoes. — The  adult  mosquito  is  a  very 
feeble  flyer  and  is  usually  found  in  the  vicinity  of  its  breeding 
place.  Instances  are  on  record  where  mosquitoes  have  been  car- 
ried in  large  numbers  for  long  distances  by  the  wind,  but  invasions 
from  one  locality  to  another  are  exceptional.  It  is  well  known  that 
on  windy  days  mosquitoes  are  less  in  evidence.  It  is  evident  from 
the  structure  of  their  organs  of  flight  that  mosquitoes  cannot  long 
endure  in  a  high  wind.  In  an  infested  locality,  mosquitoes  are  al- 
ways in  evidence  immediately  after  a  wind  subsides,  especially  in 
places  where  the  vegetation  is  abundant,  in  the  foliage  of  which 
they  seek  shelter  from  the  wind.  Smith  says  that  the  habits  of 
mosquitoes  in  regard  to  their  flying  any  distance  varies  with  the 
different  species.  He  discusses  a  salt-water  species,  Culex  sollicitans, 
which  is  apparently  a  true  migratory  form.  It  can  be  stated  with- 
out qualifications  that  the  source  of  mosquitoes  is  generally  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  infested  places.  Invariably  the  source  of 
mosquitoes  infesting  any  district  has  been  found  to  be  near  by  nat- 
ural and  artificial  collections  of  wat^er,  usually  artificial  collections 
in  the  immediate  vicinity. — (Sp,  Bui,  T,  N,  J.  E.  S.) 

The  Food  of  Adult  Mosquitoes. — Their  food  consists  of  the 
blood  of  animals  and  the  juices  of  plants  and  fruits.  Mosquitoes 
are  normally  plant-feeding  insects  and  only  the  female  is  a  blood- 
feeding  insect  when  that  is  obtainable.  The  male  satisfies  his  appe- 
tite on  the  juices  of  fiiiits  or  other  liquids  since  the  proboscis  is  not 
constructed,  as  is  that  of  the  female,  for  piercing  anything  with 
any  degree  of  resistance,  as  the  skin  of  animals  or  the  epidermis 
of  plants.    Howard  says,  speaking  of  female  mosquitoes:   It  is  safe 


OTHETt  ANIMALS  657 

to  say  that  only  an  infinitesimal  proportion  of  them  ever  taste  the 
blood  of  a  warm-blooded  animal. 

Mosquitoes  and  Disease. — The  greatest  impetus  to  the  warfare 
agamst  mosquitoes  was  given  by  the  recent  positive  demonstrations 
tliat  certain  species  are  the  carriers  of  disease,  that  is,  the  agents 
(germs)  responsible  for  the  disease  are  parasitic  to  certain  mos- 
quitoes during  an  intenuediate  stage  in  their  developmental  cycle. 
In  fact  It  has  been  proved  in  the  case  of  yellow  fever  and  malaria 
that  without  certain  species  of  mosquitoes  as  hosts,  the  life-cycle 
of  the  organisms  responsible  for  the  disease  is  interrupted.  This 
has  changed  the  mosquito  problem  from  one  of  discomfort  alone  to 
one  of  health  also.  The  most  complete  work  in  preventive  medi- 
cine is  the  result  of  experiments  along  these  lines.  That  yellow 
fever  and  malaria  are  conveyed  from  diseased  persons  to  healthy 
people  by  bites  of  certain  species  of  mosquitoes  is  an  acknowledged 
fact  in  recent  medical  Hterature.  Aside  from  yellow  fever  and 
malaria,  mosquitoes  are  credited  with  the  dissemination  of  ele- 
phantiasis, filariasis,  and  possibly  the  dengue  fever  and  leprosy. 
The  relation  of  certain  insects  to  diseases,  both  plant  and  animal, 
is  a  study  which  in  the  future  will  do  much  to  prevent  their  present 
serious  work. 

The  A  bundant  Mosquito,  Culex  Pipiens. — ^The  members  of  thd 
genus  Culex  are  distributed  generally  over  the  world  and  seem  to 
be  limited  by  neither  altitude  nor  climate.  The  species  so  abundant, 
Culex  pipiens,  is  tho  common  species  of  the  genus  and  the  mos- 
quito whose  life-history  and  habits  are  most  generally  known.  This 
mosquito  is  reported  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  is 
recorded  by  Theobald  as  occurring  generally  in  Europe. 

Breeding  Places. — The  places  chosen  by  the  female  of  this 
species  for  depositing  her  eggs  are  many  and  varied.  There  is, 
however,  a  decided  preference  for  certain  places.  Where  there  is 
a  choice  between  water  containing  a  supply  of  decomposing  vege- 
table or  animal  matter  and  uncontaminated  water,  the  insect  will 
invariably  choose  the  water  containing  the  organic  matter,  serving 
as  it  does  as  food  for  the  young.  The  places  mentioned  by  differ- 
ent writers  as  the  breeding  places  of  this  species  of  mosquito  are 
water-tanks,  tubs  and  buckets  under  water-taps,  wells^  cisterns,  bar- 
rels, open  sewers,  cess-pools,  swamps,  small  pools,  wayside  ditches, 
empty  oil  tins,  biscuit  tins,  sardine  and  tomato  cans,  gourds,  flower 
pots,  vases,  cuspidors,  broken  and  unbroken  bottles,  crockery,  pot- 
tery and  tins  on  rubbish  heaps,  hollow  stumps,  post-holes  and  other 
excavations  left  unfilled,  fire-buckets,  gutters  and  eaves  which  are 
imperfect  or  which  have  become  clogged,  water-taps  in  sinks  and 
closets,  watering-troughs  for  stock,  neglected  lily  ponds  and  foun- 
tains, and  catch  basins  from  leaders. 

Life-History  of  Culex  Pipiens. — The  eggs  of  tho  night  mos- 
quito are  easily  observed  in  the  places  where  they  occur.  They 
appear  a  raft-like  mass  floating  on  tho  surface  of  the  water  and 
resemble  a  small  piece  of  charcoal  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in 
length.    This  manner  of  depositing  the  eggs  is  characteristic  of  tho 


658  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

members  of  the  genus  Culex.  The  egg-mass  or  raft  is  the  product 
of  one  female  and,  according  to  Theobald,  is  laid  soon  after  sunrise, 
and  also  at  dusk  if  the  weather  is  warm  and  still.  Examination 
under  a  hand-lens  shows  a  distinct  structure  to  the  mass,  it  being 
made  up  of  individual  eggs,  standing  close  together  in  an  upright 
position,  the  bottom  of  the  egg  being  larger  than  the  top,  thus  mak- 
ing the  raft  boat-shaped.  Each  raft  is  estimated  to  contain  from 
two  to  three  hundred  eggs,  the  individual  egg  being  hardly  visible 
to  one  unaccustomed  to  looking  at  objects  so  small.  The  lightness 
of  the  mass  insures  its  floating  on  the  surface.  Howard  says  that 
if  the  eggs  are  kept  completely  immersed  the  larvae  will  never  de- 
velop, this  being  because  of  the  inability  of  the  developing  em- 
bryos to  obtain  the  necessary  air  supply.  The  peculiar  structure 
of  the  bottom  of  the  eggs  prevents  the  water  from  actually  wetting 
them. 

When  the  eggs  hatch  they  open  downward  letting  the  larvae 
into  the  water.  This  occurs  from  twenty-four  hours,  under  favor- 
able conditions,  to  two  or  three  days,  after  the  eggs  are  deposited. 
Naturally  the  young  on  hatching  are  very  small  but  develop  in  a 
few  days  into  fair  sized  wrigglers.  These  are  the  common  natural 
history  objects  of  the  rain-water  barrel  which,  as  youngsters,  we  all 
believed  were  rained  down. 

The  larva  of  this  species  is  found  normally  at  the  surface  of 
the  water  with  its  head  in  a  downward  position.  The  explanation 
of  this  peculiar  position  is  this:  the  larvae  of  this  and  all  species  of 
mosquitoes,  though  aquatic  as  regards  living  in  and  obtaining  their 
food  from  the  water,  are  true  air-breathers  and  must  necessarily 
come  to  the  surface  to  obtain  the  air.  The  larva  while  breathing 
at  the  surface  continues  to  feed  beneath;  hence  the  position  of  the 
head  downward.  It  moves  away  w^hen  disturbed  and  can  fre- 
quently be  seen  foraging  about  in  the  water  for  food  but  coming 
regularly  to  the  surface  to  breathe.  Its  food  consists  of  the  decay- 
ing organic  matter  and  the  microscopical  organisms  common  to 
standing  water.  Only  one  comment  in  favor  of  the  generally  con- 
demned mosquito  can  be  found  and  that  is  in  regard  to  the  larvae. 
Comstock  says:  The  larvae  of  mosquitoes  are  doubtless  beneficial 
insects,  for  they  feed  on  the  decaying  matter  in  water,  and  thus  act 
as  scavengers,  and  then  he  adds,  but  the  annoyance  caused  by  the 
bites  of  the  adult  female  more  than  balances  this  good.  The  length 
of  the  larval  life  was  found  to  vary  under  different  conditions  from 
seven  to  fifteen  days. 

At  the  last  larval  moult,  the  pupal  stage  begins.  The  pupa  is 
an  ungainly  looking  creature  resting  quietly  at  the  surface,  tail-end 
downwards  and  further  distinguished  from  the  larva  by  its  big 
head.  This  head  is  really  the  head  and  thorax  of  the  insect  fused 
together.  The  pupa  has  also  two  breathing-tubes,  instead  of  one, 
rising,  not  from  the  tail-end  of  the  body  but  from  the  upper  side 
from  that  portion  known  as  the  thorax.  The  end  of  the  abdomen 
is  supplied  with  two  broad  flaps  used  for  swimming,  with  M'hich 
by  vigorous  motions  of  the  body  the  insect  drives  itself  down  into 


OTHER  ANIMALS  659 

the  water  when  disturbed.  The  manner  in  which  the  pupa  rises  to 
the  surface  without  effort  demonstrates  that  its  weight  is  less  than 
that  of  the  water.  The  length  of  the  pupal  stage  is  a  matter  of 
about  two  days. 

The  Yellow-Fever  Mosquito,  Stegomyia  Fasciata. — This  mos- 
quito is  the  notorious  yellow-fever  species  of  Cuba.  Just  how  or 
when  it  comes  to  these  Islands  is  unknown.  Dr.  Howard  under 
date  of  January  27,  1903,  writes:  The  two  species  of  Stegomyia 
occur  throughout  the  East  Indies.  Prof.  V.  L.  Kellogg  of  Stanford 
University,  in  writing  of  his  trip  to  the  Samoan  Islands  a  year  ago 
says:  I  am  interested  to  learn  that  your  day  mosquito  is  the  yel- 
low-fever chap,  Stegomyia  fasciata.  That  is  just  what  I  found  the 
Samoan  mosquito  to  be.  *  *  *  This  is  the  abundant  Samoan 
mosquito  and  the  one  which  presumably  disseminates  elephantiasis. 
The  dis.5emination  of  yellow-fever  by  the  mosquito  is  not  a  new 
idea.  Dr.  Carlos  Finlay  of  Havana,  Cuba,  was  of  the  opinion,  as 
early,  as  1881,  that  this  disease  was  conveyed  by  this  pest.  This 
theory  was  proved  a  fact  by  a  commission  of  surgeons  of  the  United 
States  Army  by  demonstrations  made  in  Cuba  in  1901.  They 
proved  beyond  all  doubt  that  this  species,  Stegomyia  fasciata,  was  a 
conveyor  and  perhaps  the  only  conveyor  of  this  dreaded  disease. 

The  propagation  of  the  disease  depends  upon  the  introduction 
of  an  infected  individual  to  a  locality  where  this  mosquito  is  found, 
at  a  season  of  the  year  when  it  is  active.  Owing  to  the  short  period 
of  incubation  (five  days  or  less),  the  brief  duration  of  the  disease, 
and  especially  of  the  period  during  which  the  infectious  agent 
(germ)  is  found  in  the  blood  (three  days),  it  is  evident  that  ships 
sailing  from  infected  ports,  upon  which  cases  of  yellow-fever  de- 
velop, are  not  likely  to  introduce  the  disease  to  distant  sea-ports. 
The  continuance  of  an  epidemic  on  shipboard  as  on  land,  must 
depend  upon  the  presence  of  infected  mosquitoes  and  of  non- 
immune individuals.  Under  these  conditions  we  can  readily  un- 
derstand fwhy  the  disease  should  not  be  carried  from  the  West 
Indies  or  from  South  America  to  the  Mediterranean,  to  the  east 
coast  of  Africa,  or  to  Asiatic  seaport  cities.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  disease  could  be  transmitted  by  infected  clothing,  bedding,  etc., 
there  seems  no  good  reason  why  it  should  not  have  been  carried  to 
these  distant  localities  long  ago. 

The  yellow-fever  mosquito  is  well  named  a  town  species.  It 
breeds  almost  exclusively  about  dwellings,  and  authorities  state  that 
it  is  seldom  found  far  outside  city  limits  unless  in  the  vicinity  of 
dwellings.  The  female  will  invariably  choose  small  collections  of 
clear  water  for  depositing  her  eggs.  The  eggs  are  laid  singly  on 
or  near  the  w-ater  and  if  not  on  the  water  may  remain  dormant  for 
a  long  time  until  washed  into  the  water  or,  as  in  the  case  of  a  rain- 
barrel,  until  a  shower  brings  the  water  to  their  level.  Attention  to 
the  artificial  collections  of  water  about  dwellings  will  be  the  prin- 
cipal factor  in  reducing  the  numbers  of  this  species. 

The  Forest  Mosquito,  Stegomyia  Scutellaris. — ^This  species  and 
the  yellow-fever  mosquito  are  known  locally  as  the  day  mosquitoes. 


060  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

While  Stegomyia  Scutellaris  breeds  in  such  places  as  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  yellow-fever  species,  it  differs  from  the  latter 
in  that  it  is  not  restricted  to  such  collections  of  water.  It  has  often 
been  found  breeding  in  small  bodies  of  water  in  the  forest.  These 
places  have  been  sometimes  far  removed  from  habitations  and  on 
several  occasions  have  been  discovered  where  not  more  than  one 
person  would  visit,  on  the  average,  in  a  year's  time.  These  natural 
breeding  places  are  such  small  amounts  of  water  as  may  be  con- 
tained in  a  hollow  stump  of  a  tree  or  limb,  a  depression  in  a  stone 
in  the  bed  of  a  mountain  stream,  or  the  leaves  of  plants. 

Natural  Enemies  and  Diseases  of  Mosquitoes. — The  dragon- 
flies  or  mosquito-hawks  are  the  most  effectual  enemies  of  the  mos- 
quitoes that  we  have  here.  The  dragon-flies,  Odenata,  are  for  the 
most  part  members  of  the  single  genus  Agrion.  In  searching  the 
swampy  places  for  the  larvae  of  the  mosquito  it  was  not  unusual 
to  dip  up  with  the  same  dipperful  of  water  from  the  net,  the  larvae 
of  mosquitoes  and  the  nymphs  or  young  of  dragon-flies,  while  the 
adult  dragon-flies  could  be  seen  flying  in  m^Tiads  over  these  places. 
This  is  significant  when  it  is  known  that  the  dragon-fly  is  preda- 
ceous  in  both  the  young  and  the  adult  forms ;  the  young  dragon-fly, 
an  aquatic  insect,  feeding  on  the  larvae  of  the  mosquito  in  the  water 
and  the  adult  preying  on  the  winged  insect  in  the  air.  This  highly 
beneficial,  strong  flying  and  beautiful  insect  is  met  at  all  elevations. 

A  single  gold-fish  in  an  aquarium  ate  over  one  hundred  and 
fifty  larvae  in  twenty-four  hours'  time.  Other  specimens  placed  in 
pools  containing  mosquito  larvae  were  aftenvards  dissected  and  the 
stomach  contents  were  found  to  consist  almost  entirely  of  the  re- 
mains of  the  bodies  of  larvae.  From  these  experiments,  gold-fish 
were  placed  in  watering-troughs,  tanks  and  pools,  with  the  result 
that  the  young  of  mosquitoes  did  not  develop  in  these  places. 
Search  was  made  for  larvae  in  lily-ponds  and  fountains  where  gold- 
fish occurred  and  conditions  verified  the  above  experiments. — 
(Hawaii  E.  S.  B.  6.) 

Abolition  of  Breeding  Places. — In  considering  this  general 
question  just  as  in  considering  so  many  questions  relating  to  mos- 
quitoes, a  complication  arises  from  the  enormous  mass  of  facts 
concerning  the  life  histories  of  the  different  species  of  mosquitoes; 
facts  discovered,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  past  three  or  four  years. 
There  la  much  diversity  in  the  breeding  places  of  different  species. 
Those  of  the  two  commonest  household  mosquitoes,  namely,  Culex 
pipien^  in  the  North  and  C.  quinquefasciatus  and  Aedes  (Stegom- 
yia) calopus  in  the  South,  correspond  well  to  generalizations  for- 
merly named,  breeding  as  these  specias  do  in  every  chance  recep- 
tacle of  water  about  residences,  and  their  destruction  means  the 
abolition  of  all  such  receptacles.  Where  the  rain-water  barrel  or 
the  rain-water  tank  are  necessary  they  should  be  screened.  In  New 
Orleans  and  other  southern  cities  the  boards  of  health  are  now 
enforcing  such  screening.  This  should  be  done  with  extreme  care, 
a  fine  mesh  wire  being  used  and  the  fitting  being  made  very  perfect. 


OTHER  ANIMALS  '  661 

About  a  given  house  the  waste  places  in  the  immediate  vicinity- 
should  be  carefully  searched  for  tin  cans,  bottles,  and  wooden  or 
tin  boxes  in  which  water  can  accumulate,  and  all  such  receptacles 
should  be  destroyed  or  carted  away.  The  roof  gutters  of  the  build- 
ing should  be  carefully  examined  to  make  sure  that  they  are  not 
clogged  so  as  to  allow  water  to  accumulate.  The  chicken  pans  in 
the  poultry  yard,  the  water  troughs  for  domestic  animals,  the  water 
cup  of  the  grindstone,  are  all  places  in  which  mosquitoes  will  breed 
and  in  them  water  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  for  more  than  a 
day  or  so  at  a  time.  In  the  South  the  water  accumulating  under 
water  tanks  should  be  treated  or  drained  away.  The  urns  in  the 
cemeteries  at  New  Orleans  have  been  found  to  breed  mosquitoes 
abundantly.  The  holy  water  fonts  in  Roman  Catholic  churches, 
especially  in  the  South,  have  commonly  been  found  to  breed  mos- 
quitoes; in  some  places  sponges  have  been  substituted  for  standing 
water,  and  other  churches  have  adopted  a  closed  font,  which  allows 
the  holy  water  to  issue  through  a  small  spigot.  In  still  other 
churches  salt  has  been  put  in  the  water  to  prevent  the  breeding  of 
mosquitoes.  In  slightly  marshy  ground  a  favorite  breeding  place 
is  in  the  footprints  of  cattle  and  horses.  In  one  country  village, 
which  contained  many  small  vegetable  gardens  in  a  clay  soil,  dur- 
ing the  rainy  season  mosquitoes  were  found  breeding  abundantly 
in  the  water  accumulating  in  the  furrows  in  the  gardens. 

Even  in  the  house  mosquitoes  breed  in  many  places  where  they 
may  be  overlooked.  Where  the  water  in  flower  vases  is  not  fre- 
quently changed  mosquitoes  will  breed.  They  will  breed  in  water 
pitchers  in  unused  guest  rooms.  They  will  breed  in  the  tanks  in 
water-closets  when  these  are  not  frequently  in  use.  They  will  breed 
in  pipes  and  under  stationary  washstands  where  these  are  not  fre- 
quently in  use,  and  they  will  issue  from  the  sewer  traps  in  back 
yards  in  city  houses  during  dry  spells  in  the  summer  time  when 
sewers  have  not  recently  been  flushed  by  heavy  rains.  In  ware- 
houses and  on  docks  they  breed  abundantly  in  the  fire  buckets  and 
water  barrels. 

In  country  houses  in  the  South  where  ants  are  troublesome 
and  w^here  it  is  the  custom  to  insulate  the  legs  of  the  tables  with 
small  cups  of  water,  mosquitoes  will  breed  in  these  cups  unless  a 
small  quantity  of  kerosene  is  poured  in.  Where  broken  bottles  are 
placed  upon  a  stone  wall  to  form  a  cheval-de-f rise,  water  accumu- 
lates in  the  bottle  fragments  after  rains  and  mosquitoes  will  breed 
there.  Old  disused  wells  in  gardens  are  frequent  sources  of  mos- 
quito supply,  even  where  apparently  carefully  covered,  and  hero 
the  nuisance  is  easily  abated  by  the  occasional  application  of  kero- 
sene. The  same  thing  may  be  said  of  cesspools.  Cesspools  are 
frequently  covered  with  stone  and  cement,  but  the  slightest  break 
in  the  cement,  the  slightest  crack,  will  allow  the  entrance  of  these 
minute  insects  and  unlimited  breeding  often  goes  on  in  these  pools 
without  a  suspicion  of  the  cause  of  the  abundance  of  mosquitoes  in 
the  neighborhood. 


662  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

Fountains  and  ornamental  ponds  are  frequent  breeding  places, 
and  here  the  introduction  of  feh,  as  indicated  in  another  place,  is 
usually  all-sufficient.  It  frequently  happens,  however,  that  the. 
grass  IS  allowed  to  grow  down  into  the  edges  of  ornamental  ponds 
and  mosquito  larvae  find  refuge  among  the  vegetation  and  so  escape 
the  fish.  Broad-leaved  water  plants  are  also  often  growm  in  such, 
ponds,  and  where  these  broad  leaves  lie  flat  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water,  as  they  frequently  do,  one  portion  of  a  given  leaf  may  be 
submerged  so  that  mosquito  larva)  may  breed  freely  in  the  water 
over  the  submerged  portion  of  the  leaf,  protected  from  fish  by  the 
leaf  itself,  the  fish  rising  from  below.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
keep  the  edges  of  such  ornamental  ponds  free  from  vegetation  and 
to  choose  aquatic  plants  whose  growth  wull  not  permit  of  mosquito- 
larvae  protection.  In  many  small  country  towns,  even  where  there 
is  a  water  supply,  tanks  are  to  be  found  under  the  roofs  to  supply 
bathrooms.  Such  tanks  should  be  screened,  since  mosquitoes  gain 
entrance  to  the  tank-room  either  through  dormer  windows  or  by 
flying  up  through  the  house  from  below  in  search  of  ovipositing 
places.  About  a  large  old  house  there  are  so  many  of  these  chance- 
oreeding  places  that  only  the  most  careful  and  long-continued 
search  will  find  them  all.  Frequent  change  of  water  or  the  use 
of  kerosene  will  render  them  all  harmless. 

In  community  work  in  cities  all  of  the  points  mentioned  must 
be  borne  in  mind,  and  in  the  portions  of  the  community  where  the 
residences  are  for  the  most  part  detached  villas,  in  the  absence  of 
swampy  suburbs  the  householders  are  in  the  main  responsible  for 
their  own  mosquitoes.  There  are,  however,  breeding  places  for 
which  the  municipality  may  be  said  to  be  responsible  and  these 
entirely  aside  from  public  fountains,  reservoirs,  or  marshes.  It 
seems  unlikely  that  in  any  general  sewage  system  mosquitoes  may 
breed  in  the  sewers  proper.  That  they  do  breed  in  the  catch-basins 
is  well  known.  The  purpose  of  the  catch-basin  is  to  catch  and  retain 
by  sedimentation  sand  and  refuse  which  w'ould  otherwise  enter  the 
sewer  and  deposit  in  it.  It  is  intended  to  be  watertight  and  to  hold 
a  considerable  body  of  water  which  stands  in  it  up  to  the  level  of 
the  outlet  pipe.  Such  catch-basins  are  very  commonly  used  in  back 
yards  and  at  the  crossings  of  streets.  The  water  is  removed  only 
by  rain  or  when  street  or  yard  surfaces  are  washed.  In  dry  seasens 
the  period  of  stagnation  may  last  several  w'eeks,  certainly  long 
enough  for  mosquito  breeding.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  mosquitoes  in 
midsummer  do  breed  in  such  basin  traps  or  catch-basins  by  mil- 
lions. 

PROTECTION  FROM  BITES. 

Protective  Liquids. — A  number  of  different  substances  have 
been  in  use  to  rub  upon  the  skin  or  to  put  near  the  bed  as  a  pro- 
tection from  mosquitoes.  Spirits  of  camphor  rubbed  upon  the  face 
and  hands,  or  a  few  drops  on  the  pillow  at  night,  will  keep  away 
mosquitoes  for  a  time,  and  this  is  also  a  well-known  property  of  oil 
of  pennyroyal.  Oil  of  peppermint,  lemon  juice,  and  vinegar  have 
all  been  recommended  for  use  as  protectors  against  mosquitoes, 


OTHER  ANIMALS  665 

while  oil  of  tar  has  been  used  in  bad  mosquito  localities.    A  mix- 
ture recommended  by  E.  H.  Gane,  of  New  York,  is  the  following: 

Castor  oil    ounce. .    1 

Alcohol    do 1 

Oil  of  lavender do ... .    1 

Fishermen  and  hunters  in  the  north  woods  will  find  that  a 
good  mixture  against  mosquitoes  and  black  flies  can  be  made  as 
follows:  Take  21/2  pounds  of  mutton  tallow  and  strain  it.  While 
still  hot  add  one-half  pound  black  tar  (Canadian  tar),  stir  thor- 
oughly, and  pour  into  the  receptacle  in  which  it  is  to  be  contained. 
When  nearly  cool  stir  in  3  ounces  of  oil  of  citronella  and  ll^  ounces 
of  pennyroyal.  Oscar  Samostz,  of  Austin,  Tex.,  recommends  the 
following  formula: 

Oil  of  citronella ounce. .   1 

Liquid  vaselinei    ounces. .  4 

Apply  freely  to  exposed  parts. 
Doctor  Durham,  of  the  English  Yellow  Fever  Commission, 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  said  that  he  and  the  late  Doctor  Myers  found  that 
a  5  per  cent  solution  of  sulphate  of  potash  prevented  mosquitoes 
from  biting,  and  that  they  were  obliged  to  use  this  mixture  while  at 
work  in  their  laboratory  in  Brazil  to  prevent  themselves  from  being 
badly  bitten. 

Remedies  for  Mosquito  Bites. — It  must  have  been  the  experi- 
ence of  most  people  that  ordinarily  little  swelling  and  irritation 
result  from  the  puncture  of  a  mosquito  where  there  has  been  no 
scratching  or  rubbing  of  the  part.  But  individuals  vary  greatly  in 
this  respect,  and  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  not  only  do  different 
species  of  mosquitoes  vary  in  their  effect,  but  that  different  indi- 
viduals of  the  same  species  may  also  vary.  The  application  of 
household  ammonia  has  been  found  by  many  to  give  relief,  and 
alcohol  is  also  said  to  stop  the  irritation.  Dr.  E.  0.  Peck,  of  Mor- 
ristown,  N.  J.,  finds  glycerin  a  sovereign  remedy.  Touch  the  bito 
with  glycerin  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  pain  is  gone.  Dr.  Charles 
A.  Nash,  of  New  York  City,  marks  the  puncture  with  a  lump  of 
indigo  and  states  that  this  instantly  stops  the  irritation,  no  matter 
whether  the  application  is  made  immediately  or  after  the  lapse  of  a 
day  or  so.  The  most  satisfactory  remedy  known  to  the  writer  from 
his  own  personal  experience  has  been  moist  soap.  Wet  the  end  of  a 
piece  of  ordinary  toilet  soap  and  rub  it  gently  on  the  puncture  and 
speedily  the  irritation  will  pass  away.  Mr.  Charles  Stevenson,  of 
Montreal,  writing  to  the  Canadian  Entomologist  in  September, 
1901,  stated  that  he  found  naphthaline  moth  balls  to  afford  imme- 
diate relief  from  the  bites  of  dangerous  Diptera,  including  mosqui- 
toes, and  that  a  friend  of  his  had  used  it  successfully  on  flea-bites. 
He  advises  rubbing  the  moth  ball  on  the  affected  part  for  a  few 
minutes.  Naphthaline  is  also  recommended  by  Professor  Boges, 
director  of  the  national  board  of  health  at  Buenos  Aires.  lodin  is 
frequently  recommended  for  this  purpose,  and  a  note  in  a  recent 
number  of  the  Journal  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Hygiene  recom- 
mends a  modification  in  the  shape  of  30  to  40  grain*  of  iodin  to 


666  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

the  ounce  of  saponated  petroleum,  stating,  a  few  drops  rubbed  in 
a  mosquito  bite  or  wasp  sting  allays  the  pain  instantaneously.  Rev. 
R.  W.  Anderson,  rector  of  St.  Thomas  and  St.  Dennis,  wrote  us 
from  Wan  do,  S.  C,,  some  years  ago,  that  he  has  often  found  that  by 
holding  his  hand  to  a  hot  lamp  chimney  the  irritation  of  mosquito 
punctures  would  be  instantly  relieved. — (Agr.  Dep.  Bu.  Ent.  B.  88.) 

HORSE   FLIES. 

The  Black-Striped  Horsefly  {Tahanus  Lasiophthalmus  Mac- 
quart). — This  species  was  reared  from  the  egg  to  the  adult.  The 
fly  is  one  of  the  earliest  of  its  genus  to  appear  in  the  spring,  adults 
having  been  taken  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  as  early  as  May  20,  and  it 
is  common  during  the  first  half  of  June.  The  eggs  are  placed  in 
masses  on  various  plants  that  grow  in  low,  wet  ground,  but  have 
not  been  observed  over  water.  The  masses  are  pure  shining  black 
when  fully  covered,  rather  small  for  members  of  the  genus,  only 
slightly  convex,  and  accompanied  with  an  unusual  amount  of 
cementing  material,  which  nearly  obscures  the  form  and  arrange- 
nuent  of  the  individual  eggs.  The  mass  in  place  suggests  somewhat 
a  drop  of  tar  or  other  black  substance  fastened  to  the  surface  of  a 
leaf  of  the  common  cattail  reed  (Typha  latifolia),  a  sedge,  or  some 
other  pant.  The  eggs  are  usually  deposited  after  the  10th  of  June, 
and  the  specimens  from  which  larvae  for  rearing  hatched  were 
taken  in  Medina  County,  Ohio,  on  a  common  sedge  found  growing 
near  the  outlet  of  a  small  spring. 

The  Autumn  Horsefly  (Tabanus  Sulcifrons  Macquart). — This 
is  one  of  the  common  species  of  its  family  over  a  wide  range.  It  is 
not  so  generally  distributed  as  some  of  the  other  species,  but  where 
it  occurs  is  apt  to  be  abundant  and  very  injurious  to  all  kinds  of 
stock.  I  have  studied  the  species  in  several  localities,  but  most  of 
my  knowledge  of  its  habits  was  gained  in  Summit  and  Medina 
counties,  Ohio,  where  it  is  a  pest  of  the  first  magnitude.  This  coun- 
try, where  the  ground  is  highest,  has  an  elevation  of  1,000  to  1,200 
feet,  and  is  more  or  less  broken  by  gullies  crossing  here  and  there, 
and  through  each  flows  a  stream  of  clear  water. 

The  Black  Horsefly  (Tabanus  Atratus  Fabricius). — The  eggs 
of  this  horsefly  are  placed  in  masses  of  various  sizes  on  the  leaves 
and  stems  of  grasses  and  sedges  and  other  plants  growing  in  marshy 
or  wet  ground,  but  not  necessarily  in  the  water.  A  single  mass  may 
contain  as  many  as  500  eggs,  but  often  they  are  smaller  and  they 
may  be  larger;  they  are  white  when  first  placed,  but  soon  turn 
brownish.  The  mass  is  very  convex  and  composed  of  several  layers, 
one  above  the  other,  the  bottom  layer  being  attached  to  the  surface 
of  the  leaf  or  stem  and  the  other  layers  each  to  the  one  that  was 
placed  before  it.  A  female  was  observed  ovipositing  June  23  at  11 
o'clock.  It  has  been  proven  that  the  eggs  of  tabanids  hatch  more 
quickly  when  exposed  to  the  sun  during  the  day,  than  where  they  are 
usually  deposited;  therefore,  the  time  given  is  probably  too  long 
for  eggs  under  natural  conditions.  There  is  no  definite  way,  so  far 
as  observed,  of  telling  the  eggs  of  the  black  horsefly  from  those  of 
other  species  of  its  genus,  but  being  a  large  species  the  masSfes  are 


OTHER  ANIMALS  667 

much  larger  than  in  some  others,  and  are  more  convex  than  usual. 
The  particular  place  of  oviposition  is  in  a  measure  characteristic. 

The  Black  and  White  Horsefly  (Tabanus  Stygius  Say). — This 
horsefly  is  very  common  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Lake  Laboratory,  at 
Sandusky,  Ohio,  where  most  of  my  observations  on  the  species  were 
made.  The  adults  appear  about  the  1st  of  July  each  season,  and 
are  on  the  win^  for  several  weeks  thereafter.  Tho  females  were 
often  observed  biting  cattle  and  horses,  and  are  known  to  be  impor- 
tant stock  pests.  The  males  were  often  seen  in  the  marshes,  on 
grasses  infested  by  aphides,  and  it  is  known  that  this  sex,  and  occa- 
sionally the  females  also,  feed  on  honeydew  which  these  insects 
excrete.  The  species  oviposits  principally  on  the  leaves  of  Sagit 
taria  standing  in  shallow  water,  habitually  placing  the  eggs  just 
above  the  point  where  the  petiole  meets  the  expanded  part  of  the 
leaf.  The  precision  with  which  this  habit  is  followed  becomes  a 
matter  of  much  interest. 

FIELD  MICE. 

While  the  food  habits  of  the  various  species  of  short-tailed  field 
mice  are  remarkably  similar,  their  habits  and  breeding  differ  greatly. 
Some  species  prefer  high  and  dry  ground,  while  others  live  in  low 
and  moist  places.  Some  species  live  in  forests,  others  in  the  open 
prairies ;  some  burrow  underground  like  moles,  others  make  smooth 
paths  or  trails  upon  its  surface.  The  nests  of  field  mice  are  compact 
bunches  of  grass  blades  and  other  dry  vegetable  fibers,  and  are  ad- 
mirably located  in  respect  to  drainage.  Most  surface  nests  are  for 
shelter  only  as  for  the  most  part  the  young  are  bom  in  underground 
nests. 

The  breeding  season  includes  most  months  of  the  year,  except 
midwinter  in  cold  latitudes.  Some  species  normally  produce  from 
two  to  four  litters  a  year,  while  others  produce  from  four  to  eight. 
Period  of  gestation  probably  about  twenty  days.  The  common 
meadow  mouse  of  the  United  States  is  one  of  tho  most  prolific  of  our 
species.  Estimating  the  normal  increase  at  six  young  with  four  lit- 
ters in  a  season,  without  making  allowances  for  any  loss,  a  single 
pair  would  produce  in  five  seasons  nearly  1,000,000  individuals. 

In  summer  the  chief  food  of  field  mice  is  green  vegetation  and 
unripe  seeds  of  grain  and  grasses,  later  in  the  season  ripe  seeds  be- 
come an  important  diet.  In  winter  bulbous  and  other  roots  with 
stored  seeds  are  largely  eaten.  During  cold  weather  young  forest 
trees  and  young  apple  orchards  suffer  from  attacks  of  mice.  Black- 
berries, raspberries,  currants,  grapes,  strawberries,  etc.,  are  often  ba/lly 
damaged  by  girdling  done  by  field  mice.  In  fact,  sometimes  whole 
plantations  are  ruined.  Field  mice  destroy  bulbs,  perennial  plants, 
woody  shrubs,  and  ornamental  vines.  Neglected  young  apple  or- 
chards are  sometimes  almost  completely  ruined,  the  damage  is  fre- 
quently very  considerable. 

Fortunately  for  tho  farmer  there  are  several  natural  agenciee 
that  tend  to  hold  the  mice  in  check.  Tvong  and  severe  cold  winters 
with  dry  summers  seem  to  be  unfavorable  for  their  production.  Tlie 
diief  natural  enemies  of  field  mice  are:  (1)  mammals  both  wild  and 


668  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

domestic;  (2)  birds;  and  (3)  snakes.  Among  the  wild  mammals  of 
the  United  States  known  to  feed  upon  field  mice,  are  wolves,  lynxes, 
foxes,  badgers,  raccoons,  opossums,  skunks,  weasels,  mink,  etc. 

Skunks  are  efficient  destroyers  of  field  mice,  as  are  the  various 
species  of  weasels.  Badgers  devote  much  time  to  digging  out  field 
mice  from  their  burrows.  Foxes  also  destroy  many  field  mice,  in 
some  instances  the  contents  of  their  stomachs  show  that  their  food 
consists  quite  largely  of  these  rodents.  Of  course,  dogs  and  cats  de- 
stroy large  numbers,  particularly  near  dwellings,  but  it  is  question- 
able whether  the  mice  that  cats  destroy  will  even  in  a  small  measure 
compensate  for  the  destruction  of  beneficial  birds  done  by  these  ani- 
mals. Among  the  birds  that  destroy  field  mice  may  be  mentioned 
shrikes  or  butcher  birds,  crows,  herons,  bitterns,  gulls,  hawks  and 
owls.  At  the  head  of  this  list  should  be  placed  hawks  and  owls,  as 
nearly  all  of  these  birds  feed  largely  on  mice,  and  consequently  are 
very  beneficial  to  the  agricultural  interests. 

Snakes  undoubtedly  destroy  large  numbers  of  field  mice  and  to 
this  extent  at  least  they  are  the  friends  of  the  farmer.  Mice  may  be 
destroyed  by  trapping,  fumigating  and  by  poisoning.  The  orchard- 
ist,  however,  finds  it  necessary  to  rely  on  protective  measures  for  the 
safety  of  his  young  trees.  So  it  is  customary  to  put  bandages  of 
tarred  building  paper  or  of  closely  woven  wire  about  the  bodies  of  the 
young  trees  close  to  the  ground.  These  are  usually  removed  during 
the  summer  months. — (Dept,  Agr.  Biol.  Sur.  B.  31.) 

JACK  RABBITS. 

The  great  plains  and  deserts  of  the  Western  United  States  are 
inhabited  by  several  species  of  large  hares  commonly  known  as  jack 
rabbits.  They  occur  almost  everywhere,  except  in  the  higher  moun- 
tains and  wooded  regions  from  the  95th  Meridian  west  to  the  Pa- 
cific, and  from  the  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan  and  southward  to  the 
Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  The  resemblance  of  their  large  ears  to 
those  of  the  well-known  pack  animal  of  the  West  has  suggested  the 
name  jack  rabbit. 

General  Habits. — Jack  rabbits  are  seen  throughout  the  day,  and 
hence  are  easily  recognized  by  the  most  casual  observer.  Living  as 
they  do  on  the  open  plain  they  are  compelled  to  rely  for  safety  on 
acuteness  of  hearing  and  on  quickness  of  speed.  Unlike  the  "cotton- 
tails" these  hares  do  not  live  in  burrows,  but  make  their  ''forms"  or 
nests  under  bushes  or  in  patches  of  weeds  where  they  find  some  pro- 
tection. Extremes  of  climate  apparently  do  not  affect  them  to  any 
great  extent.  Some  species  are  at  home  in  the  deserts  of  Arizona  and 
California  and  others  contrive  to  exist  in  the  intense  cold  of  the  Mon- 
tana winter. 

Food. — Like  other  rabbits  they  feed  almost  exclusively  on  the 
bark  and  leaves  of  shrubs  and  on  herbage;  hardly  any  land  is  too 
poor  to  supply  this  food  in  some  form.  On  the  great  plain  buffalo 
and  grama  grass  and  such  herbs  as  they  can  find  constitute  their  diet. 
If  necessary  they  can  travel  long  distances  for  food,  but,  as  they  sel- 
dom drink,  scarcity  of  water  causes  them  little  inconvenience.  They 
ars  fond  cf  vegetables  and  alfalfa  and  when  these  can  be  obtained 


OTHER  ANIMALS  669 

they  desert  their  usual  food  and  establish  themselves  near  the  garden 
or  cultivated  field.  They  thus  become  particularly  destructive  in  the 
fertile  areas.  As  jack  rabbits  multiply  rapidly  they  often  become 
great  pests.  They  have  comparatively  few  natural  enemies,  and  if 
not  held  in  check  by  other  agencies  would  doubtless  over-run  the 
country. 

Breeding  Habits. — The  breeding  habits  of  the  various  jack  rab- 
bits in  many  respects  are  much  like  those  of  the  Old  World  hares  and 
rabbits.  Compared  with  the  domesticated  rabbit,  the  jack  rabbit  does 
not  increase  very  rapidly.  The  number  of  young  at  a  birth  varies 
from  one  to  six ;  the  average  probably  is  between  three  and  tour.  It 
is  almost  impossible  to  determine  the  exact  date  of  birth,  unless  the 
animals  are  kept  in  captivity,  but  the  time  can  be  estimated  approxi- 
mately. The  period  of  gestation  is  about  thirty  days.  It  may  be  as- 
sumed that  jack  rabbits  attain  their  full  size  in  about  two  months. 
Drives  or  hunts  organized  for  the  extermination  of  rabbits  should 
take  place  before  the  beginning  of  the  breeding  season,  as  just  after 
the  3'oung  are  bom  the  rabbit  population  in  any  given  place  may  be 
several  times  what  it  was  six  weeks  previous.  Drives  in  Southern 
California  should  therefore  be  made  in  December,  January  and  Feb- 
ruary ;  in  Colorado  and  Utah  hunts  made  before  the  1st  of  February 
will  accomplish  much  more  than  those  made  in  April.  In  Idaho  they 
may  be  postponed  somewhat  later  with  equally  as  good  results. 

Jack  rabbits  may  be  used  for  coursing,  for  their  skins,  or  for 
food.  The  United  States  imports  annually  millions  of  rabbit  skins 
for  felt  and  other  purposes.  The  skins  of  jack  rabbits  could  prob- 
ably be  used  for  many  purposes  for  which  the  cheaper  grades  of  im- 
ported skins  are  now  utilized,  and  could  be  collected  so  cheaply  as  to 
leave  a  margin  of  profit. 

The  consumption  of  jack  rabbits  for  food  in  some  winters  has 
been  estimated  at  500,000.  This  game  can  be  obtained  in  consider- 
able quantities  on  the  plains  and  on  the  deserts  of  the  Great  Basin, 
and  may  be  profitably  shipped  to  Eastern  markets  to  the  mutual  ben- 
efit of  the  fanner  and  the  consumer.  Jack  rabbits  usually  bring  from 
75  cents  to  $3  per  dozen.  In  extreme  cases  they  sometimes  bring  $1 
to  $1.50  per  pair. — (Dep.  Agr.  Div.  Biol.  Sur.  B.  8.) 

RABBITS. 

The  American  farmer  suffers  severe  losses  from  the  depredations 
of  rodents,  from  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases.  Because  of  their 
wide  distribution  and  great  abundance,  rabbits  hold  a  prominent 
place  among  rodent  pests.  They  are  larger  than  rats  and  mice  and 
almost  as  prolific,  and  under  some  circumstances  inflict  greater  dam- 
ages to  crops  and  trees,  even  greater  than  that  caused  by  field  mice. 

Distribution  of  Rabbits. — Rabbits  are  so  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  United  States  that  nearly  all  cultivated  districts  con- 
tain one  or  more  species.  They  also  occur  in  the  mountains  and  des- 
erts remote  from  agriculture.  In  all  about  30  species  inhabit  North 
America. 

The  Common  Gray  Rabbit  or  Cottontail. — This  species  occurs 
from  the  southern  parts  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Vennont 


G70  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

southward  to  Florida  and  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  westward  to  the  plains. 

Breeding  Habits. — Our  American  rabbits  are  not  so  prolific  as 
the  common  European  species.  Some  of  them  produce  three  or  four 
litters  of  young  in  a  season,  while  others  seem  to  breed  but  twice. 
The  period  of  gestation  is  about  thirty  days,  and  the  breeding  season 
is  from  April  to  September  or  even  later.  The  young  are  produced 
in  natural  depressions  under  rocks,  stumps,  or  weeds,  or  in  shallow 
burrows  made  by  other  animals.  When  these  are  lacking,  the  female 
scratches  a  shallow  hole  under  a  bunch  of  grass  or  weeds.  In  the  hol- 
low thus  chosen  or  prepared  she  makes  a  nest  of  leaves  or  grasses  and 
lines  it  with  fur  from  her  own  body.  Here  the  young,  numbering 
from  2  to  7  (averaging  in  most  of  our  species  about  4),  are  produced. 
The  young  are  fully  furred  and  have  their  eyes  open  when  born.  The 
female,  while  caring  for  her  young,  remains  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
nest.  If  enemies  approach,  she  runs  away  for  a  short  distance ;  but 
when  the  young  are  attacked  and  cry  out,  she  has  been  known  to 
fight  desperately  in  their  defense,  and  even  to  vanquish  such  a  for- 
midable foe  as  a  cat  or  a  snake.  When  attacking,  she  jumps  and 
strikes  the  enemy  with  her  hind  feet — members  capable  of  a  powerful 
blow,  as  many  a  boy  who  has  captured  a  live  rabbit  can  testify. 

Young  rabbits  are  attended  and  suckled  in  the  nest  for  about 
three  weeks,  after  which  they  are  left  to  shift  for  themselves.  Since 
usually  succulent  food  is  abundant,  this  is  not  a  difficult  task,  and, 
subject  to  the  vicissitudes  of  climate  and  the  attacks  of  natural  ene- 
mies, they  soon  adapt  themselves  to  an  independent  life.  Apparently 
the  mother  takes  no  further  interest  in  the  career  of  her  offspring. 
The  male  parent  is  probably  never  concerned  in  the  care  of  the 
young. 

Food  of  Rabbits. — Rabbits  are  strict  vegetarians,  animal  food 
never  being  eaten  by  the  adults.  They  eat  all  sorts  of  herbage — 
leaves,  stems,  flowers,  and  seeds  of  herbaceous  plants  and  grasses,  and 
leaves,  buds,  bark,  and  fruit  of  woody  plants  or  trees.  The  most  suc- 
culent kinds,  such  as  young  shoots,  tender  garden  vegetables,  clover, 
alfalfa,  and  fallen  ripe  fruits,  are  generally  preferred ;  but  when  these 
fail,  any  green  vegetable  growth  seems  acceptable,  and  the  bark  of 
trees  is  often  resorted  to  when  deep  snows  cover  other  supplies  or 
during  long  summer  droughts. 

The  common  cottontail  is  fond  of  frequenting  farms  and  plan- 
tations and  makes  its  "forms"  under  brush  heaps  or  in  tufts  of  grass, 
bunches  of  weeds,  briers,  or  bushes.  It  occupies  this  form,  or  nest, 
by  day  and  at  night  moves  about,  feeding  upon  the  succulent  vege- 
tables in  the  farmer's  garden,  or  the  clover,  turnips,  or  corn  in  his 
fields.  In  the  fall  it  feasts  upon  apples,  cabbages,  turnips,  and  the 
like  left  exposed  in  garden  and  orchard,  and  in  winter,  when  all  else 
is  frozen  hard  or  covered  with  snow,  it  turns  its  attention  to  twigs  and 
bark  of  woody  plants,  often  doing  much  damage  to  young  trees.  The 
other  species  of  rabbits  have  similar  habits,  varying  with  the  environ- 
ment of  the  animals.  In  the  West  some  of  the  smaller  kinds  live 
largely  in  the  abandoned  burrows  of  prairie  dogs,  badgers,  and  other 
animals. 


OTHER  ANIMALS  671 

Injury  to  Field  Crop.?.— Rabbits  feed  upon  nearly  all  growing 
crops,  but  the  damage  to  small  grains  is  usually  so  slight  as  to  pass 
unnoticed.  Wheat  and  rye  afford  abundant  pasture  for  rabbits  dur- 
ing open  A\nnters,  and  this  without  apparent  effect  upon  the  yield  of 
gr^n  Rabbits  eat  very  little  mature  grain,  except  com  in  winter, 
and  tins  is  but  seldom  damaged  as  long  as  green  herbage  can  be  ob- 
tained. Clover  and  alfalfa  are  favorite  foods  with  all  our  rabbits, 
and  these  crops  are  badly  damaged  by  them.  In  the  West  alfalfa  is 
the  principal  forage  crop  over  considerable  areas,  growing  often  amid 
arid  surroundings. 

RABBITS. 

Injury  to  Gardens. — Rabbits  are  fond  of  nearly  all  garden 
vegetables,  but  are  particularly  partial  to  peas  and  cabbage,  eating 
the  plants  in  all  stages  of  growth.  They  often  invade  market  gardens 
and  truck  patches  near  towns  and  do  much  damage. 

Injury  to  Trees. — Rabbits  injure  trees  and  shrubs  in  two  ways, 
by  cutting  off  the  ends  of  branches  and  twigs  within  reach  and  by 
eating  the  bark.  ^  Young  nursery  trees  and  forest  seedlings,  both 
evergreen  and  deciduous,  are  destroyed  in  the  first  way,  while  orchard 
trees  and  even  forest  trees  are  badly  damaged  and  frequently  killed 
in  the  second  way. — (U.  S.  Year  Book,  1907.) 

Rabbit-Proof  Fences. — \\^ien  rabbits  are  abundant  and  the  area 
to  be  protected  is  not  too  great,  a  rabbit-proof  fence  may  be  profitably 
employed.  Woven  wire  nettings  are  generally  used  for  this  purpose. 
In  the  Australian  colonies  such  fences  are  erected  by  the  Government 
to  confine  rabbits  to  certain  districts,  as  well  as  by  private  owners  to 
protect  crops.  As  the  Australian  pest  is  a  burrowing  species — the 
European  rabbit  {Lepus  cuniculus) — the  requirements  for  a  rabbit- 
proof  fence  differ  from  those  necessary  in  this  country.  Even  with 
our  species  there  is  some  danger  of  their  digging  under  fences,  and 
this  may  be  prevented  either  by  the  use  of  a  barbed  wire  in  contact 
■with  the  ground  or  by  plowing  a  furrow  against  the  lower  edge  of  the 
ware  netting.  A  netting  of  galvanized  wire  with  I'/^-inch  mesh  and 
from  2  to  3  feet  high  is  a  sufllicient  barrier  against  rabbits.  Many 
market  gardeners  and  nurserymen  use  the  2-foot  width. 

Tree  Protection. — The  devices  that  have  been  recommended  for 
protecting  trees  from  rabbits  are  too  numerous  for  separate  mention. 
The  majority  consist  of  paints,  washes,  or  smears  of  various  kinds, 
supposed  to  be  distasteful  to  the  animals.  Unfortunately,  those  that 
are  sufficiently  permanent  to  afford  protection  for  an  entire  winter 
often  injure  or  even  kill  the  trees  to  which  they  are  applied.  Coal 
tar,  pine  tar,  tarred  paper,  and  various  oils  are  likely  to  kill  young 
trees.  Blood  and  animal  fats  when  freshly  applied  ^\'ill  protect  from 
rabbits,  but  are  objectionable,  since  thev  are  highly  attractive  to  the 
destructive  short-tailed  field  mice.  Carlbolic  acid  and  other  volatile 
substances  afford  only  temporary  protection,  and  must  be  renewed  too 
often  to  justify  their  use.  Bitter  substances,  like  commercial  aloes, 
or  quas.«ia,  are  useless  against  rabbits.  Among  the  most  promising 
wasnes  that  have  been  recommended  for  tree  protection  is  the  "lime- 
and-sulphur"  wash,  so  effective  in  winter  for  the  destruction  of  the 


672  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

San  Jose  scale.    Several  correspondents  of  the  Biological  Survey  have 
affirmed  its  efficacy  in  protecting  trees  from  both  mice  and  rabbits. 

Mechanical  contrivances  for  protecting  young  orchard  trees  are 
many.  Where  protection  from  rabbits  only  is  required,  woven  wire 
netting  is  recommended.  This  should  be  made  of  No.  20  galvanized 
wire,  1-inch  mesh,  such  as  is  often  used  for  poultry  netting.  For 
cottontail  rabbits  rolls  18  inches  wide  are  recommended,  but  as  a  pro- 
tection against  jack  rabbits  wider  material  is  safer.  The  wire  is  cut 
into  1-foot  lengths,  and  one  of  these  sections  is  rolled  into  shape  about 
the  trunk  of  each  tree,  the  ends  being  brought  together  and  fastened 
at  several  places  by  means  of  the  wire  ends.  No  other  fastening  is 
needed.  The  wire  is  not  in  contact  with  the  trunk  and  may  be  left  on 
the  tree  permanently.  It  will  probably  la.st  as  long  as  the  tree 
requires  protection,  and  the  cost  of  material  need  not  be  over  1% 
cents  for  each  tree.  For  young  evergreens,  material  of  the  same  kind 
1  foot  wide  and  cut  in  lV2-foot  lengths  will  give  excellent  protection. 
If  trees  are  to  be  protected  from  both  rabbits  and  mice,  materials  of 
closer  mesh  must  be  used.  Wire  window-screen  nettings  is  excellent 
for  the  purpose,  and  the  cost,  when  permanence  of  protection  is  con- 
sidered, is  not  great. 

THE  BROWN  EAT. 

The  rat  undoubtedly  is  the  worst  mammalian  pest  known  to 
man.  The  losses  through  the  destruction  of  property  by  these  rodents 
amount  to  millions  of  dollars  annually  in  the  United  States.  Aside 
from  their  destruction  of  property  the  rat  sometimes  becomes  a  potent 
factor  in  the  distribution  of  disease  germs.  This  animal  is  not  a 
native  to  this  country,  but  was  introduced  from  the  Old  World  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  is  also  called  the  gray  rat, 
house  rat,  bam  rat,  wharf  rat,  and  Norway  rat.  It  was  not  known  on 
the  Pacific  coast  until  after  1851. 

Breeding. — Climate  and  food  supply  greatly  affect  the  multipli- 
cation of  these  rodents.  It  increases  most  rapidly  in  a  moderately 
warm  climate  and  with  an  abundant  supply  of  food.  The  number 
of  litters  produced  a  year  is  not  definitely  known,  but  it  probably 
varies  with  local  conditions.  Some  observations  show  that  about  71 
days  intervene  between  litters.  The  average  number  of  young  at  one 
birth  is  between  8  and  9.  The  period  of  gestation  may  be  said  to  be 
about  21^  days.  The  young  are  blind  and  naked  when  born,  but 
grow  rapidly,  and  the  females  are  capable  of  breeding  when  less  than 
three  months  old. 

Food  of  Rats. — The  brown  rat  is  practically  omnivorous,  that  is, 
they  eat  readily  all  kinds  of  grains  and  seed,  fruits  and  vegetables, 
meats,  fish,  and  various  animal  products.  The  chief  damage  done  by 
rats  in  the  United  States  is  through  the  destruction  of  grains,  poultry, 
eggs,  game,  and  other  birds,  although  sometimes  they  become  very 
destructive  to  fruits  and  vegetables. 

Natural  Enemies. — There  are  many  natural  enemies  of  these 
rodents;  among  the  more  prominent  may  be  mentioned  the  various 
Jcinds  of  ha^ks  an4  Qwls,  as  well  as  skunks,  weasels,  minks,  etc, 


OTHER  ANIMALS  673 

Domestic  Animals. — Among  the  domestic  animals  employed  to 
kill  rats  are  dogs,  eats,  and  ferrets.  The  value  of  good  dogs  as  ratters 
can  hardly  be  appreciated  by  those  who  have  had  no  experience  with 
animals  trained  for  this  work.  Small  Irish,  Scotch,  and  Fox  terriers, 
when  properly  trained,  are  superior  ratters.  Cats  become  in 
some  instances  valuable  as  rat  catchers.  However,  it  is  often  ques- 
tionable whether  the  good  that  they  accomplish  in  this  direction  is 
not  more  than  offset  by  their  destruction  of  song  birds.  Ferrets  are 
inveterate  foes  of  rats,  and  are  used  chiefly  to  drive  the  rodents  from 
their  burrows  or  retreats,  in  order  that  they  may  be  caught  when  they 
are  driven  from  cover. 

Fumigation. — Eats  may  be  destroyed  in  their  burrows  in  the 
fields  by  the  use  of  carbon  bisulphide  by  saturating  some  absorbing 
material  with  this  liquid,  putting  it  in  the  burrow  and  closing  the 
opening.  This  method,  however,  is  not  effective  in  buildings,  as  the 
vapor  of  carbon  bisulphide  is  heavier  than  the  air,  and  therefore 
could  not  be  depended  upon  to  follow  the  various  retreats  of  these 
pests.— (Dep.  Agr.  Biol.  Sur.  B.  33.) 

THE  PRAIRIE  DOG. 

The  prairie  dog  loves  sunshine  and  a  dry^  atmosphere,  ranging 
easterly  from  the  arid  plains  toward  the  prairies  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  He  is  fond  of  rich  vegetation,  as  is  shown  by  his  great  destruc- 
tiveness  to  alfalfa,  grains  and  other  crops ;  but  the  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion has  not  been  sufficient  to  lure  him  from  his  home  of  the  dry 
land  and  the  dry  air.  He  is  pre-eminently  a  social  animal,  living  in 
colonies  which  vary  in  extent  from  a  few  acres  to  thousands  of  square 
miles.  While  colonies  many  miles  in  length  and  breadth  are  not 
rare,  yet  most  of  these  animals  live  in  very  much  smaller  colonies. 

Food. — The  principal  food  of  the  prairie  dog  is  grass,  chiefly  the 
bunch  grass  of  the  plains.  In  alfalfa  fields,  however,  he  becomes  so 
destructive  that  sometimes  whole  fields  are  practically  destroyed.  It 
has  been  astimated  that  32  prairie  dogs  will  consume  as  much  grass 
as  one  sheep.  The  chief  damage  done  by  these  rodents  consists  in 
the  loss  of  grains  and  other  crops,  and  the  danger  to  stock  from 
stumbling  in  the  holes  often  amounts  to  a  serious  loss. 

Methods  of  Destruction. — Numerous  remedies  have  been  tried. 
Most  of  them  have  met  with  some  measure  of  success,  and  a  few  have 
proved  available  on  a  large  scale.  Large  colonies  extending  over 
many  square  miles  in  area  present  serious  problems  as  to  complete 
extermination,  while  smaller  colonies  may  be  exterminated  by  pois- 
oning  or  fumigating.  There  are  several  poisons  that  have  been  used 
with  fairly  good  success. 

Cyanide  of  Potassium. — Cyanide  of  potassium  kills  quickly  and 
is  an  excellent  poison,  but  on  account  of  its  odor  is  somewhat  difficult 
to  administer.  As  the  handling  of  this  poison  is  dangerous  to  man, 
it  must  be  handled  with  great  care. 

Strychnine. — Str>'chnine  is  probably,  all  things  considered,  the 
best  and  most  satisfactory  poison  known  for  the  destruction  of  these 
p&sts.  Two  ounces  of  strychnine  is  sufficient  to  poison  a  bushel  of 
wheat.    The  strychnine  sulphate  should  be  dissolved  in  warm  water 


674  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

in  which  the  grain  should  be  soaked  for  24  to  86  hours,  or  until  it  has 
all  been  absorbed.  During  this  absorption  the  grain  should  be  fre- 
quently stirred.  A  tablespoonful  of  grain  is  sufficient  to  scatter  about 
each  burrow.  Allowing  50  burrows  to  an  acre,  a  bushel  of  grain  then 
would  poison  prairie  dogs  infesting  40  acres  of  land. 

Fumigation. — Bisulphide  of  carbon  is  used  almost  wholly  for 
this  purpose.  It  is  a  volatile  liquid  which  should  be  kept  in  tightly 
corked  bottles  or  cans ;  as  it  is  highly  inflammable,  it  should  never  be 
opened  in  the  vicinity  of  fire.  Its  fumes  are  heavier  than  the  atmos- 
phere and  when  introduced  into  the  burrows  sink  quickly  to  the  bot- 
tom. The  usual  dose  is  about  one  tablespoonful  to  the  hole  or  burrow. 
This  is  poured  on  some  absorbing  substance  and  dropped  into  the 
mouth  of  the  hole,  which  should  then  be  covered. —  (Y.  B.  1901.) 

GROUXD  SQUIRRELS. 

There  are  three  or  more  species  of  ground  squirrels  found  in  the 
central  and  western  United  States.  In  many  ways  the  ground  squir- 
rels resemble  the  prairie  dogs  of  the  prairie  states.  While  not  so 
distinctively  social,  yet  they  live  more  or  less  in  communities.  The 
burrows  are  two  to  three  inches  in  diameter  and  have  from  one  to 
five  openings  to  the  exterior;  these  openings  are  usually  on  higher 
ground  and  have  a  little  mound  of  well  packed  earth  around  the  hole 
to  exclude  the  water.  The  burrow  has  an  average  depth  of  from  one 
to  two  feet  and  often  extends  from  ten  to  fifty  feet  in  length. 

The  young  are  usually  born  in  March  or  April.  In  the  northern 
United  States  they  bring  forth  but  one  brood  a  year;  the  number  in 
a  litter  varies  from  2  to  15.  They  hibernate  from  September  to 
March.  Observers  are  not  agreed  as  to  whether  or  not  food  is  stored 
for  winter  use. 

The  natural  enemies  are  chiefly  hawks  and  owls,  and  the  carniv- 
orous animals  of  the  region  inhabited  by  squirrels.  These  animals 
are  known  to  do  the  greatest  injury  to  grain  and  forage  crops  and 
interfere  with  irrigation.  They  eat  the  young  shoots  of  plants  as 
they  appear  above  ground  and  also  feed  on  the  ripening  grain.  In 
irrigated  lands  the  burrows  or  squirrels  often  cause  great  annoyance. 
The  most  effective  methods  of  destroying  these  pests  are  by  poisoning 
and  by  the  use  of  carbon  bisulphide,  a  highly  inflammable  and  vola- 
tile liquid.  Grain,  raisins,  cornmeal,  etc.,  may  be  soaked  in  a  solu- 
tion of  strychnia  sulphate  and  put  in  the  holes,  or  small  balls  of  cot- 
ton may  be  saturated  with  carbon  bisulphide,  put  in  the  holes  and  all 
the  exterior  openings  of  the  burrows  closed. — (Nevada  B.  58;  Wyo. 
B.  12.) 

COYOTES. 

From  the  early  days  until  the  present  time  ranchmen  of  the 
western  states  have  suffered  serious  loss  from  the  depredations  of 
these  animals.  They  are  abundant  in  most  parts  of  the  range  coun- 
try, except  in  the  north  and  in  thickly  settled  parts  where  waste  lands 
are  scarce. 

Coyotas  breed  once  a  year,  the  mating  season  being  late  in  Jan- 
uary or  early  in  February.  The  period  of  gestation  is  about  63  days. 
Young  are  brought  forth  in  dens  and  number  from  4  to  8  or  even  10. 


OTHER  ANIMALS  675 

Dens  are  usually  among  rocks  or  in  washed-out  places,  seldom  far 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  They  sometimes  hunt  in  numbers 
when  the  game  is  large.  Their  food  consists  chiefly  of  animal  matter 
and  ranges  from  the  larger  hoofed  animals  to  the  smallest  rodents, 
and  even  includes  insects,  reptiles,  birds,  fish,  crustaceans,  etc. 
Coyotes  destroy  many  injurious  mammals,  and  in  this  way  are  some 
benefit  to  farming  interests.  Considerable  game  is  destroyed  as  well 
as  poultry,  and  the  young  of  the  farm  stock ;  great  ravages  have  been 
done  to  sheep. 

Bounty  systems  are  maintained  in  many  states  for  the  destnic- 
tion  of  these  pests.  Ranchmen  find  dogs  a  protection  against  their 
ravages,  particularly  the  large,  swift-running  breed,  as  staghounds, 
Russian  wolfhounds,  and  greyhounds.  Poison  has  probably  killed 
the  greatest  number  of  adult  animals,  although  some  have  been 
trapped  and  many  have  been  captured  in  the  hunt.  Fencing  against 
wild  animals  has  proved  to  l^e  the  most  satisfactory  in  some  coun- 
tries, notably  Australia  and  South  Africa. — (Agr.  Dept.  F.  B.  226.) 

GOPHERS. 

The  gophers  are  quite  distinct  from  the  ground  squirrels,  which 
are  sometimes  called  gophers.  Unlike  squirrels,  they  are  usually  not 
found  on  high  lands,  very  far  from  water  or  tender  root  vegetation. 
Gophers  prefer  loose  soils,  the  burrows  usually  run  within  a  foot  or 
less  of  the  surface,  and  sometimes  extend  a  total  distance  of  a  hun- 
dred feet  or  more.  The  pocket  gopher  subsists  chiefly  upon  the  roots 
of  various  succulent  plants,  he  is  also  fond  of  garden  crops.  The 
large  cheek  pouchas  are  used  to  carry  the  food  to  the  store  chambers, 
as  this  animal  stores  up  food  for  the  winter.  There  are  several  meth- 
ods used  to  destroy  these  animals,  and  generally  they  are  very  similar 
to  those  used  to  destroy  the  ground  squirrel;  namely,  poisoning, 
drowning,  and  fumigating. —  (Nevada  B.  58;  Wyo.  B.  12.) 

MUSKRAT. 

On  account  of  the  scarcity  of  many  of  the  larger  and  more  valu- 
able fur  bearing  animals  the  muskrat  is  one  of  the  most  important 
fur  bearing  animals  of  this  country ;  while  mink  remains  popular  and 
is  a  well  wearing  fur,  yet  muskrat  is  becoming  more  popular  each 
year  because  of  its  fair  wearing  qualities  and  the  great  vanety  of  uses 
to  which  it  is  adapted.  The  miLskrat  when  full  grown  is  about  four 
times  as  large  as  the  common  brown  rat.  The  tail  is  characteristic  of 
the  genus ;  it  is  about  two-thirds  as  long  as  the  head  and  body  com- 
bined. This  animal  derives  its  name  from  its  musky  odor.  The 
name  musquash  is  the  Cree  Indian  name  and  has  been  used  a  long 
time  by  fur  dealers. 

Muskrats  are  chiefly  nocturnal,  but  are  often  active  in  daylight, 
especially  when  building  winter  hoases.  These  houses  are  com- 
posed of  rushes,  grasses,  flags,  etc. ;  this  mass  rests  on  the  bottom  of 
shallow  ponds  or  marshes,  and  projects  a  foot  or  two  above  the  sur- 
face. It  is  u.?ed  as  a  winter  home.  Where  burrows  are  available,  the 
muskrats  use  them  instead  of  building  houses.  Normally  the  animals 
mate  in  March.  The  first  litter  in  April,  the  second  in  June  or  July, 
and  the  third  in  August  or  September.    In  favorable  seasons  a  fourth 


676  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  DAIRYING,  ETC. 

or  even  a  fifth  litter  may  be  produced ;  three  to  six  young  are  usually 
brought  forth  at  one  time.  The  period  of  gestation  is  about  twenty- 
one  days.  The  young  are  born  blind  and  naked,  but  develop  rapidly. 
Muskrats  frequently  do  considerable  damage  to  crops  on  low 
lands  bordering  streams.  They  also  do  considerable  damage  to  dams, 
embankments,  etc.  The  breaking  of  mill-dams  and  canal  banks  are 
often  caused  by  the  burrows  of  these  animals.  The  chief  value  of  the 
muskrat  is  for  its  fur.  It  is  also  valued  in  some  localities  for  food,  but 
this  has  not  become  at  all  general.  Muskrat  skins  for  market  should 
be  "cased,"  that  is,  not  opened  along  the  belly.  Trappers  begin  at  the 
heel  and  slit  up  the  middle  of  the  hind  leg  to  the  tail,  around  it,  and 
then  down  the  other  hind  leg  to  the  heel ;  no  other  cut  of  the  skin 
is  needed ;  the  skin  is  then  turned  over  the  body,  leaving  the  pelt  w4th 
the  fur  side  inward.  The  skin  inside  out  is  then  drawn  over  a  thin 
board  or  shingle  of  proper  shape  to  stretch  it  as  large  as  possible  with- 
out tearing.  Prime  skins  bring  in  the  market  from  25  to  75  cents 
apiece.  Some  examples  of  profitable  muskrat  farming  may  be  cited. 
— (Agr.  Dept.  F.  B.  396.) 

ANTS. 

The  species  of  large  red  and  black  ants  which  burrow  into  the 
ground  and  whose  well  known  and  characteristic  mounds  of  loose 
earth,  surrounded  by  husks  of  dried  grass  seed  may  be  seen  dotting 
the  mesas  of  southern  Arizona,  may  be  killed  comparatively  easy  by 
the  use  of  carbon  bisulphide,  a  liquid  chemical  of  a  peculiar,  disagree- 
able odor.  To  be  entirely  successful,  however,  the  habits  of  the  ants 
must  be  taken  into  consideration.  Immediately  after  a  rain  is  the 
accepted  time  to  attempt  their  destruction,  for  it  is  then  that  the  ants 
are  very  active,  bringing  out  into  the  sun  to  be  dried  any  of  their 
stored  up  food  supply  which  may  have  become  damp.  A  half  tea- 
cupful — more  if  the  nest  is  a  very  large  one — of  the  carbon  bisul- 
phide poured  into  the  nest  at  this  time  will  usually  accomplish  the 
result.  The  ground  being  damp  and  cool  is  also  another  decided  ad- 
vantage in  that  it  prevents  the  too  rapid  absorption  or  volatilization 
of  the  carbon  bisulphide ;  consequently  a  less  quantity  of  the  chem- 
ical is  required. 

A  word  of  caution  in  the  use  of  the  carbon  bisulphide  is  deemed 
necessary.  It  must  at  all  times  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  substance 
is  highly  inflammable  and  under  certain  conditions  explosive. 
Matches,  pipes,  etc.,  are  to  be  left  at  home  when  this  chemical  is  to 
be  used.  The  carbon  bisulphide  can  be  procured  from  any  druggist, 
and  costs  here  in  Tucson  50  cents  per  pound,  but  can  be  bought  for 
much  less,  wholesale.  It  is  probable  that  the  remedy  is  not  practi- 
cable upon  any  very  large  scale,  owing  to  the  cost  of  material,  but  it 
frequently  happens  that  these  ants  select  for  their  home,  from  our 
point  of  view,  most  undesirable  places,  such  as  public  walks,  or  near 
one's  door.  In  such  cases  a  sure  means  of  eradicating  the  pest  is  well 
worth  kao wing,— (Ariz,  Timely  Hints  for  Faxmers  39.) 


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